"bone brown" extends from the bill upwards, increasing in width until it
covers the whole of the occiput; a wide loral stripe of brownish black
extends from the bill to the eye; the forehead and sides of the crown
are silvery gray; and the cheeks and throat are silky white. The rest of
the upper parts, hind neck to rump, are variegated or heavily blotched
with "bone brown," "wood brown," and pale buff, the dark color
predominating, especially on the rump. The under parts are grayish
white, almost gray on the breast.
The juvenal plumage appears first on the scapulars and back and then on
the breast. Two young birds, about half grown on June 30, are fully
feathered on the mantle; the breast is well feathered, but covered with
white downy tips, the wings are half grown, but the tail has not
appeared; the crown is "bister," streaked with white; the feathers of
the back, scapulars, and wing-coverts are "bister" or "warm sepia,"
spotted or notched with "pinkish buff" or buffy white, whitest on the
upper back and most buffy on the scapulars; the sides of the neck and
upper breast are streaked with and the flanks are barred with dusky; the
rest of the under parts are white. This plumage is worn for three months
or more, well into October. Young birds are in this plumage when they
pass us on migration, but the buffy tints have mostly faded out to
white.
Beginning in October a partial postjuvenal molt takes place involving
the body plumage, most of the scapulars, and some of the wing coverts.
This produces a first winter plumage which is similar to that of the
adult, but the general tone of the upper parts is grayer and the
feathers of the mantle are edged with dull white. The type of William
Brewster's Lower California race, _frazari_, and most of his series of
it are in this plumage.
A partial, first prenuptial molt, mainly in March and April, involving
the body feathers, most scapulars, some wing coverts and usually the
tail, produces a first nuptial plumage. Some adult nuptial plumage is
acquired on the head, neck, and breast, but the head and neck are not so
heavily streaked and there is less barring in lighter colors on the
breast and flanks; but the mantle, back, and scapulars are very
different from the adult winter or nuptial plumages; these feathers are
more or less variegated, barred or spotted with ashy brown and dark
sepia, and are notched, edged, or tipped with gray, grayish white or
white, producing a rather evenly mottled appearance. This is apparently
a nonbreeding plumage, for I have seen it only in birds taken far south
of the breeding range. At the first postnuptial molt the following
summer, which is complete, the adult winter plumage is assumed.
Adults have a partial prenuptial molt of the body plumage, usually the
tail, scapulars, some tertials, and most wing coverts between February
and May. In the nuptial plumage the crown is nearly all dark sepia; the
mantle and scapulars are very dark sepia, almost black, notched or
tipped with white spots; and the breast and flanks are heavily and
irregularly barred with dark sepia. The white notches and tips wear away
toward the end of the season. The complete postnuptial molt of the body
plumage occurs in August and September, but the wings are not molted
until winter. In adult winter plumage the crown is streaked with sepia
and white about evenly; the breast and flanks are faintly marked, or
peppered, with pale sepia; and the feathers of the back and scapulars
are mainly plain "wood brown," with inconspicuous whitish edgings and
notches.
_Food._--The greater yellow-legs seems to prefer to feed in shallow
water; its long legs enable it to wade in deeper water than most other
waders, and it is often seen using them to their full extent in water up
to its body. It moves about nimbly and gracefully, actively engaged in
catching small minnows and water insects, delicately balanced on its
long legs, bowing or nodding, as if its body were on a pivot, in a very
pleasing manner. Much of its food seems to consist of small minnows, in
pursuit of which it is very active and lively. Mr. Nichols has sent me
the following notes on the subject:
The greater yellow-legs at times catches killifish up to as large a
size as it can swallow, wading in water as deep as it can stand.
Having secured a fish, it manipulates same up its long bill and
into its mouth. Sometimes it catches a fish tangled in a mass of
fine water weed, and in this case may either fiddle with and
disengage it, or work it up to its mouth and swallow it before
disengaging the bill from the weed. I have seen an unusually large
fish, probably (_Fundulus heteroclitus_), worked up the bird's bill
two or three times and turned head first to swallow, stick at the
base of the bill, and drop into the water again. Finally, with a
great bulging of face and throat, the fish slipped down.
