DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE POLAR COUNTRIES.
Spitzbergen extends furthest towards the north of any country yet
discovered. It is surrounded by the Arctic Ocean, or Greenland
Sea; and, though the occasional resort of persons drawn thither
for purposes of hunting and fishing, does not appear to have been
ever inhabited. It lies between the latitudes 76° 30′ and 80° 7′
north, and between the longitude of 9°, and, perhaps, 22° east;
but some of the neighbouring islands extend at least as far north
as 80° 40′, and still further towards the east than the mainland
of Spitzbergen. The western part of this country was discovered
by Barentz, Heemskerke, and Ryp, in two vessels, fitted out of
Amsterdam, on the 19th of June, 1596, who, from the numerous peaks
and acute mountains observed on the coast, gave it the appropriate
name of Spitzbergen, signifying “sharp mountains.” It was afterwards
named _Newland_, or _King James’s Newland_, and then _Greenland_,
being supposed to be a continuation towards the east of the country
so-called by the Icelanders. It was re-discovered by Henry Hudson,
an English navigator, in 1607, and four years afterwards became the
resort of the English for the purpose of taking whales, since which
period its shores have annually been visited by one or other of the
nations of Europe, with the same object, to the present time. And
though the soil of the whole of this remote country does not produce
vegetables suitable or sufficient for the nourishment of a single
human being, yet its coasts and adjacent seas have afforded riches
and independence to thousands.
This country exhibits many interesting views, with numerous examples
of the sublime. Its stupendous hills, rising by steep acclivities
from the very margin of the ocean to an immense height; its surface,
contrasting the native, protruding, dark-coloured rocks, with the
burden of purest snow and magnificent ices, altogether constitute an
extraordinary and beautiful picture.
The whole of the western coast is mountainous and picturesque, and
though it is shone upon by a four months’ sun every year, its snowy
covering is never wholly dissolved, nor are its icy monuments of
the dominion of frost ever removed. The valleys, opening towards
the coast, and terminating in the background with a transverse
chain of mountains, are chiefly filled with everlasting ice. The
inland valleys, at all seasons, present a smooth and continued bed
of snow, in some places divided by considerable rivulets, but in
others exhibiting a pure unbroken surface for many leagues in extent.
Along the western coast, the mountains take their rise from within
a league of the sea, and some from its very edge. Few tracts of
table-land, of more than a league in breadth, are to be seen, and in
many places the blunt termination of mountain ridges project beyond
the regular line of the coast, and overhang the waters of the ocean.
The southern part of Spitzbergen consists of groups of insulated
mountains, little disposed in chains, or in any determinate order,
having conical, pyramidal, or ridged summits, sometimes round-backed,
frequently terminating in points, and occasionally in acute peaks,
not unlike spires. An arm of a short mountain chain, however, forms
the southern cape, or Point Look-out, but a low flat, in the form of
a fish’s tail, of about forty square miles in surface, constitutes
the termination of the coast. Other promontories, lying nearly north
and south, are of a similar nature.
To the northward of Charles’s Island the mountains are more
dispersed in chains than they are to the southward. The principal
ridge lies nearly north and south, and the principal valley extends
from the head of Cross Bay to the northern face of the country,
a distance of forty or fifty miles. An inferior chain of hills,
two or three leagues from the coast, runs parallel with the shore,
from which lateral ridges project into the sea, and terminate in
mural precipices. Between these lateral ridges, some of the largest
icebergs on the coast occur. The most remarkable mountains I have
seen are situated near Horn Sound, on Charles’s Island, and near
King’s Bay. Horn Mount, or Hedge-hog Mount, so-called from an
appearance of spires on the top, when seen in some positions, takes
its rise from a small tract of alpine land, on the southern side
of Horn Sound. It has different summits, chiefly in the form of
spires, one of which is remarkably elevated. I had an opportunity of
determining its height in the year 1815. From one set of observations
its altitude came out 1,457 yards, and from another 1,473 yards, the
mean of which is 1,465 yards, or 4,395 feet. Another peak, a few
miles further to the northward, appeared to be 3,306 feet high.
