to 25. Arctic Canada: 58 records, June 16 to July 10; 29 records, June
23 to July 1. Iceland: 43 records, May 25 to July 12; 22 records, June 8
to 26. British Isles: 18 records, May 16 to July 12; 9 records, June 7
to 24.
STEGANOPUS TRICOLOR Vieillot
WILSON PHALAROPE
HABITS
I shall never forget my first impressions of a prairie slough with its
teeming bird life, an oasis of moisture in a sea of dry, grassy plain,
where all the various water birds of the region were thickly
congregated. Perhaps 10 or a dozen species of ducks could be seen in the
open water, gulls and terns were drifting about overhead, grebes and
countless coots were scurrying in and out among the reeds, and noisy
killdeers added their plaintive cries to the ceaseless din from swarms
of blackbirds in the marsh. In marked contrast to the clownish coots and
the noisy killdeers and blackbirds, the almost silent, gentle, dainty,
little phalaropes stand out in memory as charming features in the
picture, so characteristic of western bird life. The virgin prairies are
nearly gone, but there are still left a few oases of moisture in our
encroaching civilization, where these graceful birds may continue to
delight the eye with their gentle manners.
Unlike the other two world-wide species, the Wilson phalarope is a
strictly American bird, making its summer home in the interior of North
America and wintering in southern South America. It differs from the
other two also in being less pelagic and more terrestrial; it is seldom,
if ever, seen on the oceans, being a bird of the inland marshes; and it
prefers to spend more time walking about on land, or wading in shallow
water, than swimming on the water. Hence its bill, neck and legs are
longer, and its feet less lobed. It is a more normal shore bird.
_Spring._--The spring migration seems to be directly northward from the
west coasts of South America, through Central America, to the
Mississippi Valley on one hand and to California on the other. Although
it usually arrives in Manitoba during the first week in May, sometimes
as early as April 27, I have found it common in Texas as late as May 17.
Wilson phalarope are often associated with northern phalaropes on
migrations, sometimes in considerable flocks, frequenting the temporary
ponds made by heavy spring rains on the grassy meadows, rather than the
larger ponds and lakes. The first arrivals are usually females, followed
later by mixed flocks of both sexes, which soon scatter and separate
into small parties of two or three pairs.
_Courtship._--The pursuit courtship is thus described by Rev. P. B.
Peabody (1903):
For some three weeks after their arrival, these birds gladden
landscape and water scape, in care-free abandon. They are ever on
the move, afoot or awing; and during these three weeks of
junketing, the unique courtship is carried on. There is no more
laughable sight, to one endowed with a modicum of the sense of
humor, than that of a couple, or even three, of the brightly
colored females, ardently chasing a single somber-plumaged male,
who turns and darts, here and there, in arrowy flights apparently
much bored by the whole performance. Meanwhile, the sometimes
dangling feet and the ever tremulous wings of the amorous females
bespeak an ardor that would be ridiculous, under the circumstances,
were it not so desperately in earnest.
Dr. E. W. Nelson (1877), on the other hand, writes:
At these times the nearest approach to pursuit is in a habit they
have of suddenly darting off for a short distance at right angles
to their general course, but this appears to be in mere sport, for
nearly the same relative positions are kept by the birds, and this
erratic course is rarely pursued beyond a few rods. In fact,
throughout the pairing season I have always found the phalaropes
very undemonstrative toward each other, the choice of mates being
conducted in a quiet, unobtrusive way, quite unlike the usual
manner among birds. The only demonstrations I have observed during
the pairing time consist of a kind of solemn bowing of the head and
body; but sometimes, with the head lowered and thrust forward, they
will run back and forth in front of the object of their regard, or
again a pair may often be seen to salute each other by alternately
bowing or lowering their heads; but their courtship is
characterized by a lack of rivalry and vehemence usually exhibited
by birds. A male is often accompanied by two females at first, but
as soon as his choice is made the rejected bird joins her fortunes
with some more impressible swain.
