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Transcriber's note:
Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
[Illustration: ISKARDO.
_From the South._
_Pl. I._
J. W. del. W. L. Walton, Lithog.
Printed by Hullmandel & Walton.]
WESTERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET;
A Narrative of a Journey Through the Mountains of Northern India,
During the Years 1847-8.
by
THOMAS THOMSON, M.D., F.L.S.,
Assistant Surgeon Bengal Army.
London:
Reeve and Co., Henrietta Street, Covent Garden.
1852.
Printed by
John Edward Taylor, Little Queen Street,
Lincoln's Inn Fields.
PREFACE.
On the termination of my journey in Tibet, I submitted to the Indian
Government a detailed report of my observations in that country. It
was my original intention to request the permission of the Court of
Directors to publish this report in the form in which it was drawn up;
but after my return to England, this plan was, at the suggestion of
friends, abandoned for that now followed.
At the time of my appointment to the Tibet Mission, my attention had
not been specially directed to the Himalaya, but I have since had many
opportunities of studying that chain of mountains. My first definite
impressions of Himalayan geography were received from my
fellow-travellers, Major Cunningham and Captain Henry Strachey. The
latter gentleman had just completed one of the most adventurous
journeys ever made in the Himalaya; and Major Cunningham's knowledge
of the geography of Northern India is so accurate and extensive, that
the delay in the publication of his map, although caused by the
devotion of his leisure time to other branches of research, is a
subject of deep regret to all who know its value. More recently I have
had the good fortune to travel in the Eastern Himalaya with Dr.
Hooker, and it was a source of great gratification to me, when we met,
to find that in studying these mountains at opposite extremities of
the chain, the results at which we had arrived were almost identical.
My botanical collections, which were very extensive, have as yet been
only roughly assorted, and the names of plants given in the present
work are chiefly derived from a careful comparison of specimens with
the Hookerian Herbarium at Kew,--a collection which, as is well known
to Botanists, both from its extent and from the liberality with which
it is thrown open to students of that science, occupies in this
country the place of a national collection.
The heights of places given in the work have been derived from very
various sources. Those in the earlier part are chiefly from the
extremely accurate observations of the Gerards; for others I have to
thank my fellow-travellers; but the greater number are calculated from
my own observations of the boiling-point of water, and do not
therefore pretend to great accuracy. Still the thermometer which I
used (by Dollond) was a very good one, and comparisons with barometric
observations, or with known heights, have given such results as
satisfy me that at considerable elevations it may be depended upon to
within three or four hundred feet as an extreme error.
The orthography of oriental proper names is a question of great
difficulty, and grave objections may be urged against any system which
has been proposed. If each European nation represents the sound of the
vowels and variable consonants after the mode which prevails in its
own language, then proper names must be translated, as it were, when
rendered from one of these languages into another; whereas, if the
mode of spelling the names remain fixed, then the value of the letters
must be different in the majority of the languages from that which
usually prevails. For purely popular purposes the former method would
probably be the most judicious; and the English language has peculiar
facilities for rendering oriental sounds, in consequence of its
possessing the open sound of _u_, as in _but_, which is wanting in
other European languages, though so common in Arabic, Persian, and
Hindee, and all cognate tongues.
A uniform mode of spelling, however, has so many advantages, that I
have been induced to give it a preference; but it will be seen that in
a few instances, where the popular mode of spelling has become
familiar, and as it were a portion of the English language, as in the
words Punjab, Jumna, Sutlej, Kussowlee, and a few others, I have not
had courage to carry out the rule.
For the plates which accompany the work I have to thank Mr.
Winterbottom, who very kindly permitted me to select from a series of
sketches those which I thought most suitable. This was not an easy
task; but in the two views of the neighbourhood of Iskardo I found so
faithful a representation of the extremely rugged scenery of the
Tibetan mountains, contrasted with the level plain of Iskardo, and the
lacustrine strata of the neighbourhood, that no more desirable
illustrations for a journey in Tibet could be conceived. The little
vignette, too, though it does not represent any part of the country
through which I travelled, is precisely similar to many ravines in
Rondu, and serves to show that the Gilgit valley is quite the same in
general appearance with that district. I was more particularly
desirous of introducing this sketch, from the very faithful
representation it contains of the alluvial platforms which skirt the
streams in every part of Tibet.
The map is founded principally upon Mr. Arrowsmith's large map, and
his name is its best guarantee. The districts round the Pangong lake
are taken from a sketch given to me by Captain H. Strachey, and the
whole of the eastern part has been revised by him. A great part of the
course of the Shayuk has been laid in by Mr. Arrowsmith from my own
rough survey, while the little-known district between Jamu and
Zanskar, which I was not competent to survey, has been rendered as
nearly as possible from the notes which I had made of the length and
direction of my marches.
The sketch of the district between Nubra and the Karakoram pass, which
will, I hope, be found useful as an illustration of that part of my
journey, has been prepared for me by Dr. Hooker, from a rough draft of
my survey, assisted by verbal explanations.
In conclusion, I have to add, that for the correction of the press,
during which process many asperities by which the manuscript was
disfigured have disappeared, I have to thank my kind friends, Dr. and
Mrs. Hooker.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Page
Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave
Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance
of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to
Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of
Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee --
Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla --
Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation
of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and
situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of
Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako --
Structure of Mountain Ranges 1
CHAPTER II.
Leave Simla -- Mahasu Ridge -- Pine Forest -- Summit of Mahasu
-- Vegetation of Northern Slope -- Fagu -- Theog -- Mattiana --
Cultivated Valley -- Nagkanda -- Ascent of Hattu -- Forest of
Pine and Oak -- Vegetation of Summit -- View from top of
Mountain -- Plainward slopes bare of forest, while those facing
the interior are well wooded -- Cultivation at 9500 feet --
Descent from Nagkanda towards Sutlej -- Damp shady Ravine
densely wooded -- Kotgarh -- Cultivation -- Rapid Descent --
Change of Climate -- Tropical Vegetation -- Rampur --
Swing-bridge -- Diurnal fluctuations in level of River -- Gaora
-- Serahan -- Tranda -- Western boundary of Kunawar 29
CHAPTER III.
Sildang river -- Fine grove of Deodars -- Nachar -- Fruit-trees
-- Vine seen for first time -- Boundaries of Kulu and Kunawar
-- Cross Sutlej at Wangtu bridge -- Vegetation of bare rocky
valley -- Waterfall -- Chegaon -- _Pinus Gerardiana_ -- Miru --
Absence of rain -- Alteration of vegetation -- _Quercus Ilex_
-- Rogi -- Willow and Poplar -- Chini -- Cultivated Plain --
Kashbir -- Pangi -- Camp at upper level of trees -- Junipers --
Werang Pass -- Alpine Vegetation -- Birch and _Rhododendron_ --
Granite Boulders -- Lipa -- Alluvial Deposits -- Encamp at
12,500 feet -- Runang Pass -- Vegetation very scanty -- Stunted
Forest -- Sungnam 63
CHAPTER IV.
