FOOTNOTE:

[1] Keats, in his famous sonnet beginning:--"Much have I travelled in

the realms of gold," of which this is the concluding line,

inaccurately substitutes Cortez for Balboa.

DARIUS (Pers. _Darayavaush_; Old Test. _Daryavesh_), the name of three

Persian kings.

1. DARIUS THE GREAT, the son of Hystaspes (q.v.). The principal source

for his history is his own inscriptions, especially the great

inscription of Behistun (q.v.), in which he relates how he gained the

crown and put down the rebellions. In modern times his veracity has

often been doubted, but without any sufficient reason; the whole tenor

of his words shows that we can rely upon his account. The accounts given

by Herodotus and Ctesias of his accession are in many points evidently

dependent on this official version, with many legendary stories

interwoven, e.g. that Darius and his allies left the question as to

which of them should become king to the decision of their horses, and

that Darius won the crown by a trick of his groom.

Darius belonged to a younger branch of the royal family of the

Achaemenidae. When, after the suicide of Cambyses (March 521), the

usurper Gaumata ruled undisturbed over the whole empire under the name

of Bardiya (Smerdis), son of Cyrus, and no one dared to gainsay him,

Darius, "with the help of Ahura-mazda," attempted to regain the kingdom

for the royal race. His father Hystaspes was still alive, but evidently

had not the courage to urge his claims. Assisted by six noble Persians,

whose names he proclaims at the end of the Behistun inscription, he

surprised and killed the usurper in a Median fortress (October 521; for

the chronology of these times cf. E. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten

Geschichte_, ii. 472 ff.), and gained the crown. But this sudden change

was the signal for an attempt on the part of all the eastern provinces

to regain their independence. In Susiana, Babylon, Media, Sagartia,

Margiana, usurpers arose, pretending to be of the old royal race, and

gathered large armies around them; in Persia itself Vahyazdata imitated

the example of Gaumata and was acknowledged by the majority of the

people as the true Bardiya. Darius with only a small army of Persians

and Medes and some trustworthy generals overcame all difficulties, and

in 520 and 519 all the rebellions were put down (Babylon rebelled twice,

Susiana even three times), and the authority of Darius was established

throughout the empire.

Darius in his inscriptions appears as a fervent believer in the true

religion of Zoroaster. But he was also a great statesman and organizer.

The time of conquests had come to an end; the wars which Darius

undertook, like those of Augustus, only served the purpose of gaining

strong natural frontiers for the empire and keeping down the barbarous

tribes on its borders. Thus Darius subjugated the wild nations of the

Pontic and Armenian mountains, and extended the Persian dominion to the

Caucasus; for the same reasons he fought against the Sacae and other

Turanian tribes. But by the organization which he gave to the empire he

became the true successor of the great Cyrus. His organization of the

provinces and the fixing of the tributes is described by Herodotus iii.

90 ff., evidently from good official sources. He fixed the coinage and

introduced the gold coinage of the Daric (which is not named after him,

as the Greeks believed, but derived from a Persian word meaning "gold";

in Middle Persian it is called _zarig_). He tried to develop the

commerce of the empire, and sent an expedition down the Kabul and the

Indus, led by the Carian captain Scylax of Caryanda, who explored the

Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. He dug a canal from

the Nile to Suez, and, as the fragments of a hieroglyphic inscription

found there show, his ships sailed from the Nile through the Red Sea by

Saba to Persia. He had connexions with Carthage (i.e. the _Karka_ of the

Nakshi Rustam inscr.), and explored the shores of Sicily and Italy. At

the same time he attempted to gain the good-will of the subject nations,

and for this purpose promoted the aims of their priests. He allowed the

Jews to build the Temple of Jerusalem. In Egypt his name appears on the

temples which he built in Memphis, Edfu and the Great Oasis. He called

the high-priest of Sais, Uzahor, to Susa (as we learn from his

inscription in the Vatican), and gave him full powers to reorganize the

"house of life," the great medical school of the temple of Sais. In the

Egyptian traditions he is considered as one of the great benefactors and

lawgivers of the country (Herod. ii. 110, Diod. i. 95). In similar

relations he stood to the Greek sanctuaries (cf. his rescript to "his

slave" Godatas, the inspector of a royal park near Magnesia, on the

Maeander, in which he grants freedom of taxes and forced labour to the

sacred territory of Apollo. See Cousin and Deschamps, _Bulletin de

corresp. hellen._, xiii. (1889), 529, and Dittenberger, _Sylloge inscr.

graec._, 2); all the Greek oracles in Asia Minor and Europe therefore

stood on the side of Persia in the Persian wars and admonished the

Greeks to attempt no resistance.

About 512 Darius undertook a war against the Scythians. A great army

crossed the Bosporus, subjugated eastern Thrace, and crossed the Danube.

The purpose of this war can only have been to attack the nomadic

Turanian tribes in the rear and thus to secure peace on the northern

frontier of the empire. It was based upon a wrong geographical

conception; even Alexander and his Macedonians believed that on the

Hindu Kush (which they called Caucasus) and on the shores of the

Jaxartes (which they called Tanais, i.e. Don) they were quite near to

the Black Sea. Of course the expedition undertaken on these grounds

could not but prove a failure; having advanced for some weeks into the

Russian steppes, Darius was forced to return. The details given by

Herodotus (according to him Darius had reached the Volga!) are quite

fantastical; and the account which Darius himself had given on a tablet,

which was added to his great inscription in Behistun, is destroyed with

the exception of a few words. (See R. W. Macan, _Herodotus_, vol. ii.

appendix 3; G. B. Grundy, _Great Persian War_, pp. 48-64; J. B. Bury in

_Classical Review_, July 1897.)

Although European Greece was intimately connected with the coasts of

Asia Minor, and the opposing parties in the Greek towns were continually

soliciting his intervention, Darius did not meddle with their affairs.

The Persian wars were begun by the Greeks themselves. The support which

Athens and Eretria gave to the rebellious Ionians and Carians made their

punishment inevitable as soon as the rebellion had been put down. But

the first expedition, that of Mardonius, failed on the cliffs of Mt.

Athos (492), and the army which was led into Attica by Datis in 490 was

beaten at Marathon. Before Darius had finished his preparations for a

third expedition an insurrection broke out in Egypt (486). In the next

year Darius died, probably in October 485, after a reign of thirty-six

years. He is one of the greatest rulers the east has produced.

2. DARIUS II., OCHUS. Artaxerxes I., who died in the beginning of 424,

was followed by his son Xerxes II. But after a month and a half he was

murdered by his brother Secydianus, or Sogdianus (the form of the name

is uncertain). Against him rose a bastard brother, Ochus, satrap of

Hyrcania, and after a short fight killed him, and suppressed by

treachery the attempt of his own brother Arsites to imitate his example

(Ctesias _ap._ Phot. 44; Diod. xii. 71, 108; Pausan. vi. 5, 7). Ochus

adopted the name Darius (in the chronicles called _Nothos_, the

bastard). Neither Xerxes II. nor Secydianus occurs in the dates of the

numerous Babylonian tablets from Nippur; here the dates of Darius II.

follow immediately on those of Artaxerxes I. Of Darius II.'s reign we

know very little (a rebellion of the Medes in 409 is mentioned in

Xenophon, _Hellen._ i. 2. 19), except that he was quite dependent on his

wife Parysatis. In the excerpts from Ctesias some harem intrigues are

recorded, in which he played a disreputable part. As long as the power

of Athens remained intact he did not meddle in Greek affairs; even the

support which the Athenians in 413 gave to the rebel Amorges in Caria

would not have roused him (Andoc. iii. 29; Thuc. viii. 28, 54; Ctesias

wrongly names his father Pissuthnes in his stead; an account of these

wars is contained in the great Lycian stele from Xanthus in the British

Museum), had not the Athenian power broken down in the same year before

Syracuse. He gave orders to his satraps in Asia Minor, Tissaphernes and

Pharnabazus, to send in the overdue tribute of the Greek towns, and to

begin war with Athens; for this purpose they entered into an alliance

with Sparta. In 408 he sent his son Cyrus to Asia Minor, to carry on the

war with greater energy. In 404 he died after a reign of nineteen years,

and was followed by Artaxerxes II.

3. DARIUS III., CODOMANNUS. The eunuch Bagoas (q.v.), having murdered

Artaxerxes III. in 338 and his son Arses in 336, raised to the throne a

distant relative of the royal house, whose name, according to Justin x.

3, was Codomannus, and who had excelled in a war against the Cadusians

(cf. Diod. xvii. 5 ff., where his father is called Arsames, son of

Ostanes, a brother of Artaxerxes). The new king, who adopted the name of

Darius, took warning by the fate of his predecessors, and saved himself

from it by forcing Bagoas to drink the cup himself. Already in 336

Philip II. of Macedon had sent an army into Asia Minor, and in the

spring of 334 the campaign of Alexander began. In the following year

Darius himself took the field against the Macedonian king, but was

beaten at Issus and in 331 at Arbela. In his flight to the east he was

deposed and killed by Bessus (July 330).

The name Darius was also borne by many later dynasts of Persian

origin, among them kings of Persis (q.v.), Darius of Media Atropatene

who was defeated by Pompeius, and Darius, king of Pontus in the time

of Antony. (Ed. M.)

DARJEELING, a hill station and district of British India, in the

Bhagalpur division of Bengal. The sanatorium is situated 367 m. by rail

north of Calcutta. In 1901 it had a population of 16,924. It is the

summer quarters of the Bengal government and has a most agreeable

climate, which neither exceeds 80 deg. F. in summer, nor falls below 30

deg. in winter. The great attraction of Darjeeling is its scenery, which

is unspeakably grand. The view across the hills to Kinchinjunga

discloses a glittering white wall of perpetual snow, surrounded by

towering masses of granite. There are several schools of considerable

size for European boys and girls, and a government boarding school at

Kurseong. The buildings and the roads suffered severely from the

earthquake of the 12th of June 1897. But a more terrible disaster

occurred in October 1899, when a series of landslips carried away houses

and broke up the hill railway. The total value of the property destroyed

was returned at L160,000.

The district of Darjeeling comprises an area of 1164 sq. m. It consists

of two well-defined tracts, _viz._ the lower Himalayas to the south of

Sikkim, and the _tarai_, or plains, which extend from the south of these

ranges as far as the northern borders of Purnea district. The plains

from which the hills take their rise are only 300 ft. above sea-level;

the mountains ascend abruptly in spurs of 6000 to 10,000 ft. in height.

The scenery throughout the hills is picturesque, and in many parts

magnificent. The two highest mountains in the world, Kinchinjunga in

Sikkim (28,156 ft.) and Everest in Nepal (29,002 ft.), are visible from

the town of Darjeeling. The principal peaks within the district

are--Phalut (11,811 ft.), Subargum (11,636), Tanglu (10,084), Situng and

Sinchal Pahai (8163). The chief rivers are the Tista, Great and Little

Ranjit, Ramman, Mahananda, Balasan and Jaldhaka. None of them is

navigable in the mountain valleys; but the Tista, after it debouches on

the plains, can be navigated by cargo boats of considerable burthen.

Bears, leopards and musk deer are found on the higher mountains, deer on

the lower ranges, and a few elephants and tigers on the slopes nearest

to the plains. In the lowlands, tigers, rhinoceroses, deer and wild hogs

are abundant. A few wolves are also found. Of small game, hares, jungle

fowl, peacocks, partridges, snipe, woodcock, wild ducks and geese, and

green pigeons are numerous in the _tarai_, and jungle fowl and pheasants

in the hills. The mahseer fish is found in the Tista.

In 1901 the population was 249,117, showing an increase of 12% since

1891, compared with an increase of 43% in the previous decade. The

inhabitants of the hilly tract consist to a large extent of Nepali

immigrants and of aboriginal highland races; in the _tarai_ the people

are chiefly Hindus and Mahommedans. The Lepchas are considered to be the

aboriginal inhabitants of the hilly portion of the district. They are a

fine, frank race, naturally open-hearted and free-handed, fond of change

and given to an out-door life; but they do not seem to improve on being

brought into contact with civilization. It is thought that they are now

being gradually driven out of the district, owing to the increase of

regular cultivation, and to the government conservation of the forests.