During my various seasons spent on the western plains I have frequently
seen these phalaropes flying about in trios, consisting of one male and
two females, the male always in the lead, as if pursued. Females
apparently outnumber the males; and, as nest building and incubation are
entirely performed by the male, many of the females must remain
unattached and unable to breed. I have actually seen the male building
the nest and have never been able to flush a female from a set of eggs
or a brood of young.
W. Leon Dawson (1923) writes:
We have already acknowledged that Mrs. Wilson wears the breeches
and that she is more inclined to club life than she is to household
cares. The case is, however, much more serious than we had at first
suspected. I owe the original intimation of the true state of
affairs to Mr. A. O. Treganza, the veteran oologist of Salt Lake
City; and subsequent investigation of my own has abundantly
confirmed his claims. Mrs. Wilson is a bigamist. Not occasionally,
and of course not invariably, but very usually she maintains two
establishments. Now that attention is called to it, we see that our
notebooks are full of references to female phalaropes seen in
company with two males. The association can not be accidental, for
we are in the very midst of the breeding season. The males,
frightened by our presence in the swamp, and not daring to remain
longer upon their eggs, have sought the comforting presence of the
head of their house. The three take counsel together, and it is
only when the redoubtable lady announces that the way is clear that
the dutiful cuckolds trail off to their nests. On the 6th and 7th
of June, 1922, our M. C. O. party of three members gave close
attention to a swamp in Long Valley, southern Mono County, at an
altitude of 7,000 feet. We took 11 sets, of four eggs each, of the
Wilson phalaropes, and we noted a distinct tendency of the nests to
group themselves in pairs. In only one instance, however, were we
able to trace clearly a connection between two occupied nests.
These two, containing heavily incubated eggs, were situated only 42
feet apart, and the two males who were flushed from them by a
surprise coup of ours joined themselves immediately to the only
female who had shown any solicitude concerning this section of the
swamp.
_Nesting._--The Wilson phalarope is regarded by some egg collectors as
an exasperating bird, because they have some difficulty in finding its
nest. The nest is surprisingly well concealed, often in what seems to be
scanty vegetation; and the eggs are good examples of protective
coloration. I remember once crossing a moist meadow, covered with short
grass which had been mowed the previous season; a male phalarope flushed
from almost under foot, I threw down my hat to mark the spot and started
hunting for the nest. I hunted in vain, until I gave it up and picked up
my hat; there was the nest, with four eggs in it, under the hat and in
plain sight.
In southwestern Saskatchewan in 1905 and 1906, we found some half dozen
or more nests of this species, between June 8 and July 13. The nests
were on the wet or moist meadows about the lakes and sloughs or on
marshy islands; some of the nests were in practically plain sight in
short grass; others were more or less well concealed in longer grass,
which was sometimes arched over them; they were always difficult to find
unless the incubating male was flushed. The nests were merely hollows in
the damp ground, three or four inches in diameter, either scantily or
well lined with dry grass.
Doctor Nelson (1877) gives a very good description of the behavior of
these birds on their nesting grounds, as follows:
Incubation is attended to by the male alone. The female, however,
keeps near, and is quick to give the alarm upon the approach of
danger. The females are frequently found at this time in small
parties of six or eight; and should their breeding ground be
approached, exhibit great anxiety, coming from every part of the
marsh to meet the intruder, and, hovering over his head, utter a
weak nasal note, which can be heard to only a short distance.
The movements of the birds usually render it an easy matter to
decide whether or not they have nests in the immediate vicinity.
After the first alarm, those having nests at a distance disperse,
while the others take their course in the form of an ellipse,
sometimes several hundred yards in length, with the object of their
suspicion in the center; and, with long strokes of their wings,
much like the flight of a killdeer, they move back and forth. As
their nests are approached the length of their flight is gradually
lessened, until at last they are joined by the males, when the
whole party hover low over the intruder's head, uttering their
peculiar note of alarm. At this time they have an ingenious mode of
misleading the novice, by flying off to a short distance and
hovering anxiously over a particular spot in the marsh, as though
there were concealed the objects of their solicitation. Should they
be followed, however, and a search be there made, the maneuver is
repeated in another place still farther from the real location of
the nest. But should this ruse prove unavailing, they return and
seem to become fairly desperate, flying about one's head almost
within reach, manifesting great distress.