Hangarang ridge separates Kunawar from Piti -- Ascent to
Hangarang Pass -- Alluvial deposit -- Steep ascent -- View of
valley -- Limestone rocks -- _Caragana versicolor_, or _Dama_
-- Camp at 14,000 feet -- Top of pass -- View from pass --
Vegetation of summit -- Descent to Hango -- Cultivation round
the village -- Luxuriant wild plants -- Road to Lio -- _Crambe_
-- Ravine of Piti river -- Lio -- Bridge over Piti river --
Ascent to Nako -- Nako -- Cultivation of the village --
Buddhist temple -- Transported blocks -- Chango -- Changar --
Stopped by villagers on Chinese frontier -- Natural bridge --
Kyuri -- Alluvium -- Clay deposit with shells -- Lari --
Ramifications of mountain ranges -- Alluvial platforms -- Pok
-- Dankar -- Lara -- Rangrig -- Upper part of Piti -- Climate
-- Saline exudations 96
CHAPTER V.
Leave valley of Piti river -- Kibar -- Cultivation above 14,000
feet -- Vegetation of mountains -- Rocky gorge -- Encampment at
17,000 feet -- Parang Pass -- Snow-bed and glacier -- First
plants at 16,500 feet -- Parang valley -- Gorge leading to
Chumoreri Lake -- Kiang, or wild horse -- Chumurti --
Remarkable grassy plain -- Lanak Pass -- Granite boulders --
Plants above 18,000 feet -- Undulating hilly country -- Hanle
plain -- Vegetation -- Monastery of Hanle 130
CHAPTER VI.
Descend Hanle river -- Unsettled weather -- Encamp on banks of
Indus -- Upper course of Indus -- Pugha ravine -- Forest of
Myricaria trees -- Borax plain -- Hot springs -- Borax lakes of
Eastern Tibet -- Sulphur mine -- Pulokanka Pass -- Salt lake --
Lacustrine clays with shells -- Ancient water-mark -- Rupchu --
Tunglung Pass -- Fall of snow -- Alluvial conglomerate -- Giah
-- Narrow ravine -- Miru -- Upshi -- Indus valley -- Marsilang
-- Richly cultivated plain of Chashut -- Bridge over Indus --
Le -- Buddhist edifices 155
CHAPTER VII.
Departure from Le -- Sabu valley -- Pass between Le and Nubra
-- Snow -- Encamp at 15,500 feet -- Digar -- Valley of Shayuk
-- Alluvium -- _Populus Euphratica_ -- Tsatti -- Nubra river --
District of Nubra -- Villages -- Irrigation -- Saline soil --
Isolated rocks -- Chirasa -- Panamik -- Lower Nubra --
Platforms of Alluvium -- Traces of a great flood -- Unmaru --
Kuru -- Great contraction of valley -- Mountain pass of Waris
-- Boghdan ravine -- Chorbat -- Mahommedan population --
Villages -- Outburst of granite -- Siksa -- Khapalu -- Open
plain of Khapalu -- Junction of Shayuk and Indus -- Nar --
Iskardo plain -- Description of Iskardo -- Aqueduct -- Fort --
Lacustrine clay formation -- Vegetation 187
CHAPTER VIII.
Leave Iskardo in the direction of Kashmir -- First march
through snow to Turgu -- Lacustrine clay -- it extends into
narrow valleys beyond Nar -- Gol -- Junction of Indus and
Shayuk -- Parkuta -- Tolti -- Kartash -- Extensive lacustrine
deposits -- Tarkata -- Road turns up the Dras river -- Ulding
Thung -- Fall of snow -- Hardas -- Karbu -- Continued snow --
Dras -- Find pass in front shut by deep snow -- Obliged to
return to Iskardo -- Rafts and rope-bridges on Indus --
_Elæagnus_ and Apricot apparently wild -- Winter at Iskardo 223
CHAPTER IX.
Leave Iskardo for Rondu -- Insurrection in Gilgit -- Koardu --
Kamar -- Enter narrow part of Indus valley -- Difficult road --
Range of mountains south of Indus -- Description of Rondu --
Thawar -- Avalanches -- Alluvium -- Swing-bridge -- Villages --
Juniper -- _Pinus excelsa_ -- Rocks -- Vegetation -- Return to
Iskardo -- Agriculture of Balti -- Game of Chaugan -- Chakor
hunting -- Shigar valley -- Journey towards Kashmir -- Dras
valley -- Karbu -- Dras fort -- Maten -- Cross pass into
Kashmir -- Baltal -- Valley of Sind river -- Sonamarg --
Gagangir -- Gond -- Gangan -- Ganderbal -- Enter main valley of
Kashmir -- Town of Kashmir -- Description of Kashmir --
Lacustrine formation -- Trap hills -- Lake -- Climate --
Vegetation 248
CHAPTER X.
Environs of Kashmir -- City lake -- Gardens of Shalimar and
Dilawer Khan -- Pampur -- Avantipura -- Platforms of lacustrine
clay -- Mountain of Wasterwan -- Ancient city -- Clay, with
shells and fragments of pottery -- Ancient temple imbedded in
clay -- Lakes caused by subsidence -- Islamabad -- Shahabad --
Vegetation -- Vernag -- Banahal Pass -- Valley of Banahal --
Tropical vegetation -- Pass above Chenab Valley -- Nasmon --
_Jhula_, or Swing-bridge -- Balota -- Ladhe ke Dhar -- Katti --
Fort of Landar -- Mir -- Kirmichi -- Tertiary sandstones --
Dhuns -- Seda -- Jamu 285
CHAPTER XI.
Leave Jamu to return to Tibet -- Lake of Sirohi Sar --
Vegetation of lower hills -- _Dodonæa_ -- Ramnagar -- Garta --
Dadu, on a tributary of the Chenab -- Camp at 10,000 feet --
Badarwar -- Padri pass -- Descend a tributary of the Ravi --
and ascend another towards the north -- Sach _Joth_, or pass --
Snow-beds -- Camp in Chenab valley 315
CHAPTER XII.
Marked change in the Vegetation -- Bridge over Chenab --
Pargwal -- Description of Chenab valley -- Asdhari --
Chatargarh -- Road turns up valley of Butna -- Vegetation of
Chenab valley -- Chishot -- Snow-beds -- Camp at 10,500 feet --
Ancient moraines -- Glacier -- Camp at 11,500 feet -- Rapid
ascent along glacier -- Camp on moraine, at 14,600 feet --
Change of weather -- Ascent towards pass over glacier -- Cross
Umasi La -- Descent -- Immense glacier -- Encamp in Tibet, at
13,800 feet -- Open valley of Zanskar -- Padum -- Great change
of climate -- and in vegetation 342
CHAPTER XIII.