They have no word for plough in their language, and they still follow

the nomadic form of tillage known as _jum_ cultivation. This consists in

selecting a spot of virgin soil, clearing it of forest and jungle by

burning, and scraping the surface with the rudest agricultural

implements. The productive powers of the land become exhausted in a few

years, when the clearing is abandoned, a new site is chosen, and the

same operations are carried on _de novo_. The Lepchas are also the

ordinary out-door labourers on the hills. They have no caste

distinctions but speak of themselves as belonging to one of nine septs

or clans, who all eat together and intermarry with each other. In the

upper or northern _tarai_, along the base of the hills, the Mechs form

the principal ethnical feature. This tribe inhabits the deadly jungle

with impunity, and cultivates cotton, rice and other ordinary crops, by

the _jum_ process described above. The cultivation of tea was introduced

in 1856, and is now a large industry. Cinchona cultivation was

introduced by the government in 1862, and has since been taken up by

private enterprise. There is a coal mine at Daling. The Darjeeling

Himalayan railway of 2 ft. gauge, opened in 1880, runs for 50 m. from

Siliguri in the plains on the Eastern Bengal line.

The British connexion with Darjeeling dates from 1816, when, at the

close of the war with Nepali, the British made over to the Sikkim raja

the _tarai_ tract, which had been wrested from him and annexed by Nepal.

In 1835 the nucleus of the present district of British Sikkim or

Darjeeling was created by a cession of a portion of the hills by the

raja of Sikkim to the British as a sanatorium. A military expedition

against Sikkim, rendered necessary in 1850 by the imprisonment of Dr A.

Campbell, the superintendent of Darjeeling, and Sir Joseph Hooker,

resulted in the stoppage of the allowance granted to the raja for the

cession of the hill station of Darjeeling, and in the annexation of the

Sikkim _tarai_ at the foot of the hills and of a portion of the hills

beyond. In August 1866 the hill territory east of the Tista, acquired as

the result of the Bhutan campaign of 1864, was added to the jurisdiction

of Darjeeling.

DARLEY, GEORGE (1795-1846), Irish poet, was born in Dublin in 1795. His

parents, who were gentle folks of independent means, emigrated to

America, leaving the boy in charge of his grandfather at Springfield,

Co. Dublin. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating in

1820; but an unfortunate stammer prevented him from going into the

church or to the bar, and he established himself in London, where he

published his first volume of poems, the _Errors of Ecstasie_, in 1822,

and became a regular contributor to _The London Magazine_. He was

intimate with Cary, the translator of Dante, and with Charles Lamb. In

1826 he published under the name of "Grey Penseval" a volume of prose

tales and sketches, _Labour in Idleness_ (1826), one of which, "The

Enchanted Lyre," is plainly autobiographical. _Sylvia, or the May Queen_

(1827, reprint 1892), a fairy opera, met with no success, but about 1830

he became dramatic and art critic to the _Athenaeum_. His other works

are: _Nepenthe_ (1835, reprint 1897), his most considerable poem;

introduction to the works of Beaumont and Fletcher (1840); with two

plays, _Thomas a Becket_ (1840), and _Ethelstan_ (1841). He died in

London on the 23rd of November 1846.

_Selections from the Poems of George Darley_, with an introduction by

R. A. Streatfield, appeared in 1904. See also the edition by Ramsay

Colles in the "Muses' Library" (1906).

DARLING, GRACE HORSLEY (1815-1842), British heroine, was born at

Bamborough, Northumberland, on the 24th of November 1815. Her father,

William Darling, was the keeper of the Longstone (Farne Islands)

lighthouse. On the morning of the 7th of September 1838, the

"Forfarshire," bound from Hull to Dundee, with sixty-three persons on

board, struck on the Farne Islands, forty-three being drowned. The wreck

was observed from the lighthouse, and Darling and his daughter

determined to try and reach the survivors. They recognized that though

they might be able to get to the wreck, they would be unable to return

without the assistance of the shipwrecked crew, but they took this risk

without hesitation. By a combination of daring, strength and skill, the

father and daughter reached the wreck in their coble and brought back

four men and a woman to the lighthouse. Darling and two of the rescued

men then returned to the wreck and brought off the four remaining

survivors. This gallant exploit made Grace Darling and her father

famous. The Humane Society at once voted them its gold medal, the

treasury made a grant, and a public subscription was organized. Grace

Darling, who had always been delicate, died of consumption on the 20th

of October 1842.

See _Grace Darling, her true story_ (London, 1880).

DARLING, a river of Australia. It rises in Queensland and flows into New

South Wales, forming for a considerable distance the boundary of the two

colonies; in its upper reaches it is known as the Barwon, but from

Bourke to its junction on the Victorian border with the river Murray, it

is called the Darling. Its length is 1160 m., and with its affluents it

drains an area of about 200,000 sq. m. During the dry season its course

is marked by a series of shallow pools, but during the winter, when it

is subject to sudden floods, it is navigable as far as Bourke for

steamers of light draft. Excepting a narrow strip on the banks of the

river, the country through which it passes is, for the most part, an

arid plain.

DARLINGTON, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough of

Durham, England, 232 m. N. by W. of London, on the North-Eastern

railway. Pop. (1891) 38,060; (1901) 44,511. It lies in a slightly

undulating plain on the small river Skerne, a tributary of the Tees, not

far from the main river. Its appearance is almost wholly modern, but

there is a fine old parish church dedicated to St Cuthbert. It is

cruciform, and in style mainly transitional Norman. It has a central

tower surmounted by a spire of the 14th century, which necessitated the

building of a massive stone screen across the chancel arch to support

the piers. Traces of an earlier church were discovered in the course of

restoration. Educational establishments include an Elizabethan grammar

school, a training college for school-mistresses (British and Foreign

School Society), and a technical school. There is a park of forty-four

acres. The industries of Darlington are large and varied. They include

worsted spinning mills; collieries, ironstone mines, quarries and

brickworks; the manufacture of iron and steel, both in the rough and in

the form of finished articles, as locomotives, bridge castings, ships'

engines, gun castings and shells, &c. The parliamentary borough returns

one member. The town was incorporated in 1867, and the corporation

consists of a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 3956

acres.

Not long after the bishop and monks of Lindisfarne had settled at Durham

in 995, Styr the son of Ulf gave them the vill of Darlington

(Dearthington, Darnington), which by 1083 had grown into importance,

probably owing to its situation on the road from Watling Street to the

mouth of the Tees. Bishop William of St Carileph in that year changed

the church to a collegiate church, and placed there certain canons whom

he removed from Durham. Bishop Hugh de Puiset rebuilt the church and

built a manor house which was for many years the occasional residence of

the bishops of Durham. Boldon Book, dated 1183, contains the first

mention of Darlington as a borough, rated at L5, while half a mark was

due from the dyers of cloth. The next account of the town is in Bishop

Hatfield's Survey (c. 1380), which states that "Ingelram Gentill and his

partners hold the borough of Derlyngton with the profits of the mills

and dye houses and other profits pertaining to the borough rendering

yearly four score and thirteen pounds and six shillings." Darlington

possesses no early charter, but claimed its privileges as a borough by a

prescriptive right. Until the 19th century it was governed by a bailiff

appointed by the bishop. The mention of dyers in the Boldon Book and

Hatfield's Survey probably indicates the existence of woollen

manufacture. Before the 19th century Darlington was noted for the

manufacture of linen, worsted and flax, but it owes its modern

importance to the opening of the railway between Darlington and Stockton

on the 27th of September 1825. "Locomotive No. 1," the first that ever

ran on a public railway, stands in Bank Top station, a remarkable relic

of the enterprise. As part of the palatinate of Durham, Darlington sent

no members to parliament until 1862, when it was allowed to return one

member. The fairs and markets in Darlington were formerly held by the

bishop and were in existence as early as the 11th century. According to

Leland, Darlington was in his time the best market town in the bishopric

with the exception of Durham. In 1664 the bishop, finding that the

inhabitants of the town had set up a market "in the season of the year

unaccustomed," i.e. from the fortnight before Christmas to Whit Monday,

prohibited them from continuing it. The markets and fairs were finally

in 1854 purchased by the local authority, and now belong to the

corporation.

DARLINGTONIA (called after William Darlington, an American botanist), a

Californian pitcher-plant, belonging to the order Sarraceniaceae. There

is only one species, _D. californica_, which is found at 5000 ft.

altitude on the Sierra Nevadas of California, growing in sphagnum-bogs

along with sundews and rushes. The pitcher-like leaves form a cluster,

and are 1 to 2 ft. high, slender, erect, and end in a rounded hooded

top, from which hangs a blade shaped like a fish-tail which guards the

entrance to the pitcher. Insects are attracted to the leaves by the

bright colouring, especially of the upper part; entering they pass down

the narrow funnel guided by downward pointing hairs which also prevent

their ascent. They form a putrefying mass in the bottom of the pitcher,

and the products of their decomposition are presumably absorbed by the

leaf for food.

[Illustration: _Darlingtonia californica._]

DARLY, MATTHIAS, 18th-century English caricaturist, designer and

engraver. This extremely versatile artist not only issued political

caricatures, but designed ceilings, chimney-pieces, mirror frames,

girandoles, decorative panels and other mobiliary accessories, made many

engravings for Thomas Chippendale, and sold his own productions over the

counter. He was apparently an architect by profession. The first

publication which can be attributed to him with certainty is a coloured

caricature, "The Cricket Players of Europe" (1741). In 1754 he issued _A

new Book of Chinese Designs_, which was intended to minister to the

passing craze for furniture and household decorations in the Chinese

style. It was in this year that he engraved many of the plates for the

_Director_ of Thomas Chippendale. He published from many addresses, most

of them in the Strand or its immediate neighbourhood, and his shop was

for a long period perhaps the most important of its kind in London. In

his book _Nollekens and his Times_, J. T. Smith, writing of Richard

Cosway, says:--"So ridiculously foppish did he become that Matth. Darly,

the famous caricature print seller, introduced an etching of him in his

window in the Strand as the 'Macaroni Miniature Painter.'" Darly was for

many years in partnership with a man named Edwards, and together they

published many political prints, which were originally issued separately

and collected annually into volumes under the title of _Political and

Satirical History_. Darly was a member both of the Incorporated Society

of Artists and the Free Society of Artists, forerunners of the Royal

Academy, and to their exhibitions he contributed many architectural

drawings, together with a profile etching of himself (1775). Upon one of

these etchings, published from 39 Strand, he is described as "Professor

of Ornament to the Academy of Great Britain." Darly's most important

publication was _The Ornamental Architect or Young Artists' Instructor_

(1770-1771), a title which was changed in the edition of 1773 to _A

Compleat Body of Architecture, embellished with a great Variety of

Ornaments_. He also issued _Sixty Vases by English, French and Italian

Masters_ (1767). In addition to his immense mass of other productions

Darly executed many book plates, illustrated various books and

cabinet-makers' catalogues, and gave lessons in etching. His skill as a

caricaturist brought him into close personal relations with the

politicians of his time, and in 1763 he was instrumental in saving John

Wilkes, whose partisan he was, from death at the hands of James Dunn,

who had determined to kill him. Darly, who described himself as

"Liveryman and block maker," issued his last caricature in October 1780,

and as his shop, No. 39 Strand, was let to a new tenant in the following

year, it is to be presumed that he had by that time died, or become

incapable of further work. As a designer of furniture Darly travelled in

a dozen years or so from the extremes of pseudo-Chinese affectation to

classical severity of the type popularized by the brothers Adam.