Satisfied for the moment, the bird rose and flew to the leeward end
of the pond hole where it had been feeding, alighted, walked up the
bank, and stood in a tuft of partly dry grass at the edge of the
water, quietly facing out into the breeze for some twenty minutes,
although all the time alert and watchful. In this sheltered
position it would not have been noticed unless known to be there.
Dr. Paul Bartsch (1899) found a greater yellow-legs in the Washington
market whose throat was jammed full of top minnows. He says that many
times he has "watched this bird wade out into the shallow water of the
bars, moving along slowly with tilting gait, suddenly lower that long
head and neck and proceed to run through the water at a speed which
would have done credit to a college sprinter, quickly striking to right
and left with his bill." Others have noted a similar performance.
I have occasionally seen greater yellow-legs on damp, grassy meadows
where they were probably feeding on insects or their larvae, snails,
worms, or crustaceans, all of which have been found in their stomachs.
Lucien M. Turner refers in his notes to a bird he shot at the mouth of
the Koksoak River, Ungava, on September 18, 1882, which had been feeding
on the berries of _Empetrum nigrum_.
Three birds collected by Stuart T. Danforth (1925) had eaten exclusively
animal matter: "The recognizable fragments were: Dragon-fly naiads,
65.33 per cent; aquatic Hemiptera (_Belostoma_ species), 22 per cent;
fish scales (_Poecilia vivipara_), 6.0 per cent; Dytiscid larvae, O.66
per cent."
_Behavior._--The flight of the greater yellow-legs is quite swift,
strong, and well sustained on the downward and sweeping strokes of its
long, pointed, dark-colored wings. Its long neck and bill extended
forward and its long, yellow legs stretched out behind give it a
slender, rakish appearance which is quite distinctive. It usually flies
at a good elevation and when traveling it often flies at a great height.
It scans the ground beneath, looking for a suitable place to feed or
searching for desirable companions. It responds readily to the call of
its own species and will often answer an imitation of its notes from a
great distance; sometimes when it is too far away to be seen. When
coming in from a distance it usually flies in wide circles around the
caller several times until it is satisfied that it is safe to alight. It
then comes zigzagging or scaling down on down-curved wings and settles
lightly near its would-be companions. On alighting it stands for a
moment with its wings extended upward in a graceful attitude, folds them
deliberately, gives a few jerky bows or upward nods, and then either
begins to feed or settles down to rest. It is not very particular as to
its companions; it associates freely with any of the smaller waders that
frequent the mud flats, meadows, or shallow ponds; it seems to be
particularly fond of the companionship of the teals when they are
feeding in shallow water. It is not as gregarious as the lesser
yellow-legs; it is most often seen singly or in small parties, but I
have counted as many as 40 in a flock on rare occasions.
When walking on the ground its movements are lively and its carriage is
graceful, though its long legs seem to give it a somewhat jerky gait at
times. On its breeding ground it often alights on the tops of spruce or
larch trees, or on bushes or dead stubs, on which it balances rather
awkwardly. It is normally a shy and wary species; large flocks are very
difficult to approach; but sometimes single individuals seem to be
absurdly tame in the presence of other tame species or among decoys.
Some good photographs of it have been taken at short range. William
Brewster (1925) tells of one that he approached in the open to within
ten feet and then fired his gun directly over it without causing it to
fly. Mr. Nichols suggests, in his notes:
It would seem almost as though these birds drew an abstract danger
line, difficult to cross from the outside without alarming them,
but once inside which, man became to them a mere harmless item of
the landscape. I have had a greater yellow-legs, a bird of the year,
come to decoys (under the impression that they were others of its
kind) and as the water was too deep, alight and stand on one of the
decoys, recognizing in it a piece of wood, meanwhile being
remarkably tame, perhaps waiting for others of the flock (of
decoys) to take alarm. Is not this pragmatic rather than rational
philosophy which they possess, the weakness most in favor of the
gunner who hunts shore birds with decoys?