Rope bridge across Zanskar river -- Tongde -- Zangla -- Road
leaves Zanskar river -- Takti La -- Nira -- Bridge over Zanskar
river -- Singhi La -- Phutaksha -- Wandla -- Lama Yuru -- Cross
Indus river -- Kalatze -- Nurla -- Saspola -- Nimo -- Le --
Pass north of Le -- Small glacier -- Kardong -- Kalsar --
Vegetation -- Diskit -- Passage of Shayuk river -- Upper Nubra
-- Vegetation of Nubra -- Hot spring at Panamik 367
CHAPTER XIV.
Start for Karakoram -- Steep ascent out of Nubra valley -- Meet
a party of Merchants from Yarkand -- View from summit of pass
-- Rapid torrent -- Large glacier -- Steep moraines -- Alpine
vegetation -- Numerous glaciers -- Lakes -- Glacier on crest of
Sassar pass -- Sassar -- Cross Shayuk river -- Murgai --
Limestone rocks -- Ascend Murgai Valley to 16,800 feet --
Singular limestone formation -- Open plain above 17,000 feet --
Re-cross Shayuk river -- Karakoram pass -- Return to Sassar --
Glaciers of Sassar -- Return to Le -- Start for Kashmir --
Lamayuru -- Phatu pass -- Kanji river -- Namika pass -- Molbil
-- Pashkyum -- Kargil -- Dras -- Zoji pass -- Kashmir -- Lahore
-- Completion of journey 408
CHAPTER XV.
General description of Tibet -- Systems of mountains --
Trans-Sutlej Himalaya -- Cis-Sutlej Himalaya -- Kouenlun --
Four passes across Kouenlun -- Boundaries of Western Tibet --
Height of its mountain ranges and passes -- Climate of Tibet --
Clouds -- Winds -- Snow-fall -- Glaciers -- their former
greater extension -- Elevation to which they descend --
Snow-level -- Geology -- Lacustrine clay and alluvium 456
[Illustration: MAP of the MOUNTAINS OF NORTHERN INDIA. _to illustrate_
Dr. Thomson's Travels in Western Himalaya _and_ Tibet.
_Dr. Thomson's Route is coloured Red._
Drawn & Engraved by John Arrowsmith.]
WESTERN HIMALAYA
AND
TIBET.
CHAPTER I.
Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave
Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance
of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to
Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of
Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee --
Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla --
Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation
of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and
situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of
Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako --
Structure of Mountain Ranges.
In the month of May, 1847, while with my Regiment at Firozpur on the
south bank of the Sutlej, I received intimation that Lord Hardinge, at
that time Governor-General of India, had appointed me a member of a
mission which he had determined to despatch across the Himalaya
Mountains into Tibet; and I was directed to proceed without delay to
Simla, from which place the mission was to start, as soon as the
necessary arrangements could be completed.
I left Firozpur on the evening of the 20th of May, and travelling only
at night, on account of the extreme heat, I arrived at the foot of
the hills, on the morning of the 24th. The greater part of the road
was through a perfectly level country, and nearly parallel to the
Sutlej, but without following its sinuosities. During a part of the
last night's journey, I travelled among low hills, partly composed of
loose sand and boulders, partly of clay and sandstone. The road enters
this tract by an open valley, bounded on both sides by hills, which on
the left are low and rounded. On the right they are scarped towards
the plains, as well as towards the valley up which I travelled, and
the strata of which they are composed, dip towards the Himalaya. The
valley is traversed by a little stream descending from the mountains,
one of the tributaries of the Gagar or Markanda, that remarkable
river, which runs in a south-west direction, as if about to join the
Indus, but ultimately loses itself in the sands of the Bikanir desert.
[Sidenote: APPEARANCE OF HIMALAYA
FROM THE PLAINS OF INDIA.
_May, 1847._]
When viewed from the plains of India, at a distance sufficient to
enable the spectator to see the most elevated part of the chain, the
Himalaya appear to form several distinct parallel ranges on the
horizon, rising in succession one behind another. The most distant of
these is covered with perpetual snow, while the other two, usually
called the middle and outer ranges, have the usual blue-grey tint of
distant mountains. From very great distances in the plains, the most
remote of these three apparent ranges is alone visible; and as the
traveller advances towards the base of the mountains, the others rise
in succession above the horizon.
The optical deception, in consequence of which, masses of mountains of
every configuration resolve themselves into ranges perpendicular to
the line of sight, as soon as the eye is so far removed that the
outline of the different parts becomes indistinct, has given to our
maps many mountain-chains, which a nearer inspection proves to have no
existence. As a good instance of this, I may mention the Suliman
range, west of the Indus, which, though laid down in all our maps as a
mountain belt, parallel to and skirting the plain country, behind
which no mountains at all are represented, evidently consists of a
series of ranges, almost perpendicular to the Indus, and separated
from one another by considerable rivers. The sources of these rivers
lie far back, and the north and south axis from which they spring,
separates all the tributaries of the Indus from a succession of
streams, which run in a south-westerly direction, and appear to
terminate, without reaching the sea, in the low and flat country of
Seistan and western Beluchistan.
At distances of between sixty and thirty miles from the base of the
Himalaya, the three parallel chains are well seen. On a nearer
approach, the lower and outer mountains by degrees become more
distinct, and subtend a greater angle, so as at last to conceal the
more distant portions of the chain. At the same time, the uniformity
of outline by which they had been characterized, insensibly
disappears. Ridges become visible in the face presented to the eye,
which, as the traveller continues to advance, become developed into
projecting spurs, separated from the general mass by wide valleys,
previously quite undistinguishable. On a still nearer approach, the
elevation continuing to increase, the extent of range embraced by the
eye is gradually lessened, till at last, when we arrive at the base of
the mountains, a single valley with its bounding ranges of low hills
is alone visible, the giant masses, so conspicuous from a greater
distance, being no longer to be seen.
The low sandy or sandstone hills, which form the outskirts of the
Himalaya, are not, on the road from Firozpur to Simla, anywhere of
greater elevation than a few hundred feet. A few miles beyond the
entrance, the valley, which has a considerable slope, widens as it
approaches the more lofty mountains, and the sandstone cliffs are
replaced by rounded hills, probably of a more ancient rock, covered
with soil and vegetation.
[Sidenote: KALKA.
_May, 1847._]
At the very base of the steep mountains is situated the village of
Kalka, at which, as it is the termination of palankin travelling,
travellers in general stop, to arrange for the continuance of their
journey. Situated close to the source of the little stream which I had
been following since I had entered the hilly country, and surrounded
on all sides by low hills, Kalka has an elevation of perhaps 2000 feet
above the level of the sea, or 1000 feet above the plain on the
outside of the sandstone hills.