On Charles’s Island is a curious peak, which juts into the sea. It
is crooked, perfectly naked, being equally destitute of snow and
verdure, and from its black appearance, or pointed figure, has been
denominated the Devil’s Thumb. Its height may be about 1,500 or
2,000 feet. The middle hook of the foreland, as the central part
of the chain of mountains in Charles’s Island is called, is a very
interesting part of the coast. These mountains, which are, perhaps,
the highest land adjoining the sea which is to be met with, take
their rise at the water’s edge, and, by a continued ascent of an
angle at first of about 30°, and increasing to about 45°, or more,
each comes to a point, with the elevation of about six-sevenths of
an English mile. This portion of the chain exhibits five distinct
summits, some of them to appearance are within half a league,
horizontal distance, of the margin of the sea. The points formed by
the top of two or three of them are so fine, that the imagination is
at a loss to conceive of a place on which an adventurer, attempting
the hazardous exploit of climbing one of the summits, might rest.
Were such an undertaking practicable, it is evident it could not be
effected without imminent danger. Besides extraordinary courage and
strength requisite in the adventurer, such an attempt would need
the utmost powers of exertion, as well as the most irresistible
perseverance. Frederick Martens, in his excellent account of a
“Voyage to Spitzbergen,” undertaken in the year 1671, describes
some of the cliffs as consisting of but one stone from the bottom
to the top, and as smelling very sweet where covered with lichens.
In Magdalen Bay, the rocks he describes as lying in a semicircular
form, having at each extremity two high mountains, with natural
excavations, “after the fashion of a breastwork,” and, at their
summits, points and cracks like battlements.
Some of the mountains of Spitzbergen are well-proportioned,
four-sided pyramids, rising out of a base of a mile, or a mile and
a half, to a league square; others form angular chains, resembling
the roof of a house, which recede from the shore in parallel ridges,
until they dwindle into obscurity in the distant perspective. Some
exhibit the exact resemblance of art, but in a style of grandeur
exceeding the famed pyramids of the east, or even the more wonderful
tower of Babel. An instance of such a regular and magnificent work of
nature is seen near the head of King’s Bay, consisting of three piles
of rocks, of a regular form, known by the name of the Three Crowns.
They rest on the top of the ordinary mountains, each commencing with
a square table, or horizontal stratum of rock, on the top of which
is another of similar form and height, but of smaller area; this is
continued by a third, a fourth, and so on, each succeeding stratum
being less than the next below it, until it forms a pyramid of steps,
almost as regular, to appearance, as if worked by art.
Many of the mountains of Spitzbergen are inaccessible. The steepness
of the ascent, and the looseness of the rocks, with the numerous
lodgments of ice in the cliffs, or on the sides of the cliffs,
constitute in many places insurmountable obstacles. Some hills,
indeed, may be climbed with tolerable safety, but generally the
attempt is hazardous. Many have fallen and lost their lives,
especially in the descent. When Barentz and Heemskerke discovered
Cherie Island, on their advance towards the north, they also
discovered Spitzbergen, when some daring fellows among their sailors,
who had been collecting birds’ eggs, climbed a high, steep mountain,
resembling those of Spitzbergen, and unexpectedly found themselves
in a most perilous situation, for, on turning to descend, the way
by which they had advanced presented a dismal assemblage of pointed
rocks, perpendicular precipices, and yawning chasms. The view of the
danger of the ascent struck them with terror. No relief, however,
could be afforded them, and they were bewildered among the rocks.
At length, after a most anxious and painful exercise, in which they
found it necessary to slide down the rocks, while lying flat on their
bodies, they reached the foot of the cliff in safety. Barentz, who
had observed their conduct from the shore, gave them a sharp reproof
for their temerity.
One of the most interesting appearances to be found in Spitzbergen,
is the iceberg. These mountains of ice occur in the valleys adjoining
the coast of Spitzbergen, and other Polar countries. A little to the
northward of Charles’s Island are the _Seven Icebergs_. Each of these
occupies a deep valley, opening towards the sea, formed by hills of
about two thousand feet elevation on the sides, and terminated in
the interior by the chain of mountains, of perhaps three thousand
to three thousand three hundred feet in height, which follows the
line of the coast. They are exactly of the nature and appearance of
glaciers, and there are many others of various sizes along the shores
of this remarkable country.