He also adds the following notes on behavior:
I have seen the greater yellow-legs preen its plumage in leisurely
manner without repeatedly dipping the bill in the water, as the
lesser frequently does. It reached far back over its shoulder,
lifted a wing slightly to pick under it, stretched its neck up to
reach the breast with its bill, and scratched its chin deliberately
with the right foot. On another occasion a bathing bird crouched
down in shallow water, ducking the head and at the same time
fluttering and splashing vigorously with the wings.
A resting bird stands at ease, neck hunched down, with slight
alert movements of the head. From time to time it may turn its
bill back and bury it in the feathers along the back with a little
shake of same, one eye at least exposed and open though blinking
sleepily. An interesting pose which may be assumed for two or
three minutes is with the bill resting diagonally downward across
the feathers of the breast. It may stand for a long time on one
motionless straight leg, inclined so as to bring the foot under
its center of gravity, the other leg raised and concealed by the
feathers.
Though a wounded lesser yellow-legs will sometimes dive and swim
under water, I have not seen the smaller species alight in spots
too deep for wading. The greater yellow-legs on the other hand does
so not infrequently. It swims gracefully with phalaropelike motion
of the neck, held erect, stern tilted up like that of a gull. In
shallow water over mud so soft and sticky that it made wading
difficult I have seen a bird launch itself forward, swimming, as
the easier method of propulsion.
_Voice._--Mr. Nichols (1920) has published the results of a detailed
study of the vocabularies of the two yellow-legs, which are noted for
the variety of their calls. He has recognized and described nine
different calls of the greater yellow-legs, as follows:
(1) The yodle (a rolling _toowhee toowhee_, etc.) is commonest in a
flock from birds remaining in one locality, not traveling. I think
I have heard it from a single bird in the fog. It is
characteristically given in the air, generally with set wings, by
birds which seem to contemplate alighting. It advertises birds
tarrying in one general locality, and has probably the function of
_location_ notice. It is doubtless homologous with the gather call
of the spotted sandpiper with which it has little analogy.
(2) Loud ringing 3, _wheu wheu wheu_. The characteristic cry of
the species, spring and fall. It is commonly given by passing or
leaving birds. It advertises the species--and a change of policy
in the individual according to its loudness. Analogous with notes
of other species spoken of as _flight notes_ or identification
notes; occasionally heard from an alighted bird. This call is
subject to considerable variation, when heard from a bird about to
drop down and join others feeding it is comparatively low-pitched
and even, leaving or about to leave a feeding ground, highly
modulated.
(3) Four _wheus_, heard as follows, seem to have a rather definite
significance: low, hurried, descending, heard from a bird leaving
companion; short, clear, four, by a following bird; loud, four,
bird without intention of alighting, trying to flush decoys. This
may be called a _recruiting_ call.
(4) Twos (_wheu wheu_) seem to be characteristic of a _recruit_. A
"gentle" bird which comes nicely to decoys is apt to call in twos
when approaching and coming in.
(5) Rarely, in taking wing in the presence of an intruder, a
single bird utters a string of unmodulated _wheus_ which breaks up
into threes or fours as it goes off. This is likely a note of
_protest_, which would be more common in the breeding season.
(6) Conversational murmuring, from a flock dropping in, expresses
_companionship_ and confidence.
(7) Conversational _chup_ notes from birds about to alight, also
heard from birds alighted, moving about at ease. The _alighting_
note.
(8) Unloud _chups_ identical with the preceding but more hurried,
given by a small flock of birds as they take wing. The _flushing_
note.
(9) _Kyow_, common in spring, only rarely heard in southward
migration; probably associated with the breeding season; seems to
express _suspicion_.
Different renderings of some of the above notes have been given by
others. Mr. Brewster (1883) describes a note heard on the breeding
grounds as "an incessant _clack-clack-clack-clack_, which sounded very
like the clatter of a mowing machine." He then goes on to say: "In
addition to the cry already described, they uttered a rolling
_pheu-pheu-phe, pheu-pheu-phe_, repeated a dozen times or more in quick
succession; a mellow _pheu, pheu, pheu_, resembling the whistle of the
fish hawk; and a soft, hollow _hoo, whoo, whoo_, very like the cooing of
a dove. The latter note was given only when the bird perched on the top
of some tall spruce."