The general aspect of the low hills around Kalka is barren and
uninviting; it was especially so at the season of my visit, when the
great heat had scorched the herbaceous vegetation, and all nature had
a burnt-up appearance. The subtropical valleys are not here, as
farther to the east along the base of the mountains, filled with dense
forest. They are in general bare, a few scattered trees only appearing
here and there. In the level part of the valley, at the very entrance,
where the soil was still of some depth, _Acacia Arabica_ and _Butea
frondosa_, the most prevailing trees of the plains beyond, were
frequent; but the stony water-courses contained little but a bamboo,
and the hill-sides were covered with scattered bushes of the more
ordinary shrubs of the plains of Northern India, and presented few
features of interest.
[Sidenote: ASCENT TO KUSSOWLEE.
_May, 1847._]
Immediately on leaving Kalka, a long and steep ascent commenced,
continuing for about ten miles, to the military post of Kussowlee,
which occupies the crest of the ridge overlooking the Kalka valley,
and can be seen throughout the greater part of the ascent, overhanging
the winding road, which has been constructed along the side of the
mountain. The elevation of Kussowlee is about 6500 feet, an altitude
at which the climate in the Himalaya is perfectly temperate, so that
during the ascent a traveller from the plains of India meets with a
complete change of climate, a change, too, which in the month of May,
the period of my visit, is particularly grateful, the heat below being
most oppressive and disagreeable.
As the elevation increases, the view from the road becomes more
extensive. The low ranges of hills to the south and west, which had
obstructed the view, are by degrees overtopped, and the plains beyond
become visible. Soon after leaving Kalka the road crosses a low ridge,
and enters a receding bay, or steeply sloping valley beyond, at the
upper extremity of which, all along the crest, are seen the houses of
Kussowlee. Winding round this valley, and continuing to rise, the
stream in its centre is crossed about midway, and the ascent
continues on the spur which forms its western boundary. This ridge is
crossed close to the point where it is given off by the main range,
and the road, winding round its most projecting part, enters a
fir-wood, and, turning back very abruptly in an opposite direction,
proceeds eastward along the northern face of the Kussowlee range.
[Sidenote: VEGETATION.
_May, 1847._]
The plainward face of this range, along which the road from Kalka
ascends, is quite devoid of forest. The lower part is covered with
scattered jungle, to use a most expressive Indian word, of small
shrubs, almost all of forms common in the plains. _Carissa_ and
_Adhatoda_ are the most common, with _Rottlera tinctoria_, a plant
which does not extend far into the plains, and a scandent leguminous
shrub, apparently a species of _Mucuna_. Around the few houses which
occur on the ascent, the bamboo occurs planted, as well as the mango,
and other common cultivated trees of the Indian plains. At an
elevation of about 4000 feet, an alteration in the vegetation begins
to be perceptible. The thin jungle of plain shrubs disappears, the few
shrubs which still occur, are generally scattered bushes of
_Hamiltonia_, _Nyctanthes_, _Prinsepia_, _Scutellaria_, and _Rubus_,
but the slopes are usually bare and grassy. Ferns and mosses appear in
the crevices of the rocks, and the first individuals of those species
which predominate in the temperate zone, are found in shady spots
where they are sheltered from the sun. At the same elevation
_Euphorbia pentagona_ makes its appearance. This tree, which is
confined to the hottest and driest slopes of the Himalaya, is
remarkable for its peculiar shape, its thick fleshy five-angled
branches, and its milky juice. It is nowhere to be met with in the
plains of Upper India, but is common throughout the subtropical belt
of the Himalaya from Kamaon westward.
[Sidenote: ORIGIN OF KUSSOWLEE RIDGE.
_May, 1847._]
A glance at the map will serve to show that the great Himalayan
mountain range, dividing the waters of the Sutlej from those of the
Jumna, holds a nearly due east and west course in its middle part, but
that at its western extremity it bends round to the south, and
terminates in the Indian plain, not far from the town of Nahan, and
that (among many others) the Kussowlee ridge is a branch from it,
running in a north-westerly direction, and separating the waters of
the more western branch of the Gambar, from the small tributaries of
the Gagar, which find their way to the plains on the left hand.
The ridge upon which the station of Kussowlee is built, nowhere
attains an elevation exceeding 7000 feet. It is very narrow, and often
rocky and precipitous immediately below the crest on the plainward
face, which dips very suddenly. The inner slope is somewhat less
abrupt, and is covered from the summit to perhaps 1000 feet below it,
with an open forest of a species of fir (_Pinus longifolia_), which,
in general appearance and mode of growth, much resembles the Scotch
fir, but is distinguished by the very great length of its leaves. The
barracks for the troops and the houses of the residents are scattered
over the northern slope, or perched on the narrow summit of the ridge.
The shrubby and herbaceous vegetation which occurs scattered among the
fir-wood, is so markedly different from that which prevails at the
base of the mountains, and during the greater part of the ascent, that
the traveller appears suddenly transported into a new world. Instead
of those tribes of the vegetable kingdom which abound in the torrid
zone, all the forms which now meet the eye are characteristic of a
temperate climate. The moderate elevation of the range, and its
proximity to the plains, tend to lessen the rapidity of the diminution
of temperature; and as the greater part of the ascent lies on a bare
sunny slope, the tropical flora extends towards the summit, much
farther than it does on ranges which rise higher, and are clothed with
shady forest. During the ascent, therefore, the traveller, though
often struck with the appearance of new forms, is still accompanied by
many species familiar to him as natives of tropical jungles, but on
passing to the northern face of the spur, the temperate region is at
once entered, and most of the tropical forms disappear.
[Sidenote: VIEW FROM KUSSOWLEE.
_May, 1847._]
As soon as the crest of the first slope of the Himalaya has been
gained, the eye is naturally directed towards the mountains beyond, in
order to ascertain their appearance and position, when viewed at a
diminished distance and from so much more considerable an elevation
than had previously been the case. Nor will the view from Kussowlee in
favourable weather disappoint the traveller who is desirous of meeting
with beautiful scenery. Immediately to the north lies a deep ravine,
and beyond a single ridge is the wide valley of the Gambar, with
numerous mountain spurs, which, from their comparatively lower level,
are not prominently brought into view. To the south-east the main
range dips abruptly to a level, nearly 1000 feet below what it attains
in the station of Kussowlee itself, but again rises into the finely
wooded hill on which has recently been built the Lawrence Asylum.
Still further to the south are deep dells, with bare and rugged slaty
mountains, scarcely at all wooded. In the months of May and June, when
the atmosphere is generally extremely hazy, the prospect is limited to
the ranges more immediately in the vicinity; but occasionally even in
these months, as well as in the dry intervals of the rainy season, and
during the delightful autumn weather which follows the termination of
the rains, a much more distant prospect is opened, stretching far up
the valley of the Sutlej, to the snow-clad peaks which, on either
hand, hem in that river.
In the direction of the plains of India, the view is also very
remarkable. The Kussowlee ridge so completely overtops the hills which
intervene between it and the level country, that from its summit they
interfere very little with the commanding view of the interminable
flat which, like the ocean, stretches as far as vision extends. In the
usual state of the atmosphere, especially in the hot season, a dense
haze overhangs the plains, and entirely obscures their more distant
parts; but in the cold season, as well as at day-break in summer, and
especially after heavy rains, the misty vapours are entirely
dissipated, and distant objects are defined with extreme precision.