It is not easy to form an adequate conception of these truly
wonderful productions of nature. Their magnitude, their beauty,
and the contrast they form with the gloomy rocks around, produce
sensations of lively interest. Their upper surfaces are generally
concave; the higher parts are always covered with snow, and have
a beautiful appearance, but the lower parts, in the latter end of
every summer, present a bare surface of ice. The front of each, which
varies in height from the level of the ocean to four hundred or five
hundred feet above it, lies parallel with the shore, and is generally
washed by the sea. This part, resting on the strand, is undermined
to such an extent by the sea, when any way turbulent, that immense
masses, loosened by the freezing of water, lodged in the recesses
in winter, or by the effect of streams of water running over its
surface and through its chasms in summer, break asunder, and, with a
thundering noise, fall into the sea.
On an excursion to one of the Seven Icebergs, in July, 1818, I was
particularly successful in witnessing one of the grandest effects
which these Polar glaciers ever present. A strong north-westerly
swell having, for some hours, been beating on the shore, had loosened
a number of fragments attached to the iceberg, and various heaps
of broken ice denoted recent shoots of the seaward edge. As we rode
towards it, with a view of proceeding close to its base, I observed
a few little pieces fall from the top, and, while my eye was fixed
on the place, an immense column, probably fifty feet square, and one
hundred and fifty feet high, began to leave the parent ice at the
top, and leaning majestically forward with an accelerated velocity,
fell with an awful crash into the sea. The water into which it
plunged was converted into an appearance of vapour, or smoke, like
that from a furious cannonading. The noise was equal to that of
thunder, which it nearly resembled. The column which fell was nearly
square, and in magnitude resembled a church. It broke into thousands
of pieces. This circumstance was a happy caution, for we might
inadvertently have gone to the base of the icy cliff, from whence
masses of considerable magnitude were continually breaking.
This iceberg was full of rents as high as any of our people ascended
upon it, extending in a direction perpendicularly downward, and
dividing it into innumerable columns. The surface was very uneven,
being furrowed and cracked all over. This roughness appeared to
be occasioned by the melting of the snow, some streams of water
being seen running over the surface; and others, having worn away
the superficial ice, could still be heard pursuing their course
through subglacial channels to the front of the iceberg, where, in
transparent streams, or in small cascades, they fell into the sea. In
some places, chasms of several yards in width were seen, in others
they were only a few inches or feet across. One of the sailors, who
attempted to walk across the iceberg, imprudently stepped into a
narrow chasm, filled up with snow to the general level. He instantly
plunged up to his shoulders, and might, but for the sudden extension
of his arms, have been buried in the gulf.
Icebergs are, probably, formed of more solid ice than glaciers, but,
in every other respect, they are very similar. The ice of which they
consist is, indeed, a little porous, but considerable pieces are
found of perfect transparency. Being wholly produced from rain or
snow, the water is necessarily potable. Icebergs have, probably, the
same kind of origin as glaciers, and the time of their first stratum
is nearly coeval with the land on which they are lodged. Though large
portions may be frequently separated from the lower edge, or, by
large avalanches from the mountain summit, be hurled into the sea,
yet the annual growth replenishes the loss, and, probably, on the
whole, produces a perpetual increase in thickness.
Spitzbergen and its islands, with some other countries within
the Arctic Circle, exhibit a kind of scenery which is altogether
novel. The principal objects which strike the eye are innumerable
mountainous peaks, ridges, precipices, or needles, rising immediately
out of the sea, to an elevation of three thousand or four thousand
feet, the colour of which, at a moderate distance, appears to be
blackish shades of brown, green, grey, and purple; snow or ice, in
striæ, or patches, occupying the various clefts and hollows in the
sides of the hills, capping some of the mountain summits, and filling
with extended beds the most considerable valleys; and ice of the
glacier-form occurring at intervals all along the coast in particular
situations, as already described, in prodigious accumulations. The
glistening, or vitreous appearance of the iceberg precipices, the
purity, whiteness, and beauty of the sloping expanse, formed by the
adjoining or intermixed mountains and rocks, perpetually “covered
with a mourning veil of black lichens,” with the sudden transitions
into a robe of purest white, where patches or beds of snow occur,
present a variety and extent of contrast altogether peculiar, which,
when enlightened by the occasional ethereal brilliancy of the Polar
sky, and harmonized in its serenity with the calmness of the ocean,
constitute a picture both novel and magnificent. There is, indeed, a
kind of majesty, not to be conveyed in words, in these extraordinary
accumulations of snow and ice in the valleys, and in the rocks
above rocks, and peaks above peaks, in the mountain groups, seen
rising above the ordinary elevation of the clouds, and terminating
occasionally in crests of everlasting snow, especially when you
approach the shore under shelter of the impenetrable density of
a summer fog, in which case the fog sometimes disperses like the
drawing of a curtain, when the strong contrast of light and shade,
brightened by a cloudless atmosphere and powerful sun, bursts on the
senses in a brilliant exhibition. Here are to be beheld the glories
of that one God, who is the Maker of all things in heaven and on
earth, and who, unlike the false deities of heathen nations, is not
confined in his presence and government to any particular zone of
the earth’s surface, but illustrates the skill and excellence of his
creation, both in the beauties of icy and torrid climes.