Aretas A. Saunders writes to me that, in Teton County, Mont., they nest
in small colonies in grassy marshes, where alkaline soil prevents the
grass, mainly species of _Carex_ and _Juncus_, from growing tall.
_Eggs._--The Wilson phalarope almost invariably lays four eggs, rarely
only three. The shapes vary from ovate pyriform to ovate and there is a
slight gloss. The ground colors vary from "cartridge buff" to "cream
buff," rarely "chamois." The ground color is generally well concealed by
numerous markings, more or less evenly distributed. Some eggs are
uniformly covered with small spots and dots, but more often these are
mixed with a few larger, irregular blotches. An occasional handsome set
is boldly and very heavily blotched, sometimes almost concealing the
ground color. The markings are usually in very dark, brownish black or
blackish brown. In some handsome sets these dark markings are mixed with
"bay" and "auburn" markings. The measurements of 57 eggs average 33 by
23.4 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure =36.2= by
23.7, 33 by =25.1=, =30= by 22.5 and 30.5 by =22= millimeters.
_Young._--The period of incubation does not seem to be known. I can find
no evidence that the female ever takes any part in it, but that she does
not lose interest in her family is plainly shown by her demonstrations
of anxiety when the nest is approached; probably she feels responsible
for the faithful performance of his duties by her demure spouse. The
male broods over the newly hatched young, protecting them from rain, or
excessive heat or cold. But they are soon able to run about in a lively
manner and care for themselves. Doctor Nelson (1877) writes that "the
young have a fine, wiry peep, inaudible beyond a few feet." I believe
that the young remain in the grassy meadows, where they can hide in
safety, and do not take to the water until they are fully fledged.
_Plumages._--In its natal down the young Wilson phalarope is entirely
unlike the other phalaropes and quite different from any other young
wader. The slender bill and long slender legs and feet are
characteristic. It is prettily and distinctively colored also. The
prevailing color of the upper parts and of a band across the chest is
"ochraceous buff," deepening on the crown, wings, and mantle almost to
"ochraceous orange," and paling to buffy or grayish white on the belly
and to pure white on the chin and throat. There is a narrow, median,
black line on the crown extending nearly or quite to the bill; this is
continued in a broad, more or less broken, black stripe down the center
of the back to a large black patch on the rump; a black spot on each
side of the crown, one on the occiput and several more on wings, thighs,
and sides of the back, sometimes run together to form stripes.
In fresh juvenal plumage, in July, the feathers of the crown, back,
scapulars, tertials, and all wing coverts are dusky or nearly black,
broadly edged with "light pinkish cinnamon" or "cinnamon buff," broadest
and brightest on the scapulars; the under parts are white, but the
throat, sides of the breast and flanks are washed with "pinkish buff,"
and the last two are mottled with dusky; the central tail feathers are
broadly edged with "pinkish buff," bordered inwardly with a broad dusky
band, surrounding a white area, with a dusky central streak invading it;
the other tail feathers are similarly marked, but less completely
patterned.
This plumage is worn for only a short time, as the body plumage and tail
are molted during the last half of July and in August. By September
young birds are in first winter plumage, which is like that of the
adult, except that the entire juvenal wing is retained with the buff
edgings faded out to white. The sexes are alike in juvenal and all
winter plumages. A partial prenuptial molt in the spring, involving the
body plumage and most, if not all, of the wing coverts and scapulars,
makes the young bird practically adult.