Perhaps the most striking, because the most unexpected part of the
view of the inner Himalaya, from Kussowlee, lies in the great depth of
the valleys in the interior, and the distance of the next elevated
range, of which the appearance of the mountains from the plains of
India affords no indication. The extreme narrowness of the ridge, and
the suddenness of the descent on both sides, is also very remarkable,
and has, as already remarked, a very sensible effect on the climate,
the heat of the lower mass being conveyed upwards, while the small
extent of the knife-edge-like ridge, which rises above 6000 feet,
exposes a minimum surface to the refrigerating influences of a
rarefied atmosphere.
[Sidenote: ROAD TO SIMLA.
_May, 1847._]
The distance from Kussowlee to Simla is by the road about thirty
miles, though in a direct line the two places are not much more than
half that distance apart. The road descends from Kussowlee almost to
the level of the plains, crossing the Gambar at an elevation of a
little less than 3000 feet, and ascends to Simla by following the
ridge which runs parallel to that river on its right bank, the source
of the Gambar being immediately below Simla. It would indeed be
possible to reach Simla, by following the crest of the ridge, without
descending at all into the valley of the river; but for this purpose
it would be necessary to follow the Kussowlee ridge so far to the
southward, in order to reach its junction with the main range, that
the length of the journey would be very much greater than that now
followed. The road, therefore, only keeps the ridge for a very short
distance, or as far as the "col," or lower part immediately north of
Kussowlee, which is quite bare of trees. It then turns abruptly to the
left, descending on the north face of a spur, at first in a winding
manner, afterwards for a short distance along a shady ravine, and
finally through a good deal of cultivation, at an elevation of between
4000 and 5000 feet, to a considerable stream which runs towards the
north to join the Gambar. The greatest part of the descent is bare of
trees, except along the banks of the little stream, which are covered
with a belt of wood. The cultivated lands are extensive, occupying a
flattish terraced slope, such as is of very general occurrence in the
mountains, the fields being adapted for the growth of rain crops,
principally of rice, with a few fields of ginger and cardamoms.
[Sidenote: SABATHU.
_May, 1847._]
After reaching the stream just mentioned, which is crossed by a ford,
a suspension bridge, for which the piers are partly built, having
never been erected, the road continues to descend parallel to it
towards the north, passing under the military station of Sabathu,
which, at the elevation of 4200 feet, occupies the crest of the ridge
immediately to the east of the little river, a very short distance
before its junction with the Gambar.
After passing Sabathu the road turns to the right, round the
projecting ridge of the range, and descends rapidly to the valley of
the Gambar river, which is crossed by a good suspension bridge at an
elevation of 2700 feet above the level of the sea. It then ascends by
a steep and laborious path to Haripur, a small village about 500 feet
above the bed of the river. The Gambar river, where the road crosses
it, flows through a narrow rocky ravine, somewhat picturesque, but
quite devoid of trees. This, however, is not the general character of
the river-bed, which is frequently wide, with a broad gravelly
channel, and sloping though often rather steep mountains on either
side. There is occasionally even a strip of flat land, capable of
cultivation along the banks; and where such is the case, the water of
the river is carried off in artificial channels, for the purpose of
irrigation.
After attaining the crest of the ridge, and passing through the
village of Haripur, the road follows the ridge parallel to the river
Gambar, nearly all the way to Simla, not always on the very crest or
top, which would entail a great many unnecessary ascents and descents,
but generally a little on one side or other of the hill, as
circumstances may render most convenient; at one time ascending rather
steeply, but more generally rather gently as far as Sairi, the last
stage on the way to Simla, beyond which the road is pretty level,
nearly to the bottom of the mountain on which Simla stands.
The valley of the river Gambar may be regarded as an excellent
specimen of a smaller Himalayan river, draining a large extent of
country, and discharging its waters independently into the plains,
though not, like the first-class rivers, deriving its origin from the
snowy mountains. The southern border of the basin of the Gambar, is of
course the main chain of the South Sutlej Himalaya; and the whole of
the country between the Jutog spur, which leaves that chain at Simla,
and the Kussowlee ridge, the origin of which I have already detailed,
is drained by the Gambar and its tributaries. This includes an extent
of country of not less than 1000 square miles, the bounding ranges of
which have, throughout the greater part of their extent, an elevation
varying from 8000 to about 6000 feet. Both the Kussowlee and Jutog
ranges dip at last rather abruptly, so that it is only during a very
short distance that they are below the last-mentioned elevation. This
elevation, which is quite temperate, is however by no means that of
the whole superficies of the basin, the bed of the river having, at
its _débouchure_ into the Sutlej, an elevation of not more than 2000
feet, and rising very gently till near its source immediately below
Simla. The lateral ridges, which traverse the basin in every
direction, are in general less elevated; not exceeding 5000 feet in
their upper part, and sinking to 3000 or even lower, so that the mean
elevation of the whole basin cannot be estimated, I should think,
higher than 3500 feet.
[Sidenote: BASIN OF GAMBAR
VEGETATION.
_May, 1847._]
Such being the case, it is not surprising that the general appearance
of the vegetation should be tropical, and closely approximate to that
of the low hills on the very exterior of the Himalaya. This is in
general the case. The hills, which are generally grassy, and, though
steep and frequently stony, rarely rocky or precipitous, are quite
devoid of forest, or even brushwood, except in a few shady nooks with
a northern exposure, and favourably situated with respect to moisture;
the shrubby vegetation being thin and scattered. This total want of
forest, is unquestionably caused by the dryness of the climate during
the greater part of the year, which is to a certain degree increased
beyond what it would otherwise be, by the proximity of the surrounding
mountain ranges, to which a large proportion of the rain-clouds are no
doubt attracted.
In the shady ravines north of Kussowlee, where there is the greatest
approach to forest, a species of laurel is the most conspicuous tree.
On the more exposed hills, _Falconeria insignis_ and _Euphorbia
pentagona_ occur, scattered as small trees, and one small wood of
_Ægle marmelos_ is passed close to the village of Haripur. The most
common shrubs are _Adhatoda Vasica_, _Carissa_, and _Zizyphus
Jujuba_, species universal in the plains of upper India; _Colebrookea
oppositifolia_, _Grislea_, _Bergera_, _Roylea_ and _Boehmeria
nivea_, all species which are throughout the north-west Himalaya,
characteristic of the lower and drier parts of the outer ranges. Two
Labiate shrubs, _Plectranthus rugosus_ and _Meriandra strobilifera_,
are particularly abundant on the slopes between Haripur and Sairi, and
strongly mark the aridity of the climate.