_Field marks._--The greater yellow-legs resembles the lesser so closely
in color pattern that the two can not be readily distinguished except by
direct comparison in size. The bill of the greater is relatively larger,
and it is rather more boldly marked. The voices of the two are somewhat
different. Other characters are referred to under the next species.
_Fall._--Adults move off their breeding grounds at an early date and
loiter along in a leisurely manner. The first migrants appear in the
northern states in July, sometimes as early as the second or even the
first week. Young birds come later; there is usually a heavy flight of
them during the first half of October, and many linger in Massachusetts
until the middle of November or later. Mr. Brewster (1925) says of the
migration at Umbagog Lake, Maine:
"We often saw them arriving and departing by day, usually in the
early morning or late afternoon if the weather were fine, at almost
any time if it were stormy. When seen approaching from farther
north, they were commonly first sighted so high in the air that
they looked no bigger than swallows. After circling twice or thrice
over the lake on set wings, whistling loudly and volubly, they were
likely to pitch headlong into the marshes to feed and rest there
during the remainder of the day, if not for a considerably longer
period, provided no gunner happened to fare that way. Some,
however, kept straight on without stopping and perhaps without
lowering their line of flight below the level of the mountain tops
to the southward over which they were accustomed to pass."
Mr. Whitaker tells me that the last of the yellow-shanks move out of
Newfoundland about the end of October; these are probably all young
birds. And Edward S. Thomas sends me a record for Columbus, Ohio, of
December 11, 1925. This bird well deserves the name of "winter
yellow-legs."
Probably many migrate at sea, from Nova Scotia to the West Indies, for
Capt. Savile G. Reid (1884) says that it is "more or less common" in
Bermuda, "arriving early in August and remaining for a month or so,"
where it is "much in request among the energetic sportsmen."
_Game._--The greater yellow-legs is a fine game bird; I can not say as
much for the lesser yellow-legs. Large numbers have been shot in past
years. Prof. Wells W. Cooke (1912) says: "A hunter near Newport, Rhode
Island, shot 1,362 greater yellow-legs in the eight seasons, 1867-1874;
his highest score, 419 birds, was in 1873, from August 19 to October
19." Dr. Charles W. Townsend (1905) reports that "463 greater
yellow-legs were sent from Newburyport and vicinity on one day, October
11, 1904, to a single stall in Boston market." I knew an old gunner who
celebrated his eightieth birthday a few years ago by shooting 40
yellow-legs.
It is a pity that the delightful sport of bay-bird shooting, which was
such a pleasant feature of our earlier shooting days, had to be
gradually restricted. Hudsonian curlew, and black-bellied and golden
plover and greater yellow-legs were all fine game birds. I could see no
reason for cutting out the curlew, as it is well able to take care of
itself; golden plover were sadly depleted in numbers and black-bellied
plover and both yellow-legs were decreasing; perhaps it was wise to
eliminate them all.
Those were glorious days that we used to spend on the marshes of Cape
Cod. On the inner, or bay, side of Monomoy are extensive marshes,
meadows, sand flats, and mud flats, 9 miles in length and nearly a mile
wide in places at low tide. These were great feeding resorts for hosts
of shore birds; and in the good old days, when there were shore birds to
shoot and when we were allowed to shoot them, blinds were scattered all
along the marshes and flats. On a dry sand spit or beach a hole was dug
in the sand and seaweed was piled up around it high enough to conceal a
sitting gunner; on a wet marsh a substantial blind was built of brush,
with a seat in it for two men; in some places in the meadows, where the
grass grew high, a box or a board to sit on was all the gunner needed.