DARMESTETER, JAMES (1849-1894), French author and antiquarian, was born

of Jewish parents on the 28th of March 1849 at Chateau Salins, in

Alsace. The family name had originated in their earlier home of

Darmstadt. He was educated in Paris, where, under the guidance of Michel

Breal and Abel Bergaigne, he imbibed a love for Oriental studies, to

which for a time he entirely devoted himself. He was a man of vast

intellectual range. In 1875 he published a thesis on the mythology of

the _Zend Avesta_, and in 1877 became teacher of Zend at the Ecole des

Hautes Etudes. He followed up his researches with his _Etudes

iraniennes_ (1883), and ten years later published a complete translation

of the _Zend Avesta_, with historical and philological commentary (3

vols., 1892-1893), in the _Annales du musee Guimet_. He also edited the

Zend Avesta for Max Muller's _Sacred Books of the East_. Darmesteter

regarded the extant texts as far more recent than was commonly believed,

placing the earliest in the 1st century B.C., and the bulk in the 3rd

century A.D. In 1885 he was appointed professor in the College de

France, and was sent to India in 1886 on a mission to collect the

popular songs of the Afghans, a translation of which, with a valuable

essay on the Afghan language and literature, he published on his return.

His impressions of English dominion in India were conveyed in _Lettres

sur l'Inde_ (1888). England interested him deeply; and his attachment to

the gifted English writer, A. Mary F. Robinson, whom he shortly

afterwards married (and who in 1901 became the wife of Professor E.

Duclaux, director of the Pasteur Institute at Paris), led him to

translate her poems into French in 1888. Two years after his death a

collection of excellent essays on English subjects was published in

English. He also wrote _Le Mahdi depuis les origines de l'Islam jusqu'a

nos jours_ (1885); _Les Origines de la poesie persane_ (1888);

_Prophetes d'Israel_ (1892), and other books on topics connected with

the east, and from 1883 onwards drew up the annual reports of the

_Societe Asiatique_. He had just become connected with the _Revue de

Paris_, when his delicate constitution succumbed to a slight attack of

illness on the 19th of October 1894.

His elder brother, ARSENE DARMESTETER (1846-1888), was a distinguished

philologist and man of letters. He studied under Gaston Paris at the

Ecole des Hautes Etudes, and became professor of Old French language and

literature at the Sorbonne. His _Life of Words_ appeared in English in

1888. He also collaborated with Adolphe Hatzfeld in a _Dictionnaire

general de la langue francaise_ (2 vols., 1895-1900). Among his most

important work was the elucidation of Old French by means of the many

glosses in the medieval writings of Rashi and other French Jews. His

scattered papers on romance and Jewish philology were collected by James

Darmesteter as _Arsene Darmesteter, reliques scientifiques_ (2 vols.,

1890). His valuable _Cours de grammaire historique de la langue

francaise_ was edited after his death by E. Muret and L. Sudre

(1891-1895; English edition, 1902).

There is an _eloge_ of James Darmesteter in the _Journal asiatique_

(1894, vol. iv. pp. 519-534), and a notice by Henri Cordier, with a

list of his writings, in _The Royal Asiatic Society's Journal_

(January 1895); see also Gaston Paris, "James Darmesteter," in

_Penseurs et poetes_ (1896, pp. 1-61).

DARMSTADT, a city of Germany, capital of the grand-duchy of

Hesse-Darmstadt, on a plain gently sloping from the Odenwald to the

Rhine, 21 m. by rail S.E. from Mainz and 17 m. S. from Frankfort-on-Main.

Pop. (1905) 83,000. It is the residence of the grand-duke and the seat of

government of the duchy. Darmstadt consists of an old and a new town, the

streets of the former being narrow and gloomy and presenting no

attractive features. The new town, however, which includes the greater

part of the city, contains broad streets and several fine squares. Among

the latter is the stately Luisenplatz, on which are the house of

parliament, the old palace and the post office, and in the centre of

which is a column surmounted by the statue of the grand-duke Louis I.,

the founder of the new town. The square is crossed by the Rhein-strasse,

the most important thoroughfare in the city, leading directly from the

railway station to the ducal palace. This last, a complex of buildings,

dating from various centuries, but possessing few points of special

interest, is surrounded by grounds occupying the site of the old moat.

Opposite to it, on the north side, and adjoining the pretty palace

gardens, are the court theatre and the armoury, and a little farther west

the handsome buildings of the new museum, erected in 1905 and containing

the valuable scientific and art collections of the state, which were

formerly housed in the palace: a library of 600,000 volumes and 4000

MSS., a museum of Egyptian and German antiquities, a picture gallery with

masterpieces of old German and Dutch schools, a natural history

collection and the state archives. To the right of the entrance to the

palace gardens is the tomb of the "great landgravine," Caroline

Henrietta, wife of the landgrave Louis IX., surmounted by a marble urn,

the gift of Frederick the Great of Prussia, bearing the inscription

_femina sexu, ingenio vir_. To the south of the castle lies the old town,

with the market square, the town hall (lately restored and enlarged) and

the town church. Of the eight churches (seven Evangelical) only the Roman

Catholic is in any way imposing. There are two synagogues. The town

possesses a technical high school, having (since 1900) power to confer

the degree of doctor of engineering, and attended by about 2000 students,

two gymnasia, a school of agriculture, an artisans' school and a

botanical garden. The chemist, Justus von Liebig, was born in Darmstadt

in 1803. Among the chief manufactures are the production of machinery,

carpets, playing cards, chemicals, tobacco, hats, wine and beer.

The surroundings of Darmstadt are attractive and contain many features

of interest. To the east of the town lies the Mathildenhohe, formerly a

park and now converted into villa residences. Here are the Alice

hospital and the pretty Russian church, built (1898-1899) by the emperor

Nicholas II. of Russia in memory of the empress Maria, wife of Alexander

II. In the vicinity is the Rosenhohe, with the mausoleum of the ducal

house, with the tomb of the grand-duchess Alice, daughter of Queen

Victoria of England.

Darmstadt is mentioned in the 11th century, but in the 14th century it

was still a village, held by the counts of Katzenelnbogen. It came by

marriage into the possession of the house of Hesse in 1479, the male

line of the house of Katzenelnbogen having in that year become extinct.

The imperial army took it in the Schmalkaldic War, and destroyed the old

castle. In 1567, after the death of Philip the Magnanimous, his youngest

son George received Darmstadt and chose it as his residence. He was the

founder of the line of Hesse-Darmstadt. Its most brilliant days were

those of the reign of Louis X. (1790-1830), the first grand-duke, under

whom the new town was built.

See Walther, _Darmstadt wie es war und wie es geworden_ (Darms. 1865);

and Zernin und Worner, _Darmstadt und seine Umgebung_ (Zurich, 1890).

DARNLEY, HENRY STEWART or STUART, LORD (1545-1567), earl of Ross and

duke of Albany, second husband of Mary, queen of Scots, was the eldest

son of Matthew Stewart, earl of Lennox (1516-1571), and through his

mother Lady Margaret Douglas (1515-1578) was a great-grandson of the

English king Henry VII. Born at Temple Newsam in Yorkshire on the 7th of

December 1545, he was educated in England, and his lack of intellectual

ability was compensated for by exceptional skill in military exercises.

After the death of Francis II. of France in 1560 Darnley was sent into

that country by his mother, who hoped that he would become king of

England on Elizabeth's death, and who already entertained the idea of

his marriage with Mary, queen of Scots, the widow of Francis, as a means

to this end. Consequently in 1561 both Lady Margaret and her son, who

were English subjects, were imprisoned by Elizabeth; but they were soon

released, and Darnley spent some time at the English court before

proceeding to Scotland in February 1565. The marriage of Mary and

Darnley was now a question of practical politics, and the queen, having

nursed her new suitor through an attack of measles, soon made up her

mind to wed him, saying he "was the properest and best proportioned long

man that ever she had seen." The attitude of Elizabeth towards this

marriage is difficult to understand. She had permitted Darnley to

journey to Scotland, and it has been asserted that she entangled Mary

into this union; but on the other hand she and her council declared

their dislike of the proposed marriage, and ordered Darnley and his

father to repair to London, a command which was disobeyed. In March 1565

there were rumours that the marriage had already taken place, but it was

actually celebrated at Holyrood on the 29th of July 1565.

Although Mary had doubtless a short infatuation for Darnley, the union

was mainly due to political motives, and in view of the characters of

bride and bridegroom it is not surprising that trouble soon arose

between them. Contrary to his expectations Darnley did not receive the

crown matrimonial, and his foolish and haughty behaviour, his vicious

habits, and his boisterous companions did not improve matters. He was on

bad terms with the regent Murray and other powerful nobles, who disliked

the marriage and were intriguing with Elizabeth. Scotland was filled

with rumours of plot and assassination, and civil war was only narrowly

avoided. Unable to take any serious part in affairs of state, Darnley

soon became estranged from his wife. He believed that Mary's relations

with David Rizzio injured him as a husband, and was easily persuaded to

assent to the murder of the Italian, a crime in which he took part.

Immediately afterwards, however, flattered and cajoled by the queen, he

betrayed his associates to her, and assisted her to escape from

Holyrood to Dunbar. Owing to these revelations he was deserted and

distrusted by his companions in the murder, and soon lost the queen's

favour. In these circumstances he decided to leave Scotland, but a

variety of causes prevented his departure; and meanwhile at Craigmillar

a band of nobles undertook to free Mary from her husband, who refused to

be present at the baptism of his son, James, at Stirling in December

1566. The details of the conspiracy at Craigmillar are not clear, nor is

it certain what part, if any, Mary took in these proceedings. The first

intention may have been to obtain a divorce for the queen, but it was

soon decided that Darnley must be killed. Rumours of the plot came to

his ears, and he fled from Stirling to Glasgow, where he fell ill,

possibly by poisoning, and where Mary came to visit him. Another

reconciliation took place between husband and wife, and Darnley was

persuaded to journey with Mary by easy stages to Edinburgh. Apartments

were prepared for the pair at Kirk o' Field, a house just inside the

city walls, and here they remained for a few days. On the evening of the

9th of February 1567 Mary took an affectionate farewell of her husband,

and went to attend some gaieties in Edinburgh. A few hours later, on the

morning of the 10th, Kirk o' Field was blown up with gunpowder.

Darnley's body was found at some distance from the house, and it is

supposed that he was strangled whilst making his escape. The remains

were afterwards buried in the chapel at Holyrood.

Much discussion has taken place about this crime, and the guilt or

innocence of Mary is still a question of doubt and debate. It seems

highly probable, however, that the queen was accessory to the murder,

which was organized by her lover and third husband, Bothwell (q.v.). As

the father of King James I., Darnley is the direct ancestor of all the

sovereigns of England since 1603. Personally he was a very insignificant

character and his sole title to fame is his connexion with Mary, queen

of Scots.

For further information, and also for a list of the works bearing on

his life, see the article MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS.

DARRANG, a district of British India, in the province of Eastern Bengal

and Assam. It lies between the Bhutan and Daphla Hills and the

Brahmaputra, including many islands in the river. The administrative

headquarters are at Tezpur. Its area is 3418 sq. m. It is for the most

part a level plain watered by many tributaries of the Brahmaputra. The

two subdivisions of Tezpur Mangaldai differ greatly in character. Tezpur

is part of Upper Assam and shares in the prosperity which tea

cultivation has brought to that part of the valley. In this portion of

the district there are still large areas of excellent land awaiting

settlement, and the cultivator finds a market for his produce in the

flourishing tea-gardens, to which large quantities of coolies are

imported every year. In Mangaldai, on the other hand, most of the good

rice land was settled about 1880-1890 when the subdivision had a

population of 146 to the square mile, as against 42 for Tezpur; the soil

is not favourable for tea, and the population is stationary or receding.

In 1901 the population of the whole district was 337,313, showing an

increase of 10% in the decade. The principal grain-crop is rice. The

principal means of communication is by river. A steam tramway of 2(1/2)

ft. gauge has been opened from Tezpur to Balipara, a distance of 20 m.

Darrang originally formed, according to tradition, part of the

dominions of Bana Raja, who was defeated by Krishna in a battle near

Tezpur ("the town of blood"). The massive granite ruins found near by

prove that the place must have been the seat of powerful and civilized

rulers. In the 16th century Darrang was subject to the Koch king of

Kamarupa, Nar Narayan, and on the division of his dominions among his

heirs passed to an independent line of rajas. Early in the 17th

century the raja Bali Narayan invoked the aid of the Ahoms of Upper

Assam against the Mussulman invaders; after his defeat and death in

1637 the Ahoms dominated the whole district, and the Darrang rajas

sank into petty feudatories. About 1785 they took advantage of the

decay of the Ahom kingdom to try and re-establish their independence,

but they were defeated by a British expedition in 1792, and in 1826

Darrang, with the rest of Assam, passed under British control.