The herbaceous vegetation, being principally of annual growth,
approaches still more closely to the plains types. At the season of my
journey in May, the extreme drought had dried up almost all the
smaller plants, but during, and immediately after the rainy season the
herbage is very luxuriant. The steep slopes are then covered with a
uniform herbage of tall grasses, which is in many places cut and
preserved for hay, by the inhabitants of the scattered villages in the
valleys. The most prevailing grasses are a tall sweet-scented
_Cymbopogon_ and _Heteropogon contortus_. A species of _Kalanchoë_, a
large and conspicuous plant, with thick fleshy leaves, is very common,
and the superb _Gloriosa_ or _Methonica_ is by no means rare.
On the highest ridges in the valley, at elevations of 5000 feet and
upwards, there are frequent approaches to the temperate flora, the
shady slopes on northern exposures being frequently covered with small
patches of brushwood, containing species of _Berberis_, _Rubus_,
_Spiræa_, etc., and numerous herbaceous species, of forms common at
Simla. These, however, are quite exceptional, though no doubt with a
very little more humidity the shrubby vegetation would rapidly extend,
and under its shelter many small plants would be able to grow, which
are now, when they attempt to vegetate, destroyed by the scorching
heat of the sun.
It must also not be forgotten, that notwithstanding the general
tendency to a tropical flora, the natural result of the low elevation
and great aridity of these hills, a portion of the vegetation even at
the lowest levels consists of plants of European forms, such as
characterize the temperate vegetation of the Himalaya. I do not here
refer to what may be called the cold-weather vegetation of the plains
of north-western India, at which season, the temperature of the air
approaching to that of the summer of the temperate zone, a
considerable number of European plants make their appearance in
corn-fields and along the banks of water-courses; as, for example,
_Veronica Anagallis_ and _agrestis_, _Anagallis_, _Medicago_,
_Melilotus_, _Potentilla supina_, _Juncus bufonius_, _Arenaria
serpyllifolia_, _Heliotropium Europæum_, and many others. These
naturally occur at the same season, in the low valleys among the
hills, in similar situations. The circumstance to which I desire to
advert, is the occurrence at very low levels among the mountains,
during the hot and rainy seasons, of species belonging to genera
characteristic of temperate climates, and which therefore are the
prevailing forms at considerable elevations on the Himalaya. As
instances, I may adduce the occurrence in the valley of the Gambar, at
elevations not exceeding 3000 feet, of species of _Thalictrum_,
_Fragaria_, _Rosa_, _Rubus_, _Berberis_, &c., &c. This remarkable fact
has been ascribed by Jacquemont[1] to the obscure influence of the
mountains; and as the genera just enumerated never occur in the
plains of Upper India, it appears evident that the mountainous nature
of the country must be viewed as an essential element in the reasons
for their descent. These, with some others which also occur at low
levels in the Himalaya, appear to be in all parts of the continent of
India those genera of temperate climates, which descend to the lowest
altitudes. Some of them were found by Dr. Hooker on Parasnâth, a hill
in upper Behar, the elevation of which does not exceed 4000 feet; and
they are all natives of moderate elevations on the Nilgherries and in
Ceylon, as well as on the Khasya mountains in eastern Bengal.
[Sidenote: ASCENT TO SIMLA.
_May, 1847._]
[Sidenote: SIMLA.
_May, 1847._]
The ridge which runs from Haripur to Sairi, parallel to the river
Gambar, is a branch from the Jutog spur, nearly north of Simla, a
ridge which is given off by the main South Sutlej chain in Simla
itself, and which runs directly north to the Sutlej river. The road,
after following this ridge till within a few miles of Simla, leaves it
on the left hand, to descend into a small stony ravine; after crossing
which it mounts abruptly a very steep spur, ascending at least 1500
feet to gain the crest of the ridge, and enter Simla at its
north-western extremity.
The hill station of Simla, which was originally selected as a
sanatarium, or suitable residence for the servants of Government, or
other Europeans, whose health had been impaired by disease, or by too
long residence in a tropical climate, has of late years, in
consequence of the political state of north-western India, and of the
increasing number of retired officers, and of gentlemen unconnected
with the public service, who have made it their residence, become a
place of great importance. Besides an extensive bazaar or collection
of shops, which may now almost be designated a small native town,
Simla contains nearly 400 houses, scattered along the crest of
different mountain ranges. Its situation is a most favourable one, on
the main range of mountains south of the Sutlej river, at a point
where a massive peak rises to a height of 8100 feet, and on the
nearest part of the ridge to the plains of India, which is
sufficiently elevated, well wooded, and situated favourably with
regard to water. The greater part of the station is built on the main
range, partly surrounding the peak of Jako, and partly on the ridge
running north from it, at an elevation of about 7000 feet, as far as a
smaller culminating point of the range, which is by the inhabitants
named Prospect Point. At this point the main range turns sharply to
the west, and the station is continued for nearly a mile on a spur
which runs towards the north, passing through the station of Jutog.
From the scattered position of the houses, the extent of Simla is much
more considerable than the bare statement of the number of houses
might lead one to suppose. The northern ridge extends almost four
miles, and the circuit of Jako, by the principal road, which is from
500 to 1000 feet below the summit, measures five miles.
In consequence of the sudden elevation of the mountain range at the
place where Simla has been built, there is a most complete and
surprising change in the vegetation and general appearance of the
scenery. During the last ascent on the road from the plains this is
sufficiently perceptible, although from the great ravages which the
proximity of so large a population has made in the oak woods, only a
few stunted bushes are now left on the southern exposure. Between the
plains and Simla the hills are totally devoid of trees, but
immediately on gaining the top of the ridge on which the station is
built, we enter a fine forest, which covers all the broader parts of
the range, especially the slopes which have a northern aspect,
stretching down on these in many places to the bottom of the valleys,
fully 2000 feet.
[Sidenote: OAK FOREST.
_May, 1847._]
[Sidenote: PINES OF SIMLA.
_May, 1847._]
The nature of the forest varies a good deal with the exposure and with
the quality of the soil. By far the greater part consists of an oak
and a rhododendron, both small evergreen trees, rarely exceeding
thirty or forty feet, with wide-spreading arms and rugged twisted
branches. A species of _Andromeda_ is also very common, and a holly,
an _Euonymus_, _Rhamnus_, and _Benthamia_, are the other more common
trees, if we except the _Coniferæ_, of which four species occur. Of
these, _Pinus longifolia_ is common at the western or lower extremity
of the station, and prevails, to the exclusion of any other tree, on
the dry sunny spurs which run towards the south, at elevations from
7000 to 5000 feet. This species is, of all the Indian pines known to
me (except its near ally _P. Khasyana_), that which is capable of
enduring the most heat, and at the same time the greatest variation in
amount of moisture; as it is found at elevations of not more than 1000
feet above the level of the sea, equally in the hot humid valleys of
Sikkim, where it enjoys a perpetual vapour-bath, and on the dry
sandstone hills of the upper Punjab, on which rain hardly ever falls.