Wooden or tin decoys painted to imitate yellow-legs or plover were set
up in the sand or mud, all facing the wind and within easy range. Here
in a comfortable blind the hunter could lounge at ease, bask in the
genial sun of early autumn, smoke his pipe and meditate, or watch the
many interesting things about him, the rich autumn colors of the marsh
vegetation, the ever-changing picture of sky and sea, the black terns
and the swallows winnowing the meadows, the gulls and the terns over the
sea and the flocks of small waders running over the mud flats. Suddenly
he is awakened from his reveries by the well-known note of the winter
yellow-legs and discerns a mere speck in the distant sky; he whistles an
imitation of its note; the bird answers him and, looking for
companionship, circles nearer; by judicious calling the bird is
attracted within sight of the decoys and, after several cautious
circlings, it sets its wings and scales down to the decoys, where it
meets its fate. Perhaps a whole flock may slip in unexpectedly, wheel
over the decoys and hurry away, giving the gunner only a hurried chance
for a quick shot. Perhaps a curlew may fly over or a flock of
beetle-heads fly swiftly by; the gunner must be ready for all such
chances. There is an ever-changing panorama of bird life on the marshes,
full of surprises and delights for the nature lover.
_Winter._--The greater yellow-legs has a wide winter range, from the
southern United States, where it is comparatively rare, to southern
South America, where most of the birds seem to go. W. H. Hudson (1920)
says:
The greater yellow-legs is best known as an Arctic-American
species, descending south during migration, and arriving in La
Plata at the end of September or early in October, singly or in
pairs, and sometimes in small flocks. Without ever being abundant
the bird is quite common, and one can seldom approach a pool or
marsh on the pampas without seeing one or more individuals wading
near the margin, and hearing their powerful alarm cry--a long,
clear note repeated three times. These summer visitors leave us in
March, and then, oddly enough, others arrive, presumably from the
south to winter on the pampas, and remain from April to August.
Thus, notwithstanding that the yellow-shanks does not breed on the
pampas, we have it with us all the year 'round.
Dr. Alexander Wetmore (1926) saw it in Paraguay as early as September 8
and in Chile as late as April 26. He writes:
After their arrival in September greater yellow-legs were
distributed throughout the open pampa wherever shallow ponds
offered suitable feeding places. Occasionally 10 or 20 gathered in
a flock, especially when northward migration was under way in March
and April, but when on their wintering grounds it was usual to find
two or three in company, seldom more. They are rather silent during
the winter season but when the northward journey begins are as
noisy as is their custom in the north. The species is large so that
it is attractive to pot hunters and many are killed. I saw a number
of crippled birds during the last two months of my stay in
Argentina and consider that it is these injured individuals, unable
to perform the necessary flight, or without desire to do so from
their injuries, that are recorded on the pampas from May to August
when all should be in the Northern Hemisphere. Reports of their
breeding in Argentina, based on the presence of these laggards in
migration are wholly unauthenticated.
I am inclined to think that most of the birds that remain in the South
from April to September are one-year-old birds which are not ready to
breed.
DISTRIBUTION
_Range._--North and South America.
_Breeding range._--The breeding range of the greater yellow-legs extends
north to Alaska (Bethel); British Columbia (Fort St. James); Mackenzie
(Peel River); Alberta (Island Lake); Manitoba (Kalcoala); Labrador
(Whale River and Hopedale); and Newfoundland (Gaff Topsail). East to
Newfoundland (Gaff Topsail). South to Newfoundland (Gaff Topsail);
Quebec (Natashquan River, Anticosti Island, and near Mt. Laurier);
probably formerly Illinois (Evanston); and British Columbia (Clinton).
West to British Columbia (Clinton, Fort George, and Fort St. James).
They also appear to occur in summer with more or less regularity north
to Alaska (St. Paul Island, Bethel, and Nome); Keewatin (near Cape
Eskimo); and Franklin (Cumberland Sound); and nonbreeding specimens have
at this season been noted south to the Bahama Islands (Great Abaco);
Florida (Key West, Sarasota Bay, and Ponce Park); Alabama (Leighton);
Texas (Amarillo, Lipscomb, Pecos, and Corpus Christi); and California
(Fresno, Santa Barbara, and Nigger Slough).