DARTFORD, a market town in the Dartford parliamentary division of Kent,

England, on the Darent, 17 m. E.S.E. of London by the South-Eastern &

Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1891), 11,962; (1901) 18,644.

The town lies low, flanked by two chalky eminences, called East and West

Hills. It possesses a town hall, a grammar school (1576), and a Martyr's

Memorial Hall. The most noteworthy building, however, is the parish

church, restored in 1863, which contains a curious old fresco and

several interesting brasses, and has a Norman tower. The prosperity of

the town depends on the important works in its vicinity, including

powder works, paper mills, and engineering, iron, chemical and cement

works. One of the first attempts at the manufacture of paper in England

was made here by Sir John Spielman (d. 1607), jeweller to Queen

Elizabeth. Dartford was the scene, in 1235, of the marriage, celebrated

by proxy, between Isabella, sister of Henry III., and the Emperor

Frederick II.; and in 1331 a famous tournament was held in the place by

Edward III. The same monarch established an Augustinian nunnery on West

Hill in 1355, of which, however, few remains exist. After the

Dissolution it was used as a private residence by Henry VIII., Anne of

Cleves and Elizabeth. The chantry of St Edmund the Martyr which stood on

the opposite side of the town was a part of Edward III.'s endowment to

the priory, and became so famous as a place of pilgrimage, especially

for those on their way to Canterbury, that the part of Watling Street

which crossed there towards London was sometimes called "St Edmund's

Way." It was here also that Wat Tyler's insurrection began in 1377, and

the house in which he resided is shown. On Dartford Heath is a lunatic

asylum of the London County Council, and, at Long Reach, the infectious

diseases hospital of the Metropolitan Asylums Board. Stone church, 2 m.

E. of Dartford, mainly late Early English (1251-1274), and carefully

restored by G. E. Street in 1860, is remarkable; the richness of the

work within increases from west to east, culminating in a choir arcade

decorated with work among the finest of its period extant; the period is

that of the choir of Westminster Abbey, and from a comparison of

building materials, choir arcades and sculpture of foliage, a common

architect has been suggested. Greenhithe, on the banks of the Thames,

has large chalk quarries in its neighbourhood, from which lime and

cement are manufactured.

DARTMOOR, a high plateau in the south-west of Devonshire, England. Its

length is about 23 m. from N. to S. and its extreme breadth 20 m., the

mean altitude being about 1500 ft. The area exceeding 1000 ft. in

elevation is about 200 sq. m. It is the highest and easternmost in a

broken chain of granitic elevations which extends through Cornwall to

the Scilly Isles. The higher parts are open, bleak and wild, strongly

contrasting with the more gentle scenery of the well-wooded lowlands

surrounding it. Sloping heights rise from the main tableland in all

directions, crested with broken masses of granite, locally named _tors_,

and often singularly fantastic in outline. The highest of these are Yes

Tor and High Willhays in the north-west, reaching altitudes of 2028 and

2039 ft. Large parts of the moor, especially in the centre, are covered

with morasses; and head-waters of all the principal streams of

Devonshire (q.v.) are found here. Two main roads cross the moor, one

between Exeter and Plymouth, and the other between Ashburton and

Tavistock, intersecting at Two Bridges. Both avoid the higher part of

the moor, which, for the rest, is traversed only in part by a few rough

tracks. The central part of Dartmoor was a royal forest from a date

unknown, but apparently anterior to the Conquest. Its woods were

formerly more extensive than now, but a few small tracts in which dwarf

oaks are characteristic remain in the lower parts. Previous to 1337, the

forest had been granted to Richard, earl of Cornwall, by Henry III., and

from that time onward it has belonged to the duchy of Cornwall. The

districts immediately surrounding the moor are called the Venville or

Fenfield districts. The origin of this name is not clear. The holders of

land by Venville tenure under the duchy have rights of pasture, fishing,

&c. in the forest, and their main duty is to "drive" the moor at certain

times in order to ascertain what head of cattle are pastured thereon,

and to prevent trespassing. The antiquarian remains of Dartmoor are

considered among those of Devonshire.

Dartmoor convict prison, near Princetown, was adapted to its present

purpose in 1850; but the original buildings were erected in 1809 for

the accommodation of French prisoners. A tract of moorland adjacent to

the prison has been brought under cultivation by the inmates.

See S. Rowe, _Perambulation of the ... forest of Dartmoor_ (Plymouth,

1848); J. L. W. Page, _Exploration of Dartmoor_ (London, 1889); S.

Baring-Gould, _Book of Dartmoor_ (London, 1900).

DARTMOUTH, a town in Halifax county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the

north-eastern side of Halifax harbour, connected by a steam ferry with

Halifax, of which it is practically a suburb. Pop. (1901) 4806. It

contains a large sugar refinery, foundries, machine shops, saw mills,

skate, rope, nail, soap and sash factories.

DARTMOUTH, a seaport, market town, and municipal borough in the Torquay

parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 27 m. E. of Plymouth.

Pop. (1901) 6579. It is beautifully situated on the west bank and near

the mouth of the river Dart, which here forms an almost land-locked

estuary. The town is connected by a steam ferry with Kingswear on the

opposite bank, which is served by a branch of the Great Western railway.

The houses of Dartmouth, many of which are ancient, rise in tiers from

the shore, beneath a range of steep hills. An embankment planted with

trees fronts the river. The cruciform church of St Saviour is of the

14th and 15th centuries, and contains a graceful rood-screen of the 16th

century, an ancient stone pulpit and interesting monuments. Dartmouth

Castle, in part of Tudor date, commands the river a little below the

town. Portions of the cottage of Thomas Newcomen, one of the inventors

of the steam-engine, are preserved. Dartmouth is a favourite yachting

centre, and shipbuilding, brewing, engineering and paint-making are

carried on. Coal is imported, and resold to ships calling at the

harbour. The borough is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve

councillors. Area, 1924 acres.

_History._--Probably owing its origin to Saxon invaders, Dartmouth

(_Darentamuthan_, _Dertemue_) was a seaport of importance when Earl

Beorn was buried in its church in 1049. From its sheltered harbour

William II. embarked for the relief of Mans, and the crusading squadron

set sail in 1190, while John landed here in 1214. The borough, first

claimed as such in the reign of Henry I., was in existence by the middle

of the 13th century, since a deed of Gilbert Fitz-Stephen, lord of the

manor, mentions the services due from "his burgesses of Dertemue," and a

borough seal of 1280 is extant. The king in 1224 required the bailiffs

and good men of Dartmouth to keep all ships in readiness for his

service, and in 1302 they were to furnish two ships for the Scottish

expedition, an obligation maintained throughout the century. The men of

the vill were made quit of toll in 1337, and in 1342 the town was

incorporated by a charter frequently confirmed by later sovereigns.

Edward III. in 1372 granted that the burgesses should be sued only

before the mayor and bailiffs, and Richard II. in 1393 granted extended

jurisdiction and a coroner; further charters were obtained in 1604 and

1684. A French attack on the town was repulsed in 1404, and in 1485 the

burgesses received a royal grant of L40 for walling the town and

stretching a chain across the river mouth. Dartmouth fitted out two

ships against the Armada, and was captured by both the royalists and

parliamentarians in the Civil War. It returned two representatives to

parliament in 1298, and from 1350 to 1832. In the latter year the

representation was reduced to one, and was merged in that of the county

in 1868. Manorial markets were granted for Dartmouth in 1231 and 1301.

These were important since as early as 1225 the fleet resorted there for

provisions. During the 14th and 15th centuries there was a regular trade

with Bordeaux and Brittany, and complaints of piracies by Dartmouth men

were frequent.

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, an American institution of higher education, in

Hanover, New Hampshire. It is Congregational in its affiliations, but is

actually non-sectarian. The college is open only to men except during

the summer session, when women also are admitted. Dartmouth embraces, in

addition to the original college, incorporated in 1769, a medical

school, dating from the establishment of a professorship of medicine in

the college in 1798; the Thayer school of civil engineering, established

in 1867 by the bequest of Gen. Sylvanus Thayer; and the Amos Tuck

school of administration and finance, established in 1900 by Edward

Tuck--a remarkable feature, as it was the first, and, until the

establishment at Harvard of a similar graduate school, the only

commercial school in the country whose work is largely post-graduate.

The Chandler school of science and the arts was founded by Abiel

Chandler in 1851, in connexion with Dartmouth, and was incorporated into

the collegiate department in 1893 as the Chandler scientific course in

the college. From 1866 to 1893 the New Hampshire college of agriculture

and the mechanic arts, now at Durham, was connected with Dartmouth. The

medical school offers a four years' course, and each of the other two

professional schools a two years' course, the first year of which may,

under certain conditions, be counted as the senior year of the

undergraduate department. The college has a beautiful campus or "yard";

a library of more than 100,000 volumes, housed in Wilson Hall (1885);

instruction halls, residence halls--Thornton and Wentworth (1828),

Hallgarten (1874), Richardson (1897), and Fayerweather (1900); a

gymnasium (Bissell Hall, built in 1867); an athletic field, known as

Alumni Oval; Bartlett Hall (1890-1891), the house of the College Young

Men's Christian Association; Rollins Chapel (1885); College Hall (1901),

a social headquarters; an astronomical and meteorological observatory

(Shattuck Observatory, 1854); the Mary Hitchcock hospital (1893),

associated with the medical college; museums (especially the Butterfield

Museum); Culver Hall (1871), the chemical laboratory; and Wilder Hall

(1899), the physical laboratory. The college in 1908 had 100 officers of

administration and instruction and 1219 students. It is maintained

chiefly by the proceeds of a productive endowment fund amounting to

$2,700,000 and by tuition fees ($125 a year for each student). The

government is entrusted to a board of twelve trustees, five of whom are

elected upon the nomination of the alumni.

Dartmouth is the outgrowth of Moor's Indian charity school, founded by

Eleazer Wheelock (1711-1779) about 1750 at Lebanon, Connecticut; this

school was named in 1755 in honour of Joshua Moor, who in this year gave

to it lands and buildings. In 1765 Samson Occom (c. 1723-1792), an

Indian preacher and former student of the school, visited England and

Scotland in its behalf and raised L10,000, whereupon plans were made for

enlargement and for a change of site to Hanover. In 1769 the school was

incorporated by a charter granted by George III. as Dartmouth College,

being named after the earl of Dartmouth, president of the trustees of

the funds raised in Great Britain. The first college building, Dartmouth

Hall (closely resembling Nassau Hall at Princetown and the University

Hall of Brown University), was built in 1784-1791 and is still standing,

as are the typical college church, built in 1796 and enlarged in 1877

and 1889, and Moor Hall, the second building for Moor's charity school,

since 1852 called the Chandler building. During the War of Independence

the support from Great Britain was mostly withdrawn. In 1815 President

John Wheelock (1754-1817), who had succeeded his father in 1779, and was

a Presbyterian and a Republican, was removed by the majority of the

board of trustees, who were Congregationalists and Federalists, and

Francis Brown was chosen in his place. Wheelock, upon his appeal to the

legislature, was reinstated at the head of a new corporation, called

Dartmouth University. The state courts upheld the legislature and the

"University," but in 1819 after the famous argument of Daniel Webster

(q.v.) in behalf of the "College" board of trustees as against the

"University" board before the United States Supreme Court, that body

decided that the private trust created by the charter of 1769 was

inviolable, and Dr Francis Brown and the old "College" board took

possession of the institution's property. This was one of the most

important decisions ever made by the United States Supreme Court.

See Frederick Chase, _A History of Dartmouth College and the Town of

Hanover_ (Cambridge, 1891). For the Dartmouth College Case see

Shirley, _The Dartmouth College Causes_ (St Louis, Missouri, 1879);

Kent, _Commentaries on American Law_ (vol. i. Boston, 1884); and

Joseph Story, _Commentaries on the Constitution_ (vol. ii., Boston,

1891).

DARTMOUTH, EARL OF, an English title borne by the family of Legge from

1710 to the present day.