A remarkable deception, in the apparent distance of the land, is to
be attributed to the strong contrast of light and shade, and the
great height and steepness of the mountains, displayed in these
regions. Any strangers to the Arctic countries, however capable
of judging of the distance of land generally, must be completely
at a loss in their estimations when they approach within sight of
Spitzbergen. When at the distance of twenty miles, it would be no
difficult matter to induce even a judicious stranger to undertake a
passage in a boat to the shore, from the belief that he was within
a league of the land. At this distance, the portions of rock and
patches of snow, as well as the contour of the different hills, are
as distinctly marked as similar objects in many other countries,
not having snow about them, would be at a fourth or a fifth part of
the distance. Hence we can account, on a reasonable ground, for a
curious circumstance related in a Danish voyage, undertaken for the
recovery of the last colony in Greenland, by Mogens Heinson. This
person, who passed for a renowned seaman in his day, was sent out by
Frederick II., king of Denmark. After encountering many difficulties
and dangers from storms and ice, he got sight of the east coast of
Greenland, and attempted to reach it; but, though the sea was quite
free from ice, and the wind favourable and blowing a fresh gale, he,
after proceeding several hours without appearing to get any nearer
the land, became alarmed, backed about, and returned to Denmark. On
his arrival, he attributed this extraordinary circumstance—magnified,
no doubt, by his fears—to his vessel having been stopped in its
course by “some loadstone rocks hidden in the sea.” The true cause,
however, of what he took to be a submarine magnetic influence,
arose, I doubt not, from the deceptive character of the land, as to
distance, which I have mentioned.
Spitzbergen abounds with deep bays and extensive sounds, in many
of which are excellent harbours. From Point Look-out to Hackluyt’s
Headland, the west coast forms almost a series of rocks and foul
ground, few parts, excepting the bays, affording anchoring for
ships. Some of these rocks are dry only at low water, or only show
themselves when the sea is high, and are dangerous to shipping;
others are constantly above water, or altogether so below the surface
that they can either be seen and avoided, or sailed over in moderate
weather without much hazard. On the east side of Point Look-out, a
ridge of stony ground stretches five leagues into the sea, towards
the south-east, on which the sea occasionally breaks.
Horn Sound affords tolerable anchorage; within Bell Sound are
several anchoring places and some rivers, and in Ice Sound, at Green
Harbour, is good anchorage near the bank, in ten to eight fathoms’
water, or less. In several other places, when not encumbered with
ice, there is pretty good refuge for ships. On the north and east
sides of Spitzbergen are several harbours, some of them very safe
and commodious, but they are not so often free from ice as those
westward, and, therefore, have seldom been visited.
Though the whale-fishers in the present age generally see the level
of Spitzbergen every voyage, yet not many of them visit the shores.
My father has been several times on shore in different parts. My own
landing, for the first time in an Arctic country, was on Charles’s
Island, or Fair Forehead, at the north-west point. The number of
birds seen on the precipices and rocks adjoining the sea was
immense, and the noise which they made on our approach was quite
deafening. The weather was calm and clear when I went on shore, but
suddenly, a thick fog and breeze of wind commencing, obliged us to
put off with haste, and subjected us to great anxiety before we
reached the ship.
In the summer of 1818, I was several times on shore on the main,
and landed once in the same season on the north side of King’s Bay.
Being near the land, on the evening of the 23rd of July, the weather
beautifully clear, and all our sails becalmed by the hills, excepting
the top-gallant sails, in which we had constantly a gentle breeze, I
left the ship in charge of an officer, with orders to stand no nearer
than into thirty fathoms’ water, and with two boats and fourteen men
rowed to the shore. We arrived at the beach about half-past seven,
P.M., and landed on a track of low flat ground, extending about
six miles north and south, and two or three east and west. This
table-land lies so low that it would be overflown by the sea, were it
not for a natural embankment of shingle thrown up by the sea.