Adults have a partial prenuptial molt in April and May, involving the
tail, the wing coverts and all the body plumage, which produces the
well-known brilliant plumage of the female and the duller plumage of the
male. The complete postnuptial molt in summer produces the gray winter
plumage in both sexes, in which the crown, back, and scapulars are
"light drab" or "drab-gray," with narrow white edgings, and the upper
tail coverts, as well as the under parts, are white. The sexes can be
recognized in adult winter plumage by size only.
_Food._--The other two species of phalaropes feed mainly on the water,
but the Wilson phalarope is more of a shore bird and obtains most of its
food while walking about on muddy shores or wading in shallow water. It
does, however, adopt the whirling tactics of the others occasionally,
concerning which Mr. Dawson (1923) says:
Instead of swinging from side to side with a rhythmical motion, as
do the reds and northerns, the Wilson whirls all the way around.
Moreover, he keeps on whirling, and though he pauses for the
fraction of a second to inspect his chances, he goes on and on
again like an industrious, mad clock. One bird which I had under
the binoculars turned completely around 247 times in one spot,
without stopping save for instantaneous dabs at prey. These dabs
were directed forward or backward, i. e., with or against the
direction of the body motion. A single gyration normally contains
two such minute pauses, accompanied by a hitching motion of the
head; and these are evidently the periods of maximum attention,
since they are followed by, or rather flow into, the prey stroke,
if game is sighted. "Game" is not always abundant nor certain, and
I have seen a bird whirl a dozen times without a single stroke.
The method of feeding on mud flats or in shallow water is well described
by Roland C. Ross (1924), as follows:
When feeding along the shallows with least, western, and red-backed
sandpipers, they differed from them not only in size and color, but
in their habit of steady, energetic walking and the constant "side
sweeping" with the bill. Occasionally they picked objects from the
surface with their needle bills, but this was not very actively
pursued. In deeper water they fed among the northern phalaropes,
knots, and dowitchers, wading along until they swam in places.
However, they were able to wade where the northern swam. At such
depths they feed with the head clear under and the energy of the
feeding operation was indicated by the motion of the tail. They
commonly walked steadily back and forth through the deeper sections
of the ponds, and in such deep places they moved as headless
bodies, evidently feeding as usual in the surface mud. From the
vigorous side moves of the tail it would seem they were feeding in
their usual manner as well; that is, "side sweeping." When the
birds were standing to feed in the deeper places the tail was again
much in evidence, and indicated the manner of feeding. This would
seem to be a probing motion performed with some rapid vibration
which was communicated to the tail as a series of quivers. It is
rather a droll sight, and arresting as well, to see a certain area
marked out by headless gray bodies buried in the water up to the
bend of the wing, the vibrating tail indicating the vigorous
operations being carried on down below. It seemed their best
feeding was in the deeper waters.
The feeding habits of this and the other phalaropes are almost wholly
beneficial. They live very largely on the larvae of mosquitoes. They
also eat crane-fly larvae, which are often very destructive in grass
lands and wheat fields. Predaceous diving beetles, which are a nuisance
in fish hatcheries, are eaten by them. Dr. Alexander Wetmore's (1925)
analysis of the contents of 106 stomachs showed that the food of the
Wilson phalarope is mainly insects, of which various flies made up 43.1
per cent, aquatic bugs 24.4 per cent and beetles 20.1 per cent. The
remainder of the food included brine shrimps, amphipods, eggs of water
fleas, and seeds of various aquatic plants.
_Behavior._--Much of the interesting behavior of the Wilson phalaropes
has been described under different headings above. In all its movements
it is light, airy and graceful. Its flight is much like that of the
lesser yellow legs, with which it is often associated; but, when
suddenly alarmed, it sometimes flies hurriedly away in a zigzag fashion.
On its breeding grounds it often hovers, almost motionless in the air,
as the upland plover sometimes does. It swims lightly and buoyantly, but
apparently does not dive. It walks about on land actively and daintily,
where it is said to resemble the solitary sandpiper. It mingles freely
on its feeding grounds with various other species of shore birds. Toward
the close of the nesting season the females become very gregarious; as
early as June 18, in southern Alberta, we saw them in large flocks,
mixed with lesser yellow legs, flying about the marshy lakes.