WILLIAM LEGGE (c. 1609-1670), the eldest son of Edward Legge (d. 1616),

vice-president of Munster, gained some military experience on the

continent of Europe and then returning to England assisted Charles I. in

his war against the Scots in 1638. He was also very useful to the king

during the months which preceded the outbreak of the Civil War, although

his attempt to seize Hull in January 1642 failed. During the war Legge

distinguished himself at Chalgrove and at the first battle of Newbury,

and in 1645 he became governor of Oxford. However, he only held this

position for a few months, as he shared the disgrace of Prince Rupert,

to whom he was very devoted; but he was largely instrumental in putting

an end to the quarrel between the king and the prince. Legge helped

Charles to escape from Hampton Court in 1647, and after attending upon

him he was arrested in May 1648. He was soon released, but was again

captured in the following year while proceeding to Ireland in the

interests of Charles II. Regaining his freedom in 1653, he spent some

years abroad, but in 1659 he was once more in England inciting the

royalists to rise. Legge enjoyed the favour of Charles II., who offered

to make him an earl. The old royalist died on the 13th of October 1670.

Legge's eldest son, GEORGE, BARON DARTMOUTH (1647-1691), served as a

volunteer in the navy during the Dutch war of 1665-1667, and quickly won

his way to high rank. He was also a member of the household of the duke

of York, afterwards James II.; was governor of Portsmouth and

master-general of the army; in 1678 he commanded as colonel the troop at

Nieuport, and in 1682 he was created Baron Dartmouth. In 1683 as

"admiral of a fleet" he sailed to Tangiers, dismantled the

fortifications and brought back the English troops, a duty which he

discharged very satisfactorily. Under James II. Dartmouth was master of

the horse and governor of the Tower of London; and in 1688, when William

of Orange was expected, James II. made him commander-in-chief of his

fleet. Although himself loyal to James, the same cannot be said of many

of his officers, and an engagement with the Dutch fleet was purposely

avoided. Dartmouth, however, refused to assist in getting James Edward,

prince of Wales, out of the country, and even reproved the king for

attempting this proceeding. He then left the fleet and took the oath of

allegiance to William and Mary, but in July 1691 he was arrested for

treason, and was charged with offering to hand over Portsmouth to France

and to command a French fleet. Macaulay believed that this accusation

was true, but there are those who hold that Dartmouth spoke the truth

when he protested his innocence. Further proceedings against him were

prevented by his death, which took place in the Tower of London on the

25th of October 1691.

Lord Dartmouth's only son, WILLIAM, 1st EARL OF DARTMOUTH (1672-1750),

succeeded to his father's barony in 1691. In 1702 he was appointed a

member of the board of trade and foreign plantations, and eight years

later he became secretary of state for the southern department and joint

keeper of the signet for Scotland. In 1711 he was created viscount

Lewisham and earl of Dartmouth; in 1713 he exchanged his offices for

that of keeper of the privy seal, which he held until the end of 1714.

After a long period of retirement from public life he died on the 15th

of December 1750. Dartmouth's eldest son George, viscount Lewisham (c.

1703-1732), predeceased his father. Other sons were: Heneage Legge

(1704-1759), judge of the court of exchequer; Henry Legge (q.v.),

afterwards Bilson-Legge; and Edward Legge (1710-1747), who served for

some time in the navy and died on the 19th of September 1747.

WILLIAM, 2nd EARL OF DARTMOUTH (1731-1801), was a son of George,

viscount Lewisham, and a grandson of the 1st earl, whom he succeeded in

1750. For a few months in 1765 and 1766 he was president of the board of

trade and foreign plantations; in 1772 he returned to the same office

holding also that of secretary for the colonies; and in 1775 he became

lord privy seal. With regard to the American colonies Dartmouth advised

them in 1777 to accept the conciliatory proposals put forward by Lord

North, but in 1776 he opposed similar proposals and advocated the

employment of force. In March 1782 he resigned his office as lord privy

seal and in 1783 he was lord steward of the household; he died on the

15th of July 1801. Dartmouth was a friend of Selina, countess of

Huntingdon, and his piety and his intimacy with the early Methodists won

for him the epithet of the _Psalm-singer_. Dartmouth College was named

after him, and among his papers preserved at Patshull House,

Wolverhampton, are many letters from America relating to the struggle

for independence. His sixth son, Sir Arthur Kaye Legge (d. 1835), was an

admiral of the blue, and his seventh son, Edward Legge (d. 1827), was

bishop of Oxford.

GEORGE, 3rd EARL OF DARTMOUTH (1755-1810), the eldest son of the 2nd

earl, was lord warden of the stannaries and president of the board of

control; later he was lord steward and then lord chamberlain of the

royal household. He died on the 1st of November 1810, when his eldest

son, William (1784-1853), became 4th earl. William's son, William Walter

(1823-1891), became 5th earl in 1853 and was succeeded in 1891 by his

son William Heneage Legge (b. 1851) as 6th earl of Dartmouth. As Lord

Lewisham this nobleman was a member of parliament from 1878 to 1891, and

was vice-chamberlain of the household in 1885-1886, and again from 1886

to 1892.

DARU, PIERRE ANTOINE NOEL BRUNO, COUNT (1767-1829), French soldier and

statesman, was born at Montpellier on the 12th of January 1767. He was

educated at the military school of Tournon, conducted by the Oratorians,

and entered the artillery at an early age. His fondness for literature,

however, soon made itself felt, and he published several slight pieces,

until the outbreak of the French Revolution called him to a sterner

occupation. In 1793 he became commissary to the army, protecting the

coasts of Brittany from projected descents of the British, or of French

royalists. Thrown into prison on a frivolous charge of friendliness to

the royalists and England, he was released after the fall of Robespierre

in the summer of 1794, and rose in the service until, in 1799, he became

chief commissary to the French army serving under Massena in the north

of Switzerland. In that position he won repute for his organizing

capacity, great power of work and unswerving probity--the last of which

qualities was none too common in the French armies at that time. These

exacting tasks did not absorb all his energies. He found time, even

during the campaign, to translate part of Horace and to compose two

poems, the _Poeme des Alpes_ and the _Chant de guerre_. The latter

celebrated in indignant strains the murder of the French envoys to the

congress of Rastadt.

The accession of Napoleon Bonaparte to power in November 1799 led to the

employment of Daru as chief commissary to the Army of Reserve intended

for North Italy, and commanded nominally by Berthier, but really by the

First Consul. Conjointly with Berthier and Dejean, he signed the

armistice with the Austrians which closed the campaign in North Italy in

June 1800. Daru now returned, for a time, mainly to civil life, and

entered the tribunate, where he ably maintained the principles of

democratic liberty. On the renewal of war with England, in May 1803, he

again resumed his duties as chief commissary for the army on the

northern coasts. It was afterwards asserted that, on Napoleon's resolve

to turn the army of England against Austria, Daru had set down at the

emperor's dictation all the details of the campaign which culminated at

Ulm. The story is apocryphal; but Napoleon's confidence in him was

evinced by his being appointed to similar duties in the Grand Army,

which in the autumn of 1805 overthrew the armies of Austria and Russia.

After the battle of Austerlitz, he took part in the drafting of the

treaty of Presburg. At this time, too, he became intendant-general of

the military household of Napoleon. In the campaigns of 1806-1807 he

served, in his usual capacity, in the army which overthrew the forces of

Russia and Prussia; and he had a share in drawing up the treaty of

Tilsit (7th of July 1807). After this he supervised the administrative

and financial duties in connexion with the French army which occupied

the principal fortresses of Prussia, and was one of the chief agents

through whom Napoleon pressed hard on that land. At the congress of

Erfurt, Daru had the privilege of being present at the interview

between Goethe and Napoleon, and interposed tactful references to the

works of the great poet. Daru fulfilled his usual duties in the campaign

of 1809 against Austria. Afterwards, when the subject of the divorce of

Josephine and the choice of a Russian or of an Austrian princess came to

be discussed, Daru, on being consulted by Napoleon, is said boldly to

have counselled his marriage with a French lady; and Napoleon, who

admired his frankness and honesty, took the reply in good part.

In 1811 he became secretary of state in succession to Maret, duc de

Bassano, and showed his usual ability in the administration of the vast

and complex affairs of the French empire, including the arrangements

connected with the civil list and the imperial domains. But neither his

devotion to civic duty nor to the administration of the affairs of the

Grand Army could ward off disaster. Late in the year 1813 he took up the

portfolio of military affairs. After the first abdication of Napoleon in

1814, Daru retired into private life, but aided Napoleon during the

Hundred Days. After the second Restoration he became a member of the

Chamber of Peers, in which he ably defended the cause of popular liberty

against the attacks of the ultra-royalists. He died at Meulan on the 5th

of September 1829.

Few men of the Napoleonic empire have been more generally admired and

respected than Daru. On one occasion when he expressed a fear that he

lacked all the gifts of a courtier, Napoleon replied, "Courtiers! They

are common enough about me; I shall never be in want of them. What I

want is an enlightened, firm and vigilant administrator; and that is why

I have chosen you." At another time Napoleon said, "Daru is good on all

sides; he has good judgment, a good intellect, a great power for work,

and a body and mind of iron." The only occasion on which he is known to

have sunk beneath the weight of his duties was in the course of writing

letters at the emperor's dictation for the third night in succession.

Of Daru's literary works may be mentioned his _Histoire de Venise_,

published at Paris in 7 vols. in 1819; the _Histoire de Bretagne_, in 3

vols. (Paris, 1826); a poetical translation of Horace (of which Le Brun

remarked: "Je ne lis point Daru, j'aime trop mon Horace"); _Discours en

vers sur les facultes de l'homme_ (Paris, 1825), and _Astronomie_, a

didactic poem in six cantos (Paris, 1820).

See the "Notice" by Viennet prefixed to the fourth edition of Daru's

_Histoire de la republique de Venise_ (9 vols., 1853), and three

articles by Sainte-Beuve in _Causeries du lundi_, vol. ix. For the

many letters of Napoleon to Daru see the _Correspondance de Napoleon

I^er_ (32 vols., Paris, 1858-1870). (J. Hl. R.)

DARWEN, a municipal borough in the Darwen parliamentary division of

Lancashire, England, 20 m. N.W. from Manchester by the Lancashire &

Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891) 34,192; (1901) 38,212. It lies on the

river Darwen, which traverses a densely populated manufacturing

district, and is surrounded by high-lying moors. Darwen is a centre of

the cotton trade and has also blast furnaces, and paper-making,

paper-staining and fire-clay works. In the neighbourhood are collieries

and stone quarries. The market hall is the chief public building; there

are technical schools, a free library, and two public parks. Darwen was

incorporated in 1788. The corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen

and eighteen councillors.

DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882), English naturalist, author of the

_Origin of Species_, was born at Shrewsbury on the 12th of February

1809. He was the younger of the two sons and the fourth child of Dr

Robert Waring Darwin, son of Dr Erasmus Darwin (q.v.). His mother, a

daughter of Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795), died when Charles Darwin was

eight years old. Charles Darwin's elder brother, Erasmus Alvey

(1804-1881), was interested in literature and art rather than science:

on the subject of the wide difference between the brothers Charles wrote

that he was "inclined to agree with Francis Galton in believing that

education and environment produce only a small effect on the mind of

anyone, and that most of our qualities are innate" (_Life and Letters_,

London, 1887, p. 22). Darwin considered that his own success was chiefly

due to "the love of science, unbounded patience in long reflecting over

any subject, industry in observing and collecting facts, and a fair

share of invention as well as of common sense" (_l.c._ p. 107). He also

says: "I have steadily endeavoured to keep my mind free so as to give up

any hypothesis, however much beloved (and I cannot resist forming one on

every subject), as soon as facts are shown to be opposed to it" (_l.c._

p. 103). The essential causes of his success are to be found in this

latter sentence, the creative genius ever inspired by existing knowledge

to build hypotheses by whose aid further knowledge could be won, the

calm unbiassed mind, the transparent honesty and love of truth which

enabled him to abandon or to modify his own creations when they ceased

to be supported by observation. The even balance between these powers

was as important as their remarkable development. The great naturalist

appeared in the ripeness of time, when the world was ready for his

splendid generalizations. Indeed naturalists were already everywhere

considering and discussing the problem of evolution, although Alfred

Russel Wallace was the only one who, independently of Darwin, saw his

way clearly to the solution. It is true that hypotheses essentially the

same as natural selection were suggested much earlier by W. C. Wells

(_Phil. Trans._, 1813), and Patrick Matthew (_Naval Timber and

Arboriculture_, 1831), but their views were lost sight of and produced

no effect upon the great body of naturalists. In the preparation for

Darwin Sir Charles Lyell's _Principles of Geology_ played an important

part, accustoming men's minds to the vast changes brought about by

natural processes, and leading them, by its lucid and temperate

discussion of Lamarck's and other views, to reflect upon evolution.