After advancing about half a furlong, we met with mica slate,
in nearly perpendicular strata; and a little further on with an
extensive bed of limestone, in small angular fragments. Here and
there we saw large ponds of fresh water, derived from melted ice and
snow; in some places, small remains of snow; and lastly, near the
base of the mountains, a considerable morass, into which we sank
nearly to the knees. Some unhealthy-looking mosses appeared on this
swamp, but the softest part, as well as most of the ground we had
hitherto traversed, was entirely void of vegetation. This swamp had
a moorish look, and consisted, apparently, of black alluvial soil,
mixed with some vegetable remains, and was curiously marked on the
surface with small polygonal ridges, from one to three yards in
diameter, so combined as to give the ground an appearance such as
that exhibited by a section of honeycomb. An ascent of a few yards
from the morass, of somewhat firmer ground, brought us to the foot of
the mountain, to the northward of the Mitre Cape. Here some pretty
specimens of _Saxifraga oppositifolia_ and _Greenlandica_, _Salix
herbacea_, _Draba alpina_, _Papaver alpina_, (of Mr. Don,) etc.,
and some other plants in full flower, were found on little tufts of
soil, and scattered about on the ascent. The first hill rose at an
inclination of 45°, to the height of about fifteen hundred feet, and
was joined on the north side to another of about twice the elevation.
We began to climb the acclivity on the most accessible side, at
about 10, P.M.; but, from the looseness of the stones, and the
steepness of the ascent, we found it a most difficult undertaking.
There was scarcely a possibility of advancing by the common movement
of walking in this attempt; for the ground gave way at every step,
and no progress was made; hence, the only method of succeeding
was by the effort of leaping or running, which, under the peculiar
circumstances, could not be accomplished without excessive fatigue.
In the direction we traversed, we met with angular fragments of
limestone and quartz, chiefly of one or two pounds’ weight, and a
few naked rocks protruding through the loose materials, of which the
side of the mountain, to the extent it was visible, was principally
composed. These rocks appeared solid at a little distance, but, on
examination, were found to be full of fractures in every direction,
so that it was with difficulty that a specimen of five or six pounds’
weight, in a solid mass, could be obtained. Along the side of the
first range of hills, near the summit, was extended a band of ice and
snow, which, in the direct ascent, we tried in vain to surmount. By
great exertion, however, in tracing the side of the hill for about
two hundred yards, where it was so uncommonly steep that at every
step showers of stones were precipitated to the bottom, we found a
sort of angle of the hill, free from ice, by which the summit was
scaled.
Here we rested until I took a few angles and bearings of the most
prominent parts of the coast, when, having collected specimens of
the minerals, and such few plants as the barren ridge afforded, we
proceeded on our excursion. In our way to the principal mountain
near us, we passed along a ridge of the secondary mountains, which
was so acute that I sat across it with a leg on each side as on
horseback. To the very top it consisted of loose sharp limestones,
of a yellowish or reddish colour, smaller in size than the stones
generally used for repairing high roads, few pieces being above a
pound in weight. The fracture appeared rather fresh. After passing
along this ridge about three or four furlongs, and crossing a
lodgment of ice and snow, we descended by a sort of ravine to the
side of the principal mountain, which arose with a uniformly steep
ascent, similar to that we had already surmounted, to the very
summit. The ascent was now even more difficult than before; we could
make no considerable progress, but by the exertion of leaping and
running, so that we were obliged to rest after every fifty or sixty
paces. No solid rock was met with, and no earth or soil. The stones,
however, were larger, appeared more decayed, and were more uniformly
covered with black lichens; but several plants of the _Saxifraga_,
_Salix_, _Draba_, _Cochlearia_, and _Juncus genera_, which had been
met with here and there for the first two thousand feet of elevation,
began to disappear as we approached the summit. The invariably broken
state of the rocks appeared to have been the effect of frost. On
calcareous rocks, some of which are not impervious to moisture, the
effect is such as might be expected; but how frost can operate in
this way on quartz is not so easily understood.
As we completed the arduous ascent, the sun had just reached the
meridian below the Pole, and still shed his reviving rays of
unimpaired brilliancy on a small surface of snow, which capped the
mountain summit. A thermometer, placed among stones in the shade
of the brow of the hill, indicated a temperature as high as 37°.