_Voice._--The only note I have recorded is a soft, nasal grunt or
subdued quack. Dr. Walter P. Taylor (1912) describes a peculiar nuptial
(?) call note "as _oit_, _oit_, _oit_, somewhat resembling the croak of
a toad during the breeding season. At the instant of utterance of the
note the bird which is calling raises its head somewhat, pauses
momentarily in its flight, and its throat bulges slightly." Mr. Saunders
calls it a low note sounding like _croo_, _croo_, _croo_.
E. S. Cameron (1907) writes:
The Wilson's phalaropes, both when feeding and when disturbed and
circling on the wing, constantly uttered a low croaking, which at
close quarters might be compared to the much louder note of the
sandhill cranes, or, at a distance, to the faintly heard barking of
a dog. On the other hand, I have heard them give a shrill and
totally different call of indecision or satisfaction on their first
arrival when hovering over a pool.
_Field marks._--The Wilson is larger than the other phalaropes and has a
longer bill, neck, and legs. It can be distinguished from other shore
birds by its needlelike bill and small head and by the absence of white
in its wings. Its spring plumage is, of course, well marked and very
beautiful. John T. Nichols gives me the following field characters:
Very rare, but apparently regular on the south shore of Long Island
in southward migration; those that I have known of have all been in
pale gray and white plumage occurring singly about the marshes in
flocks of the lesser yellow legs. Little smaller than that species,
they are to be picked out in a flock of same at once by their much
paler color. In alighting such a bird may swim on puddles of water
between the stubble where the others are wading. At short range the
long, straight, very slender bill and indications of a curved
"phalarope" mark on the neck, backward and downward from the eye,
are to be looked for. Large size and long, very slender bill should
prevent confusion of this with other phalaropes in the field in any
plumage.
_Fall._--As soon as the young are able to care for themselves the males
join the flocks of females and they all depart on their fall migration
in August. Some individuals wander eastward to the Atlantic coast, but
the main flight is southward along both coasts of Mexico to their winter
home in Argentina, Chile, and Patagonia.
DISTRIBUTION
_Range._--North and South America.
_Breeding range._--The breeding range of Wilson's phalarope extends
north to Washington (Bumping Lake); Alberta (Alix, Buffalo Lake, and
Edmonton); Saskatchewan (Osler, Quill Lake, and Indian Head); Manitoba
(Moose Mountain, Brandon, and Shoal Lake); North Dakota (Pembina);
Minnesota (probably Leech Lake); Michigan (St. Clair Flats); and
southern Ontario (Dunnville). East to southern Ontario (Dunnville);
northern Indiana (Lake County); northern Illinois (West Northfield, Fox
River, and Calumet Marshes); and formerly Missouri (Pierce). South to
Indiana (Whiting); Missouri (formerly Pierce); rarely southern Kansas
(Meade County); Colorado (Sterling, Barr, and San Luis Valley);
southwestern Wyoming (Fort Bridger); northern Utah (Salt Lake City);
Nevada (Washoe Lake); and California (Tahoe Lake and Los Banos). West to
California (Los Banos, Lassen County, and Tule Lake); Oregon (Klamath
Lake); and Washington (Conconully and Bumping Lake). It also has been
reported in summer from southern California (Furnace Creek and Tulare
Lake) and from central Mexico (Lerma).
_Winter range._--The winter range of the Wilson phalarope is very
imperfectly known. The few records available come chiefly from South
America, but it also has been reported as wintering in Mexico
(Mayorazgo, Ixtapalapa, and the City of Mexico); rarely southern Texas
(Corpus Christi); and in southern California (Riverside). South American
specimens have been taken or observed at this season in the Falkland
Islands; Patagonia (Chupat); Argentina (Mendoza, Buenos Aires, Tucuman,
Barracas al Sud, and Missiones); Chile (Valdivia); Bolivia (Alto
Paraguay); Peru (Ingapirca); and Brazil (Caicara).