Darwin's early education was conducted at Shrewsbury, first for a year

at a day-school, then for seven years at Shrewsbury School under Dr

Samuel Butler (1774-1839). He gained but little from the narrow system

which was then universal. In 1825 he went to Edinburgh to prepare for

the medical profession, for which he was unfitted by nature. After two

sessions his father realized this, and in 1828 sent him to Cambridge

with the idea that he should become a clergyman. He matriculated at

Christ's College, and took his degree in 1831, tenth in the list of

those who do not seek honours. Up to this time he had been keenly

interested in sport, and in entomology, especially the collecting of

beetles. Both at Edinburgh, where in 1826 he read his first scientific

paper, and at Cambridge he gained the friendship of much older

scientific men--Robert Edmond Grant and William Macgillivray at the

former, John Stevens Henslow and Adam Sedgwick at the latter. He had two

terms' residence to keep after passing his last examination, and studied

geology with Sedgwick. Returning from their geological excursion

together in North Wales (August 1831), he found a letter from Henslow

urging him to apply for the position of naturalist on the "Beagle,"

about to start on a surveying expedition. His father at first disliked

the idea, but his uncle, the second Josiah Wedgwood, pleaded with

success, and Darwin started on the 27th of December 1831, the voyage

lasting until the 2nd of October 1836. It is practically certain that he

never left Great Britain after this latter date. After visiting the Cape

de Verde and other islands of the Atlantic, the expedition surveyed on

the South American coasts and adjacent islands (including the

Galapagos), afterwards visiting Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia,

Tasmania, Keeling Island, Maldives, Mauritius, St Helena, Ascension; and

Brazil, de Verdes and Azores on the way home. His work on the geology of

the countries visited, and that on coral islands, became the subject of

volumes which he published after his return, as well as his _Journal of

a Naturalist_, and his other contributions to the official narrative.

The voyage must be regarded as the real preparation for his life-work.

His observations on the relation between animals in islands and those of

the nearest continental areas, near akin and yet not the same, and

between living animals and those most recently extinct and found fossil

in the same country, here again related but not the same, led him even

then to reflect deeply upon the modification of species. He had also

been much impressed by "the manner in which closely allied animals

replace one another in proceeding southwards" in South America. On his

return home Darwin worked at his collections, first at Cambridge for

three months and then in London. His pocket-book for 1837 contains the

words: "In July opened first note-book on Transmutation of Species. Had

been greatly struck from about the month of previous March [while still

on the voyage and just over twenty-eight years old] on character of

South American fossils, and species on Galapagos Archipelago. These

facts (especially latter) origin of all my views." From 1838 to 1841 he

was secretary of the Geological Society, and saw a great deal of Sir

Charles Lyell, to whom he dedicated the second edition of his _Journal_.

On the 29th of January 1839 he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, the

daughter of Josiah Wedgwood of Maer. They lived in London until

September 1842, when they moved to Down, which was Darwin's home for the

rest of his life. His health broke down many times in London, and

remained precarious during the whole of his life. The immense amount of

work which he got through was only made possible by the loving care of

his wife. For eight years (1846 to 1854) he was chiefly engaged upon

four monographs on the recent and fossil Cirripede Crustacea (_Roy.

Soc._, 1851 and 1854; _Palaeontograph. Soc._, 1851 and 1854). Towards

the close of this work Darwin became very wearied of it, especially of

the synonymy. For a time he hoped to start a movement which should

discourage the habit of appending the name of the describer to the name

of the species, a custom which he thought led to bad and superficial

work. From this time he was engaged upon the numerous lines of inquiry

which led to the great work of his life, the _Origin of Species_,

published in November 1859.

Soon after opening his note-book in July 1837 he began to collect facts

bearing upon the formation of the breeds of domestic animals and plants,

and quickly saw "that selection was the keystone of man's success. But

how selection could be applied to organisms living in a state of nature

remained for some time a mystery to me." Various ideas as to the causes

of evolution occurred to him, only to be successively abandoned. He had

the idea of "laws of change" which affected species and finally led to

their extinction, to some extent analogous to the causes which bring

about the development, maturity and finally death of an individual. He

also had the conception that species must give rise to other species or

else die out, just as an individual dies unrepresented if it bears no

offspring. These and other ideas, of which traces exist in his Diary,

arose in his mind, together with perhaps some general conception of

natural selection, during the fifteen months after the opening of his

note-book. In October 1838 he read _Malthus on Population_, and his

observations having long since convinced him of the struggle for

existence, it at once struck him "that under these circumstances

favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones

to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new

species. Here, then, I had a theory by which to work." In June 1842 he

wrote out a sketch, which two years later he expanded to an essay

occupying 231 pages folio. The idea of progressive divergence as an

advantage in itself, because the competition is most severe between

organisms most closely related, did not occur to him until long after he

had come to Down. During the growth of the _Origin_ Sir Joseph Hooker

was his most intimate friend, and on the 11th of January 1844 he wrote:

"At last gleams of light have come, and I am almost convinced (quite

contrary to the opinion I started with) that species are not (it is like

confessing a murder) immutable" (_l.c._ ii. 13). In 1855 he began a

correspondence with the great American botanist Asa Gray, and in 1857

explained his views in a letter which afterwards became classical. In

1856, urged by Lyell, he began the preparation of a third and far more

expanded treatise, and had completed about half of it when, on the 18th

of June 1858, he received a manuscript essay from A. R. Wallace, who was

then at Ternate in the Moluccas. Wallace wanted Darwin's opinion on the

essay, which he asked should be forwarded to Lyell. Darwin was much

startled to find in the essay a complete abstract of his own theory of

natural selection. He forwarded it the same day, writing to Lyell, "your

words have come true with a vengeance--that I should be forestalled." He

placed himself in the hands of Lyell and Hooker, who decided to send

Wallace's essay to the Linnean Society, together with an abstract of

Darwin's work, which they asked him to prepare, the joint essay being

accompanied by a preface in the form of an explanatory letter written by

them to the secretary. The title of the joint communication was "On the

Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of

Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection." It was read on the

1st of July 1858, and appears in the _Linn. Soc. Journal_ (Zoology) for

that year. In this statement of the theory of natural selection,

Darwin's part consisted of two sections, the first being extracts from

his 1844 essay, including a brief account of sexual selection, and the

second an abstract of his letter to Asa Gray dated the 5th of September

1857. This latter, probably his first attempt to expound natural

selection, cannot be surpassed as a clear statement of the theory.

Darwin explained at the outset, what he insisted on elsewhere, that the

facts of adaptation or contrivance in nature are the real difficulty to

be explained by a theory of evolution, the stumbling-block of every

previous suggestion. Until he could explain "the mistletoe, with its

pollen carried by insects, and seed by birds--the woodpecker, with its

feet and tail, beak and tongue, to climb the tree and secure insects,"

he was "scientifically orthodox." Nevertheless he was led to believe in

evolution, apart from any possible motive-cause, by "general facts in

the affinities, embryology, rudimentary organs, geological history, and

geographical distribution of organic beings." He then proceeds to

describe the manner in which he met the difficulty of adaptation by "his

notions on the means by which Nature makes her species." The essentials

of the statement are as follows:--I. Man has made his domestic breeds of

animals and plants by selection, conscious or unconscious, of very

slight or greater variations. II. The material for selection exists in

nature, namely, slight variations of all parts of the organism. III. The

"unerring power" which sifts these variations is "_natural selection_

... which selects exclusively for the good of each organic being." The

rate of increase is such that only a few in each generation can live:

hence the never sufficiently appreciated struggle for life. "What a

trifling difference must often determine which shall survive and which

perish!" The remaining heads explain the complex nature of the struggle,

the reasons for deficient direct evidence, the advantage of divergence,

&c. In the joint essay the phrases "natural selection" and "sexual

selection" were first made public by Darwin, the "struggle for

existence" by Wallace. Darwin and Wallace had met only once before the

departure of the latter for the East. Their rivalry in the discovery of

the great principle of natural selection was the beginning of a lifelong

friendship. Wallace was lying ill with intermittent fever at Ternate in

February 1858 when he began to think of Malthus's _Essay on Population_,

read several years before: suddenly the idea of the survival of the

fittest flashed upon him. In two hours he had "thought out almost the

whole of the theory," and in three evenings had finished his essay.

Darwin, also inspired after reading Malthus, in October 1838, did not

publish until nearly twenty years had elapsed, and then only when

Wallace sent him his essay. Canon H. B. Tristram was the first to apply

the new theory, explaining by its aid the colours of desert birds, &c.

(_Ibis_, October 1859).

Acting under the advice of Lyell and Hooker, Darwin then began to prepare

what was to become the great work of his life. It appeared on the 24th of

November 1859, with the full title, _On the Origin of Species by Means of

Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle

for Life_. The whole edition of 1250 copies was exhausted on the day of

issue. The first four chapters explain the operation of artificial

selection by man and of natural selection in consequence of the struggle

for existence. The fifth chapter deals with the laws of variation and

causes of modification other than natural selection. The five succeeding

chapters consider difficulties in the way of a belief in evolution

generally as well as in natural selection. The three remaining chapters

(omitting the recapitulation which occupies the last) deal with the

evidence for evolution. The theory which suggested a cause of evolution

is thus given the foremost place, and the evidence for the existence of

evolution considered last of all. This method of presentation was no

doubt adopted because it was just the want of a reasonable motive-cause

which more than anything else prevented the acceptance of evolution. But

the other side of the book must not be eclipsed by the brilliant theory

of Darwin and Wallace. The evidence for evolution itself had never before

been thought out and marshalled in a manner which bears any comparison

with that of Darwin in the _Origin_, and the work would have been in the

highest degree epoch-making had it consisted of the later chapters alone.

In the fifth chapter Darwin incorporated a certain proportion of the

doctrines of Buffon,--modifications due to the direct influence of

environment; and of Lamarck,--the hereditary effects of use and disuse.

Lyell for a long time hesitated to accept the new teaching, and Darwin

carried on a long correspondence with him. His public confession of faith

was made at the anniversary dinner of the Royal Society in 1864. A storm

of controversy arose over the book, reaching its height at the meeting of

the British Association at Oxford in 1860, when the celebrated duel

between T. H. Huxley and Bishop Wilberforce of Oxford took place.

Throughout these struggles Huxley was the foremost champion for evolution

and for fair play to natural selection, although he never entirely

accepted the latter theory, holding that until man by his selection had

made his domestic breed sterile _inter se_, there was no sufficient

evidence that selection accounts for natural species which are thus

separated by the barrier of sterility. The theory of natural selection

was at first greatly misunderstood. Thus some writers thought it implied

conscious choice in the animals themselves, others that it was the

personification of some active power. By many it was thought to be

practically the same idea as Lamarck's. Herbert Spencer's alternative

phrase, "the survival of the fittest," probably helped to spread a clear

appreciation of Darwin's meaning.

The history of opinion since 1859 may be summed up as follows. Evolution

soon gained general acceptance, except among a certain number of those

of middle or more advanced age at the time when the _Origin_ appeared.

Although natural selection had been an essential force in producing this

conviction, there gradually grew up a tendency to minimize its

importance in relation to the causes originally suggested by Buffon and

Lamarck, which were ably presented and further elaborated by Herbert

Spencer. In America a school of Neo-Lamarckians appeared, and for a time

flourished under the inspiration of the vigorous personality of E. D.