It is only, however, at low elevations, where the mean temperature is
high, that it is capable of supporting a great amount of humidity,
for in the damp climates of the Himalaya it is entirely wanting,
except in the deepest valleys; and even in the drier districts it is
always observed to select the sunnier, and therefore warmer exposures.
Its upper limit is usually about 7000 feet above the level of the sea,
though on Jako at Simla a few stunted trees rise as high as 7700 feet.
_Pinus excelsa_ is also a very common species at Simla, particularly
on the southern face of Mount Jako, which is the highest part of the
ridge. _Abies Smithiana_, the third coniferous tree, is exceedingly
rare, a few trees only occurring in a shady ravine facing the west;
while the deodar, the fourth species, is common on the southern and
western slopes of Jako, above 7000 feet; and again in shady groves at
the bottom of the valleys on both sides of the ridge, as low as 5000
feet. This beautiful tree, the cedar of the Indian mountains, seems
limited to the western half of the Himalayan range, extending from the
most westerly part of Nipal, as far as the mountains of Affghanistan.
It was first described by Roxburgh from specimens sent to him from
Kamaon, at a time when the western Himalaya was almost inaccessible to
Europeans, under the name by which it is known to the inhabitants of
that province, as well as in Kashmir. It is, however, singularly
enough, not known by that name in the Simla hills, where it is called
_Kélu_; another conifer, _Cupressus torulosa_, a rare tree in the
district, having usurped the name, as well as the sacred character, of
deodar.
In the thick woods of Simla, a large white monkey, the _Langúr_ of the
natives, is very common. These animals move about in large flocks, in
which may be seen individuals of all sizes and ages, and seldom remain
more than a few hours in one place. They are in constant motion,
leaping from bough to bough and from tree to tree, chattering
constantly; and, notwithstanding their great size, are in general
harmless, though ready enough to defend themselves if assailed.
The forest extends in parts close up to the peak of Jako, which has an
elevation of 8130 feet. The very summit, however, which is a short
flat ridge, and a considerable part of the east and south face, are
bare and grassy, or covered with scattered shrubs. The more common
shrubby forms of the vegetation of the temperate zone, are _Salix_,
_Rosa_, _Rubus_, _Lonicera_, _Viburnum_, _Berberis_, _Indigofera_, and
_Prinsepia_, all, except the two last, quite European. _Indigofera_
forms a remarkable exception, and one well worthy of note, as the
genus is a very tropical one, although its shrubby species are
particularly abundant throughout the whole of the western Himalaya.
These shrubby species, however, constitute a particular section of the
genus, very distinct in habit, and in the large size and bright colour
of the flower, from the more ordinary forms, and they are confined to
the drier parts of the mountains, being quite wanting in the humid
climate of Darjeeling and Khasya, and almost entirely so in the
mountains of the Peninsula.
[Sidenote: VEGETATION OF THE SPRING MONTHS.
_May, 1847._]
The herbaceous vegetation of the spring months quite corresponds, in
the temperate nature of its forms, with what has been found to be the
case with the trees and shrubs; but during the rainy season, as has
been well pointed out by Dr. Royle in his valuable essay on the
distribution of Himalayan plants, this is much less markedly the case.
At the commencement of spring, in April (for March is still too cold
for much vegetation), the weather being generally bright, though with
occasional heavy showers, the earliest flowers are species of _Viola_,
_Fragaria_, _Geranium_, _Veronica_, _Valeriana_, and dandelion. From
April, as summer advances, the temperature gradually rises, till
towards the end of June, when the rainy season commences. These months
are generally dry, and if no rain falls the heat is sometimes
considerable, the thermometer rising as high as 80° in the shade.
Still the flora is almost entirely temperate, the early spring plants
being succeeded by many others of European families, principally
_Ranunculaceæ_, _Rosaceæ_, _Labiatæ_, _Stellatæ_, _Polygonaceæ_,
_Epilobiaceæ_, _Primulaceæ_, etc. I can scarcely enumerate a single
spring flowering plant which does not belong to an European family,
unless _Arum_ be an exception, which it can hardly be considered, the
flowers only being displayed during May and June, while the leaves do
not make their appearance until after the rainy season has commenced.
Few species are, however, identical with those of Europe, except
_Stellaria media_, _Cerastium vulgatum_, _Taraxacum officinale_,
_Verbascum Thapsus_, _Thymus Serpyllum_, and _Poa annua_.
[Sidenote: FLORA OF RAINY SEASON.
_July, 1847._]
[Sidenote: PEAK OF JAKO.
_July, 1847._]
The rainy season generally commences about the 20th of June, or
between that date and the end of the month, and continues till the
middle or end of September, with occasional intermissions, rarely
exceeding a week at a time. During the rains the atmosphere is
exceedingly moist, dense fogs usually prevailing when rain does not
fall. The rain-fall is probably more considerable at Simla than in
the lower ranges, which are nearer the plains, for it has been
observed that ranges of 7-8000 feet (which are generally for this
reason well wooded), attract much moisture, and the peak of Jako and
other parts of Simla are frequently observed from the stations of
Sabathu and Kussowlee, to be covered with dense clouds or mist, at
times when at the latter places the weather is bright and clear.
The commencement of the rainy season is the signal in the mountains,
as it is very universally throughout India, wherever that season is
well marked, for the appearance of a very vigorous and luxuriant
growth of plants of annual growth, the seeds (or rootstocks) of which
had been lying dormant in the soil awaiting the access of heavy rain.
At Simla, as elsewhere in the temperate region of the Himalaya, we
find at this season numerous species of Balsams, _Acanthaceæ_,
_Orchideæ_, and _Labiatæ_, several Gentians and _Cichoraceæ_, a great
many grasses and _Cyperaceæ_, and species of _Parnassia_, _Drosera_,
_Pedicularis_, _Roscoea_, _Dipsacus_, _Thalictrum_, _Urtica_, etc.,
etc. Some of these are quite European genera, while others, as
_Roscoea_, are interesting as belonging to orders whose maxima occur
in very humid climates. The _Labiatæ_ of the rainy season are mostly
species of _Plectranthus_ and _Elsholtzia_, both quite Indian genera,
and very extensively distributed in mountainous districts. Balsams are
quite an Indian order, and they seem everywhere, as has already been
remarked by Dr. Royle and by Dr. Wight, to abound in humid shady
places, either in dense forest or on the stony banks of mountain
streams, in the drier districts only during the rainy season, but in
more humid countries more or less throughout the year. The _Orchideæ_
of Simla are entirely terrestrial, the dryness and cold of the winter
months being greater than are compatible with the occurrence of
epiphytical species of this natural order, and for the same reason, I
presume, _Melastomaceæ_, so abundant in the Eastern Himalaya, are
quite wanting.
Among the many advantages of situation by which Simla is
characterized, one of the most fortunate is its position on a part of
the mountain range which lies transversely to the ordinary direction
of the chain, so that the view towards the plains of India, as well as
up the Sutlej valley, is very much more extensive than would be
obtained, had the station been situated in a less favourable position.