At the top of the first hill, the temperature was 42°; and at the
foot, on the plain, 44° to 46°; so that, at the very peak of the
mountain, estimated at three thousand feet elevation, the power of
the sun at midnight produced a temperature several degrees above the
freezing point, and occasioned the discharge of streams of water from
the snow-capped summit. In Spitzbergen, the frost relaxes in the
months of July and August, and the thawing temperature prevails for
considerable intervals on the greatest heights that have been visited.
As the capacity of air for heat increases as its density decreases,
and that in such a degree that about every ninety yards of elevation
in the lower atmosphere produces a depression of one degree of
temperature of Fahrenheit, we find that the elevation of some of
the Alps, Pyrenees, and mountains of Nepaul in the temperate zone,
is such, that their summits are above the level where a temperature
of thawing can at any time prevail; and though, by the application
of this principle to the mountains of Spitzbergen, we find that
a thawing temperature may be occasionally expected, yet we do
not see how the prevalence of a thaw should be so continual as to
disperse the winter’s coat of snow, where the mean temperature of
the hottest month in the year must, on a mountain fifteen hundred
feet elevation or upward, probably be below the freezing point.
Perhaps the difficulty is to be thus resolved. The weather, in the
months of June, July, and August, is much clearer at Spitzbergen than
it is near the neighbouring ice, where most of my observations on
temperature were made, and as such the temperature of these months
on shore must be warmer than at sea, and so much higher indeed as is
requisite for occasioning the dissolution of snow even on the tops of
the mountains.
The highest temperature I ever observed in Spitzbergen was 48°; but
in the summer of 1773, when captain Phipps visited Spitzbergen,
a temperature of 58½° once occurred. Supposing this to be the
greatest, degree of height which takes place, it will require an
elevation of 7,791 feet for reducing that temperature to the freezing
point, and hence we may reckon this to be about the altitude of the
upper line of congelation, where frost perpetually prevails.
The prospect from the mountain which we ascended was most extensive
and grand. A fine sheltered bay was seen on the east of us, an arm
of the same on the north-east, and the sea, whose glassy surface was
unruffled by the breeze, formed an immense expanse on the west;
the icebergs, rearing their proud crests almost to the tops of the
mountains between which they were lodged, and defying the power of
the solar beams, were scattered in various directions about the
sea-coast, and in the adjoining bays. Beds of snow and ice, filling
extensive hollows, and giving an enamelled coat to adjoining valleys,
one of which, commencing at the foot of the mountain where we stood,
extended in a continued line across the north, as far as the eye
could reach; mountain rising above mountain, until by distance they
dwindled into insignificance; the whole contrasted by a cloudless
canopy of deepest azure, and enlightened by the rays of a blazing
sun, and the effect aided by a feeling of danger, seated as we
were on the pinnacle of a rock, almost surrounded by tremendous
precipices; all united to constitute a picture singularly sublime.
A gentle breeze of wind, that prevailed on the summit, much refreshed
us, and strengthened us for the descent, which, though we had
regarded it with indifference, we found really a very hazardous, and,
in some instances, a painful undertaking. On the flat of land next
the sea, we met with the horns of reindeer, many skulls and other
bones of sea-horses, whales, narwhales, foxes, and seals, and some
human skeletons, laid in chest-like coffins, exposed naked on the
strand. Two Russian lodges formed of logs of pine, with a third in
ruins, were also seen; the former, from a quantity of fresh chips
about them, and other appearances, gave evidence of having been
recently inhabited. These huts were built upon a ridge of shingle,
adjoining the sea. Among the shingle on the beach were numbers of
nests, containing the eggs of terns, ducks, and burgomasters, and in
some of them were young birds. One of the latter, which we took on
board, was very lively, and grew rapidly, but having taken a fancy to
a cake of white lead, with which the surgeon was finishing a drawing,
he was poisoned. The only insect I saw was a small green fly, which
swarmed upon the shingle about the beach. The sea along the coast
teemed with a species of _helix_, with the _clio borealis_, and
with small shrimps. No animal of the class _Vermes_, and no living
quadruped, was observed. Drift-wood was in some abundance, and, owing
to the prevalence of a strong west wind, the shore was covered in
many places with deep beds of sea-weed.
Of all the objects, however, that we met with in the course of our
research, none excited so much interest as the carcase of a dead
whale, found stranded on the beach, which, though much swollen,
and not a little putrid, fixed our attention, and diverted us from
objects of mere curiosity. It proved a prize to us of the value of
about £400, but was not secured without much labour. From a harpoon
found in its body, it appeared to have been struck by some of the
fishers on the Elbe, and having escaped from them, it had probably
stranded itself where we found it.
The climate of Spitzbergen is no doubt more disagreeable to human
feeling than that of any other country yet discovered. Extending
to within ten degrees of the Pole, it is generally intensely cold,
and even in the three warmest months, the temperature not averaging
more than 34½°, it is then subject to a cold of three, four,
or more degrees below the freezing point. It has the advantage,
however, of being visited by the sun for an uninterrupted period
of four months in each year, thus having a summer’s day—if so
long an interval between the rising and setting of the sun may be
so denominated—consisting of one-third part of the year. But its
winter is proportionably desolate; the sun, in the northern parts
of the country, remaining perpetually below the horizon from about
the 22nd of October to about the 22nd of February. This great
winter night, though sufficiently dreary, is by no means so dark as
might be expected, God having, by wise and merciful arrangements,
distributed, with some approach to equality, the blessings of his
providence. The sun, even during its greatest south declination,
approaches within 13½° of the horizon, and affords a faint twilight
for about one-fourth part of every twenty-four hours. Added to
this twilight, the aurora borealis, which sometimes exhibits a
brilliancy approaching a blaze of fire—the stars, which shine with
an uncommon degree of brightness—and the moon, which, in north
declination, appears for twelve or fourteen days together without
setting—altogether have an effect, which, when heightened by the
reflection of a constant surface of snow, generally give sufficient
light for going abroad; but, with the light afforded by the heavens,
when the moon is below the horizon, it is seldom possible to read.
The first human beings who are known to have passed the winter
in Spitzbergen, were two parties of seamen, belonging to English
whalers, who were left on shore by accident, on two different
occasions; the first party, consisting of nine persons, all perished;
but the latter, composed of eight individuals, survived the rigours
of the winter of 1630-1, and were all rescued. In the year 1633,
seven volunteers, belonging to the Dutch fleet, were induced, by
certain emoluments, to attempt the same enterprise, and succeeded
in passing the winter without sustaining any injury; but, on the
same hazardous experiment being tried by seven other persons the
following winter, they all fell a sacrifice to the ravages of the
scurvy. Some Russians seem to have been the next to attempt this
adventurous exploit, who, from being inured to a winter little less
severe at home, were enabled to accomplish it with more safety.
Four men, who landed on an island on the east side of Spitzbergen,
in the year 1743, and were deprived of the means of getting away
by an unexpected calamity having overtaken the vessel to which they
belonged, remained there some years. Being exposed to uncommon
privations, they were led by their necessities to adopt some most
ingenious devices for providing themselves with food and raiment in
their long and severe banishment. One of their number died; but the
others were relieved, after a stay of three years and six months, by
a vessel providentially driven on the coast, and restored to their
friends, enriched with skins and other produce of the country in
which they had been exiled.
In modern times, people of the same nation have been in the habit of
submitting to a voluntary transportation, with the object of making
some considerable advantage by the opportunities which such a measure
affords them of hunting and fishing. These persons were formerly
employed in the service of the “White Sea Fishing Company;” but this
company being now no longer in existence, the trade is conducted by
private adventurers. They now proceed from Megen, Archangel, Onega,
Rala, and other places bordering the White Sea, in vessels of sixty
to one hundred and sixty tons, some intended for the summer fishing,
and others for the winter. The former put to sea in the beginning
of June, and sometimes return in September; the latter sail about a
month later, and wintering in the most secure coves of Devil Bay,
Bell Sound, Horn Sound, Cross Bay, Magdalen Bay, Love Bay, and
others, return home in the months of August or September of the
following year. The fishermen reside on shore during the winter, in
huts of the same kind as those used by the peasants in Russia, which,
being taken out with them in pieces, are constructed with but little
trouble, in the most convenient situations. They build their stoves
with bricks, or with clay, found in the country. Their largest hut,
which is erected near the place where their vessels or boats are
laid up, is from twenty to twenty-five feet square, and is used as a
station and magazine; but the huts used by the men who go in quest of
skins, which are erected along shore, are only seven or eight feet
square. The smaller huts are usually occupied by two or three men,
who take care to provide themselves from the store with the necessary
provisions for serving them the whole winter.