This advantage is further enhanced by the sudden rise in elevation of
the chain, which enables a resident at Simla to overlook in the
direction of the plains the continuation of the range which would
otherwise obstruct the view. Towards the interior of the mountains,
this advantage is not possessed by Simla; for the ridge of Mahasu,
which rises 1000 feet higher than the peak of Jako, obscures at least
half of the snowy range, the view being limited in that direction to
the course of the valley of the Sutlej, and to the mountains north of
that river.
[Sidenote: VIEW FROM THE
PEAK OF JAKO.
_July, 1847._]
With all these advantages of situation, the view from the peak of Jako
is one of the most agreeable and diversified, which occur in any part
of the Himalaya; although, from the rather too level top of the
mountain, and the intrusion of the forest almost to the very summit,
the whole panorama cannot be embraced at once. Immediately under the
eye are the numerous spurs and ridges covered with scattered houses,
and the deep ravines which terminate the steep slopes below the
station; towards the plains, the whole valley of the Gambar is seen,
with the stations of Sabathu and Kussowlee, the church and esplanade
of the former appearing low down almost within a stone's throw, while
the brilliant white of the houses of Kussowlee, more nearly on a level
with the eye, sparkle in the sunbeams. The ridge of Kussowlee in one
place excludes the view of the plains, but to the right they may be
seen stretching away in the distance, and only recognizable at last by
the track of the Sutlej river, which, from the very remarkable curve
close to its exit from the mountains, may be traced as far as vision
can extend, a distance of 116 miles[2]. To the north a valley
stretches from Simla as far as the Sutlej river, distant about fifteen
miles, so direct that the greater part of it is seen, though the river
itself is concealed. East of north a long partially wooded ridge,
about four miles distant at its nearest point, running parallel to the
valley just mentioned, excludes the view of the nearer part of the
Sutlej valley; but the lofty ranges north of that river, covered with
dense forest, and backed by masses of brilliant snow, close in the
view in that direction. Due east lies the Mahasu ridge, covered on the
Simla slopes with a dense forest of deodar; and to the south, across
the valley of the Giri, towards which numerous rugged ridges run, is
the mountain called the Chor, the highest peak of the range which
separates the Giri from the Tons, the crest of which is upwards of
12,000 feet in height.
From the peak of Jako, the serpentine course of the range, which
prevails universally throughout the Himalaya, may be well traced, as
the eye of the spectator, following the direct course of the ridge,
can observe numerous turns in its course, each of which, from the
great foreshortening, appears much more abrupt than it really is. At
each curve the range rises into a peak, while the intermediate
portions are lower and excavated into "cols" or passes. In the
concavity of each bend of the range is situated the head of a valley,
numerous small spurs dividing the different ravines which unite to
form it; while on the convex side, from the high portion of the ridge,
is given off a branch of the range, forming a separation between two
adjacent valleys, each of which occupies a concavity in the main range
of mountain.
On my arrival at Simla on the 25th of May, I found that Major A.
Cunningham, of the Bengal Engineers, and Captain Henry Strachey, of
the 66th Regiment N.I., were to be my fellow-travellers, the former
having been appointed the head of the mission. As Captain Strachey had
to travel from Dinapore, it was evident that some time would elapse
before he would arrive at Simla, nor was it till the beginning of
August that the completion of the necessary preliminaries rendered it
possible for us to commence our journey. I took advantage of this
delay to make myself as far as possible acquainted with the physical
features and vegetation of the surrounding country, though the
necessary preparations for the approaching journey occupied a good
deal of time, and the commencement of the rainy season rendered
travelling difficult, and even out-of-door exercise unpleasant. I have
already attempted to convey an idea of the general physical aspect of
the scenery, which, after a short residence has made one familiar with
the structure of the ridges, appears very simple. Situated on the
dividing range, by which the waters of the Giri, a tributary of the
Jumna, on the left, are separated from those of the tributaries of the
Sutlej on the right, the spectator looks into two of the immense
basins into which the Himalaya is divided by transverse ranges running
parallel to the great rivers; and after a short time he finds that the
chaos of mountains, which at first perplexed the eye and confused the
mind, gradually resolves itself into a definite shape, each ridge
being capable of being referred to its parent, and that in its turn to
a branch of the main chain. From his commanding position he can also
see that the main range is generally more elevated than its branches,
and that each chain, by a succession of sudden sinkings, diminishes in
elevation, each peak being lower than its predecessor. Nowhere in the
wide tract of country visible is there the least approach to a system
of parallel ridges, such as is indicated by the distant view of these
mountains. On the contrary, it is seen that the great ranges are,
though very irregularly, perpendicular to the general direction of the
mountain mass, and that it is only the shorter spurs which have a
general uniformity of direction.
[Sidenote: STRUCTURE OF THE
MOUNTAIN RANGES.
_July, 1847._]
Nor could I find in the structure of the mountains around Simla any
confirmation of the view entertained by Humboldt of the sudden
elevation of the Himalaya out of a vast fissure in the external crust
of the earth. However plausible such a view might appear when the
Himalaya is contemplated as a whole (on a map), without any portion of
its extent being under the eye, I found it, on the spot, quite
impossible to conceive in what way, after such a sudden elevation, any
power in the least analogous to existing forces could have excavated
out of the solid rock those numerous valleys, so various in direction,
so rugged in outline, and so vast in dimensions, which now furrow the
mountain mass.
On the contrary, the conclusion has been forced upon me that these
mountains have emerged extremely gradually from an ocean, of the
existence of which, at very various levels, the most evident traces
are, I think, discoverable. The present configuration of the surface
must, I do not doubt, have been given to it during periods of rest, or
of very slow elevation, the action of the sea upon submerged rocks
being so very superficial that no denudation takes place at any great
depth. During the period of emergence of the Himalaya, from the great
length of the present valleys, which extend between parallel ranges
far into the interior, the coast must have borne a strong resemblance
to that of Norway at the present day, numerous promontories projecting
far into the sea, and separated from one another by narrow and deep
bays.
[Sidenote: GEOLOGY.]
The geological structure of the Himalaya between Simla and the plains
is not easily discovered by the cursory observer. The general basis of
the mountains is clay-slate, occasionally very micaceous, passing
into a coarse sandstone, but here and there limestone occurs
interstratified. The dip is extremely variable, and the rocks,
whatever their age, are evidently highly metamorphosed. The tertiary
formations, so well illustrated by Falconer and Cautley, extend all
along the base of the mountains, and penetrate in some places far into
the valleys, for certain rocks in the neighbourhood of Sabathu have
been indicated by Major Vicary, which appear to be of the same age, or
perhaps of a still older tertiary epoch.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Voyage, etc., vol. ii. p. 6.
[2] In this I allow 800 feet for the height of Loodiana above the
level of the sea.