I have visited several of these huts, some constructed of logs,
others of deals, two inches in thickness. During the stay of the
hunters, they employ themselves in killing seals, sea-horses, etc.,
in the water; and bears, foxes, deer, or whatever else they meet
with, on land. They are furnished with provisions for eighteen months
by their employers, consisting of rye-flour for bread, oatmeal,
barley-meal, peas, salt beef, salt cod, and salt halibut, together
with curdled milk, honey, and linseed oil; besides which, they
procure for themselves _lion_-deer in winter, and birds in summer.
Their drink chiefly consists of a liquor called _nuas_, made from
rye-flour and water; malt or spirituous liquors being entirely
forbidden, to prevent drunkenness, as these persons, when they
were allowed it, drank so immoderately, that their work was often
altogether neglected. For general purposes, they use spring water
when it is to be had, or, in lieu of it, take water from lakes;
but, when neither can be got, they use melted snow. Their fuel, for
the most part, is brought with them from Russia, and drift-wood is
used for the same purpose. The hunters defend themselves from the
rigour of the frost by a covering made of skin, over which they wear
a garment called _kushy_, made of the skin of rein-deer, with boots
of the same. A warm cap, called a _trucchy_, defends the whole head
and neck, and part of the face; and gloves of sheep-skin, the hands.
They seldom travel far in winter, but the short excursions they have
occasion to make they perform on foot, on snow-skates, and draw their
food after them on hand-sledges, but such as have dogs employ them in
this service. Their huts, in stormy weather, are often buried in the
snow, and in such cases they are obliged to make their way through
the chimney to get out. As an anti-scorbutic, they make use of a herb
produced in the country, a stock of which they generally provide
themselves with on the approach of winter, but sometimes they are
under the necessity of digging through the snow to obtain it. They
either eat it without any preparation, or drink the liquor prepared
from it by infusion in water. For the same purpose, they use a kind
of raspberry, and a decoction of fir-tops.
Spitzbergen does not afford many vegetables. It may be remarked,
that vegetation goes on uncommonly quick in this country. Most of
the plants spring up, flower, and afford seed in the course of a
month or six weeks. They are chiefly of a dwarfish size. Some of the
flowers are really pretty, but exhibit few colours, excepting yellow,
white, and purple. The only plant I met with partaking of the nature
of a tree, (a _salix_, allied to _S. herbacea_,) grows but to the
height of three or four inches. Although Spitzbergen is probably
rich in minerals, yet so partial has been the examination of it that
nothing of any value, excepting marble and coal, has yet been met
with. The remarks made concerning the appearances and productions of
Spitzbergen apply in general to the islands adjacent. The principal
of these are Moffen Island, Low Island, Hope Island, and Cherie
Island. The last abounds in sea-horses, bears, foxes, and sea-fowl.
Lead ore, in veins at the surface, has been found here, and specimens
of virgin silver.
Between the latitudes of 70° 49′ and 71° 8′ 20″ north, and between
the longitudes 7° 26′ and 8° 44′, lies the island of Jan Mayen, said
to have been first seen by a Dutch navigator of this name in the year
1611. The west side, affording the greatest number of anchorages,
having the best convenience for landing, and being better sheltered
from the most frequent storms, was selected by the Dutch for their
_boiling_ stations. I was successful, in my passage homeward, in
the year 1817, in effecting a landing. On approaching, the first
object which strikes attention is the peak of Beerenberg, which I
subsequently saw at a distance (by observation) of ninety-five to a
hundred miles. It rears its icy summit to an elevation of 6,780 feet
above the level of the sea. After leaving the sea-shore, fragments
of lava were seen at every step, and numerous undoubted marks of
recent volcanic action. On reaching a summit, estimated at 1,500 feet
above the sea, we beheld a beautiful crater, forming a basin of 500
or 600 feet in depth, and 600 or 700 yards in diameter. The bottom
of the crater was filled with alluvial matter to such a height that
it presented a horizontal flat of an elliptical form, measuring 400
feet by 240. In the spring of the following year, some volcano was, I
believe, in action in this neighbourhood, as I observed considerable
jets of smoke discharged from the earth at intervals of every three
or four minutes.