Cope. The writings of August Weismann next raised a controversy over the

scope of heredity, assailing the very foundation of the hypotheses of

Buffon, Lamarck and Herbert Spencer by demanding evidence that the

"acquired characters" upon which they rest are capable of hereditary

transmission. The quantitative determination of heredity has been the

subject of much patient investigation under the leadership of Francis

Galton. The question of isolation as a factor in species-formation has

been greatly discussed, G. J. Romanes proposing, in his hypothesis of

"Physiological Selection," that the barrier of sterility may arise

spontaneously by variation between two sets of individuals as the

beginning instead of the climax of specific distinction. Others have

fixed their attention upon the variations, which provided the material

for natural selection, and have advocated the view that evolution

proceeds by immense strides instead of the minute steps in which Darwin

and Wallace believed. Others, again, have found significance in the

artificial production of "monstrosities" or huge modifications during

individual development. All through the period a varying proportion of

naturalists, probably larger now than at any other time, has followed

the founders of the theory, and has sought the motive-cause of evolution

in "the accumulative power of natural selection," which Darwin, as his

first public statement indicates, looked upon "as by far the most

important element in the production of new forms." They hold, with

Darwin and Wallace, that although variation provides the essential

material, natural selection, from its accumulative power, is of such

paramount importance that it may be said to create new species as truly

as a man may be said to make a building out of the material provided by

stones of various shapes, a metaphor suggested and elaborated by Darwin,

and forming the concluding sentences of _The Variation of Animals and

Plants under Domestication_. This, probably the second in importance of

all his works, was published in 1868, and may be looked upon as a

complete account of the material of which he had given a very condensed

abstract in the first chapter of the _Origin_, together with the

conclusions suggested by it. He finally brought together an immense

number of apparently disconnected sets of observations under his

"provisional hypothesis of pangenesis," which assumes that every cell in

the body, at every stage of growth and in maturity, is represented in

each germ-cell by a gemmule. The germ-cell is only the meeting-place of

gemmules, and the true reproductive power lies in the whole of the

body-cells which despatch their representatives, hence "pangenesis."

There are reasons for believing that this infinitely complex conception,

in which, as his letters show, he had great confidence, was forced upon

Darwin in order to explain the hereditary transmission of acquired

characters involved in the small proportion of Lamarckian doctrine which

he incorporated. If such transmission does not occur, a far simpler

hypothesis based on the lines of Weismann's "continuity of the

germ-plasm" is sufficient to account for the facts.

The _Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex_, was published in

1871; as the title implies, it really consists of two distinct works.

The first, and by far the shorter, was the full justification of his

statement in the Origin that "light would be thrown on the origin of man

and his history." In the second part he brought together a large mass of

evidence in support of his hypothesis of sexual selection which he had

briefly described in the 1858 essay. This hypothesis explains the

development of colours and structures peculiar to one sex and displayed

by it in courtship, by the preferences of the other sex. The majority of

naturalists probably agree with Darwin in believing that the explanation

is real, but relatively unimportant. It is interesting to note that only

in this subject and those treated of in the _Variation under

Domestication_ had Darwin exhausted the whole of the material which he

had collected. The _Expression of the Emotions_, published in 1872,

offered a natural explanation of phenomena which appeared to be a

difficulty in the way of the acceptance of evolution. In 1876 Darwin

brought out his two previously published geological works on _Volcanic

Islands_ and _South America_ as a single volume. The widely read

_Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms_ appeared in

1881. He also published various volumes on botanical subjects. The

_Fertilization of Orchids_ appeared in 1862. The subject of

cross-fertilization of flowers was in Darwin's mind, as shown by his

note-book in 1837. In 1841 Robert Brown directed his attention to

Christian Conrad Sprengel's work (Berlin, 1793), which confirmed his

determination to pursue this line of research. _The Effects of Cross-

and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom_ (1876) contained the

direct evidence that the offspring of cross-fertilized individuals are

more vigorous, as well as more numerous, than those produced by a

self-fertilized parent. _Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the

Same Species_ appeared in 1877. It is here shown that each different

form, although possessing both kinds of sexual organs, is specially

adapted to be fertilized by the pollen of another form, and that when

artificially fertilized by its own pollen less vigorous offspring,

bearing some resemblance to hybrids, are produced. He says, "no little

discovery of mine ever gave me so much pleasure as the making out the

meaning of heterostyled flowers" (_Autobiography_). _Climbing Plants_

was published in 1875, although it had, in large part, been communicated

to the Linnean Society, in whose publications much of the material of

several of his other works appeared. This inquiry into the nature of the

movements of twining plants was suggested to him in a paper by Asa Gray.

_The Power of Movement in Plants_ (1880) was produced by him in

conjunction with his son Francis. It was an inquiry into the minute

power of movement possessed, he believed, by plants generally, out of

which the larger movements of climbing plants of many different groups

had been evolved. The work included an investigation of other kinds of

plant movement due to light, gravity, &c., all of which he regarded as

modifications of the one fundamental movement (circumnutation) which

exists in a highly specialized form in climbing plants. _Insectivorous

Plants_ (1875) is principally concerned with the description of

experiments on the Sun-dew (_Drosera_), although other insect-catching

plants, such as _Dionaea_, are also investigated.

Charles Darwin's long life of patient, continuous work, the most

fruitful, the most inspiring, in the annals of modern science, came to

an end on the 19th of April 1882. He was buried in Westminster Abbey on

the 26th. It is of much interest to attempt to set forth some of the

main characteristics of the man who did so much for modern science, and

in so large a measure moulded the form of modern thought. Although his

ill-health prevented Darwin, except on rare occasions, from attending

scientific and social meetings, and thus from meeting and knowing the

great body of scientific and intellectual workers of his time, probably

no man has ever inspired a wider and deeper personal interest and

affection. This was in part due to the intimate personal friends who

represented him in the circles he was unable frequently to enter, but

chiefly to the kindly, generous, and courteous nature which was revealed

in his large correspondence and published writings, and especially in

his treatment of opponents.

In a deeply interesting chapter of the _Life and Letters_ Francis Darwin

has given us his reminiscences of his father's everyday life. Rising

early, he took a short walk before breakfasting alone at 7.45, and then

at once set to work, "considering the 1(1/2) hours between 8.0 and 9.30

one of his best working times." He then read his letters and listened to

reading aloud, returning to work at about 10.30. At 12 or 12.15 "he

considered his day's work over," and went for a walk, whether wet or

fine. For a time he rode, but after accidents had occurred twice, was

advised to give it up. After lunch he read the newspaper and wrote his

letters or the MS. of his books. At about 3.0 he rested and smoked for

an hour while being read to, often going to sleep. He then went for a

short walk, and returning about 4.30, worked for an hour. After this he

rested and smoked, and listened to reading until tea at 7.30, a meal

which he came to prefer to late dinner. He then played two games of

backgammon, read to himself, and listened to music and to reading aloud.

He went to bed, generally very much tired, at 10.30, and was often much

troubled by wakefulness and the activity of his thoughts. It is thus

apparent that the number of hours devoted to work in each day was

comparatively few. The immense amount he achieved was due to

concentration during these hours, also to the unfailing and, because of

his health, the necessary regularity of his life.

The appearance of Charles Darwin has been made well known in numerous

portraits and statues. He was tall and thin, being about six feet high,

but looked less because of a stoop, which increased towards the end of

his life. As a young man he had been active, with considerable powers of

endurance, and possessed in a marked degree those qualities of eye and

hand which make the successful sportsman.

Charles Darwin was, as a young man, a believer in Christianity, and was

sent to Cambridge with the idea that he would take orders. It is

probable, however, that he had merely yielded to the influences of his

home, without thinking much on the subject of religion. He first began

to reflect deeply on the subject during the two years and a quarter

which intervened between his return from the "Beagle" (October 2nd,

1836) and his marriage (January 29th, 1839). His own words are,

"disbelief crept over me at a very slow rate, but was at last complete.

The rate was so slow that I felt no distress." His attitude was that of

the tolerant unaggressive agnostic, sympathizing with and helping in the

social and charitable influences of the English Church in his parish. He

was evidently most unwilling that his opinions on religious matters

should influence others, holding, as his son, Francis Darwin, says,

"that a man ought not to publish on a subject to which he has not given

special and continuous thought" (_l.c._ i. p. 305).

In addition to the personal qualities and powers of Charles Darwin,

there were other contributing causes without which the world could never

have reaped the benefit of his genius. It is evident that Darwin's

health could barely have endured the strain of working for a living, and

that nothing would have been left over for his researches. A deep debt

of gratitude is owing to his father for placing him in a position in

which all his energy could be devoted to scientific work and thought.

But his ill-health was such that this important and essential condition

would have been insufficient without another even more essential.

Francis Darwin, in the _Life and Letters_ (i. pp. 159-160), writes these

eloquent and pathetic words:--"No one indeed, except my mother, knows

the full amount of suffering he endured, or the full amount of his

wonderful patience. For all the latter years of his life she never left

him for a night; and her days were so planned that all his resting hours

might be shared with her. She shielded him from every avoidable

annoyance, and omitted nothing that might save him trouble, or prevent

him becoming over-tired, or that might alleviate the many discomforts of

his ill-health. I hesitate to speak thus freely of a thing so sacred as

the lifelong devotion which prompted all this constant and tender care.

But it is, I repeat, a principal feature of his life, that for nearly

forty years he never knew one day of the health of ordinary men, and

that thus his life was one long struggle against the weariness and the

strain of sickness. And this cannot be told without speaking of the one

condition which enabled him to bear the strain and fight out the

struggle to the end."

Charles Darwin was honoured by the chief societies of the civilized

world. He was made a knight of the Prussian order, "Pour le Merite," in

1867, a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1863,

a fellow in 1878, and later in the same year a corresponding member of

the French Institute in the botanical section. He received the Bressa

prize of the Royal Academy of Turin, and the Baly medal of the Royal

College of Physicians in 1879, the Wollaston medal of the Geological

Society in 1859, a Royal medal of the Royal Society in 1853, and the

Copley medal in 1864. His health prevented him from accepting the

honorary degree which Oxford University wished to confer on him, but his

own university had stronger claims, and he received its honorary LL.D.

in 1877.

Two daughters and five sons survived him, four of the latter becoming

prominent in the scientific world,--Sir George Howard (b. 1845), who

became professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy at Cambridge

in 1883; Francis (b. 1848), the distinguished botanist; Leonard (b.

1850), a major in the royal engineers, and afterwards well known as an

economist; and Horace (b. 1851), civil engineer.

See _The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, including an

autobiographical chapter_, edited by his son Francis Darwin (3 vols.,

London, 1887); _Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection_,

by E. B. Poulton (London, 1896); _Life and Letters of Thomas Henry

Huxley_, by Leonard Huxley (2 vols., London, 1900); A. R. Wallace,

_Darwinism_ (1889); G. J. Romanes, _Darwin and after Darwin_ (1895).

Also the article on T. H. HUXLEY. (E. B. P.)

DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802), English man of science and poet, was born

at Elton, in Nottinghamshire, on the 12th of December 1731. After

studying at St John's College, Cambridge, and at Edinburgh, he settled

in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but meeting with little success he

moved in the following year to Lichfield. There he gained a large

practice, and did much, both by example and by more direct effort, to

diminish drunkenness among the lower classes. In 1781 he removed to

Derby, where he died suddenly on the 18th of April 1802. The fame of

Erasmus Darwin as a poet rests upon his _Botanic Garden_, though he also

wrote _The Temple of Nature, or the Origin of Society, a Poem, with

Philosophical Notes_ (1803), and _The Shrine of Nature_ (posthumously

published). The _Botanic Garden_ (the second part of which--_The Loves

of the Plants_--was published anonymously in 1789, and the whole of

which appeared in 1791) is a long poem in the decasyllabic rhymed

couplet. Its merit lies in the genuine scientific enthusiasm and

interest in nature which pervade it; and of any other poetic

quality--except a certain, sometimes felicitous but oftener ill-placed,

elaborated pomp of words--it may without injustice be said to be almost

destitute. It was for the most part written laboriously, and polished

with unsparing care, line by line, often as he rode from one patient to

another, and it occupied the leisure hours of many years. The artificial

character of the diction renders it in emotional passages stilted and

even absurd, and makes Canning's clever caricature--_The Loves of the

Triangles_--often remarkably like the poem it satirizes: in some

passages, however, it is not without a stately appropriateness. Gnomes,

sylphs and nereids are introduced on almost every page, and

personification is carried to an extraordinary excess. Thus he describes

the _Loves of the Plants_ according to the Linnaean system by means of a

most ingenious but misplaced and amusing personification of each plant,

and often even of the parts of the plant. It is significant that

botanical notes are added to the poem, and that its eulogies of

scientific men are frequent. Erasmus Darwin's mind was in fact rather

that of a man of science than that of a poet. His most important

scientific work is his _Zoonomia_ (1794-1796), which contains a system

of pathology, and a treatise on generation, in which he, in the words of

his famous grandson, Charles Robert Darwin, "anticipated the views and

erroneous grounds of opinions of Lamarck." The essence of his views is

contained in the following passage, which he follows up with the

conclusion "that one and the same kind of living filaments is and has

been the cause of all organic life":--

"Would it be too bold to imagine that, in the great length of time

since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the

commencement of the history of mankind,--would it be too bold to

imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living

filament, which the great First Cause endued with animality, with the

power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed

by irritations, sensations, volitions and associations, and thus

possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent

activity, and of delivering down these improvements by generation to

its posterity, world without end!"

In 1799 Darwin published his _Phytologia, or the Philosophy of

Agriculture and Gardening_ (1799), in which he states his opinion that

plants have sensation and volition. A paper on _Female Education in

Boarding Schools_ (1797) completes the list of his works.

Robert Waring Darwin (1766-1848), his third son by his first marriage, a

doctor at Shrewsbury, was the father of the famous Charles Darwin; and

Violetta, his eldest daughter by his second marriage, was the mother of

Francis Galton.

See Anna Seward, _Memoirs of the Life of Dr Darwin_ (1804); and

Charles Darwin, _Life of Erasmus Darwin, an introduction to an essay

on his works by Ernst Krause_ (1879).

DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE (1817-1896), English writer, was born in St

Vincent, West Indies, on the 22nd of May 1817, the son of the

attorney-general of that island. He was educated at Westminster school,

King's College, and Oxford, where he was a contemporary of J. T. Delane

(q.v.), whose friend he had become at King's College. On leaving the

university in 1840 he was appointed to a diplomatic post in Stockholm.

Here he met Jacob Grimm, and at his suggestion first interested himself

in Scandinavian literature and mythology. In 1842 he published the

results of his studies, a version of _The Prose or Younger Edda_, and in

the following year he issued a _Grammar of the Icelandic or Old-Norse

Tongue_, taken from the Swedish. Returning to England in 1845, he became

assistant editor of _The Times_ under Delane, whose sister he married;

but he still continued his Scandinavian studies, publishing translations

of various Norse stories. In 1853 he was appointed professor of English

literature and modern history at King's College, London. In 1861-1862 he

visited Iceland, and subsequently published _Gisli the Outlaw_ and other

translations from the Icelandic. In 1870 he was appointed a civil

service commissioner and consequently resigned his post on _The Times_.

In 1876 he was knighted. He retired from the public service in 1892, and

died at Ascot on the 11th of June 1896. In addition to the works

mentioned above, he published _The Story of Burnt Njal_, from the

Icelandic of the _Njals Saga_ (1861).

See the _Life of Delane_ (1908), by Arthur Irwin Dasent.

DASHKOV, CATHERINA ROMANOVNA VORONTSOV, PRINCESS (1744-1810), Russian

_litterateur_, was the third daughter of Count Roman Vorontsov, a member

of the Russian senate, distinguished for his intellectual gifts. (For

the family see VORONTSOV.) She received an exceptionally good

education, having displayed from a very early age the masculine ability

and masculine tastes which made her whole career so singular. She was

well versed in mathematics, which she studied at the university of

Moscow, and in general literature her favourite authors were Bayle,

Montesquieu, Boileau, Voltaire and Helvetius. While still a girl she was

connected with the Russian court, and became one of the leaders of the

party that attached itself to the grand duchess (afterwards empress)

Catherine. Before she was sixteen she married Prince Mikhail Dashkov, a

prominent Russian nobleman, and went to reside with him at Moscow. In

1762 she was at St Petersburg and took a leading part, according to her

own account _the_ leading part, in the _coup d'etat_ by which Catherine

was raised to the throne. (See CATHERINE II.) Another course of events

would probably have resulted in the elevation of the Princess Dashkov's

elder sister, Elizabeth, who was the emperor's mistress, and in whose

favour he made no secret of his intention to depose Catherine. Her

relations with the new empress were not of a cordial nature, though she

continued devotedly loyal. Her blunt manners, her unconcealed scorn of

the male favourites that disgraced the court, and perhaps also her sense

of unrequited merit, produced an estrangement between her and the

empress, which ended in her asking permission to travel abroad. The

cause of the final breach was said to have been the refusal of her

request to be appointed colonel of the imperial guards. Her husband

having meanwhile died, she set out in 1768 on an extended tour through

Europe. She was received with great consideration at foreign courts, and

her literary and scientific reputation procured her the _entree_ to the

society of the learned in most of the capitals of Europe. In Paris she

secured the warm friendship and admiration of Diderot and Voltaire. She

showed in various ways a strong liking for England and the English. She

corresponded with Garrick, Dr Blair and Principal Robertson; and when in

Edinburgh, where she was very well received, she arranged to entrust the

education of her son to Principal Robertson. In 1782 she returned to the

Russian capital, and was at once taken into favour by the empress, who

strongly sympathized with her in her literary tastes, and specially in

her desire to elevate Russ to a place among the literary languages of

Europe. Immediately after her return the princess was appointed

"directeur" of the St Petersburg Academy of Arts and Sciences; and in

1784 she was named the first president of the Russian Academy, which had

been founded at her suggestion. In both positions she acquitted herself

with marked ability. She projected the Russian dictionary of the

Academy, arranged its plan, and executed a part of the work herself. She

edited a monthly magazine; and wrote at least two dramatic works, _The

Marriage of Fabian_, and a comedy entitled _Toissiokoff_. Shortly before

Catherine's death the friends quarrelled over a tragedy which the

princess had allowed to find a place in the publications of the Academy,

though it contained revolutionary principles, according to the empress.

A partial reconciliation was effected, but the princess soon afterwards

retired from court. On the accession of the emperor Paul in 1796 she was

deprived of all her offices, and ordered to retire to a miserable

village in the government of Novgorod, "to meditate on the events of

1762." After a time the sentence was partially recalled on the petition

of her friends, and she was permitted to pass the closing years of her

life on her own estate near Moscow, where she died on the 4th of January

1810.

Her son, the last of the Dashkov family, died in 1807 and bequeathed his

fortune to his cousin Illarion Vorontsov, who thereupon by imperial

licence assumed the name Vorontsov-Dashkov; and Illarion's son, Illarion

Ivanovich Vorontsov-Dashkov (b. 1837), held an appointment in the tsar's

household from 1881 to 1897.

The _Memoirs of the Princess Dashkoff written by herself_ were

published in 1840 in London in two volumes. They were edited by Mrs W.

Bradford, who, as Miss Wilmot, had resided with the princess between

1803 and 1808, and had suggested their preparation.

DASS, PETTER (1647-1708), the "father" of modern Norwegian poetry, was

the son of Peter Dundas, a Scottish merchant of Dundee, who, leaving his

country about 1630 to escape the troubles of the Presbyterian church,

settled in Bergen, and in 1646 married a Norse girl of good family.

Petter Dass was born in 1647 on the island of Nord Hero; on the north

coast of Norway. Seven years later his father died, and his mother

placed him with his aunt, the wife of the priest of another little

island-parish. In 1660 he was sent to school at Bergen, in 1665 to the

university of Copenhagen, and in 1667 he began to earn his daily bread

as a private tutor. In 1672 he was ordained priest, and remained till

1681 as under-chaplain at Nesne, a little parish near his birthplace;

for eight years more he was resident chaplain at Nesne; and at last in

1689 he received the living of Alstahoug, the most important in the

north of Norway. The rule of Alstahoug extended over all the

neighbouring districts, including Dass's native island of Hero, and its

privileges were accompanied by great perils, for it was necessary to be

constantly crossing stormy firths of sea. Dass lived here in quietude,

with something of the honours and responsibilities of a bishop, brought

up his family in a God-fearing way, and wrote endless reams of verses.

In 1700 he asked leave to resign his living in favour of his son Anders

Dass, but this was not permitted; in 1704, however, Anders became his

father's chaplain. About this time Petter went to Bergen, where he

visited Dorothea Engelbrechtsdatter, with whom he had been for many

years in correspondence. He continued to write till 1707, and died in

August 1708. The materials for his biography are very numerous; he was

regarded with universal curiosity and admiration in his lifetime; and,

besides, he left a garrulous autobiography in verse. A portrait, painted

in middle age, now in the church of Melhus, near Trondhjem, represents

him in canonicals, with deep red beard and hair, the latter waved and

silky, and a head of massive proportions. The face is full of fire and

vigour. His writings passed in MS. from hand to hand, and few of them

were printed in his lifetime. _Nordlands Trompet_ (The Trumpet of

Nordland), his greatest and most famous poem, was not published till

1739; _Den norska Dale-Vise_ (The Norwegian Song of the Valley) appeared

in 1696; the _Aandelig Tidsfordriv_ (Spiritual Pastime), a volume of

sacred poetry, was published in 1711. _The Trumpet of Nordland_ remains

as fresh as ever in the memories of the inhabitants of the north of

Norway; boatmen, peasants, priests will alike repeat long extracts from

it at the slightest notice, and its popularity is unbounded. It is a

rhyming description of the province of Nordland, its natural features,

its trades, its advantages and its drawbacks, given in dancing verse of

the most breathless kind, and full of humour, fancy, wit and quaint

learning. The other poems of Petter Dass are less universally read; they

abound, however, in queer turns of thought, and fine homely fancies.

The collected writings of Dass were edited (3 vols., Christiania,

1873-1877) by Dr A. E. Eriksen.

DASYURE, a bookname for any member of the zoological family

_Dasyuridae_. (See MARSUPIALIA.) The name is better restricted to

animals of the typical genus _Dasyurus_, sometimes called true Dasyures.

These are mostly inhabitants of the Australian continent and Tasmania,

where in the economy of nature they take the place of the smaller

predaceous Carnivora, the cats, civets and weasels of other parts of the

world. They hide themselves in the daytime in holes among rocks or in

hollow trees, but prowl about at night in search of the small living

mammals and birds which constitute their prey, and are to some extent

arboreal in habit. The spot-tailed dasyure (_D. maculatus_), about the

size of a cat, inhabiting Tasmania and Southern Australia, has

transversely striated pads on the soles of the feet. These organs are

also present in the North Australian dasyure (_D. hallucatus_) and the

Papuan _D. albopunctatus_, and are regarded by Oldfield Thomas as

indication of arboreal habits; in the common dasyure (_D. viverrinus_)

from Tasmania and Victoria, and the black-tailed dasyure (_D.

geoffroyi_) from South Australia, these feet-pads are absent, whence

these species are believed to seek their prey on the ground. The ursine

dasyure (_Sarcophilus ursinus_), often called the "Tasmanian Devil,"

constitutes a distinct genus. In size it may be compared to an English

badger; the general colour of the fur is black tinged with brown, with

white patches on the neck, shoulders, rump and chest. It is a burrowing

animal, of nocturnal habits, intensely carnivorous, and commits great

depredations on the sheepyards and poultry-lofts of the settlers. In

writing of this species Krefft says that one--by no means a large

one--escaped from confinement and killed in two nights fifty-four fowls,

six geese, an albatross and a cat. It was recaptured in what was

considered a stout trap, with a door constructed of iron bars as thick

as a lead pencil, but escaped by twisting this solid obstacle aside.

DATE PALM. The dates[1] of commerce are the fruit of a species of palm,

_Phoenix dactylifera_, a tree which ranges from the Canary Islands

through Northern Africa and the south-east of Asia to India. It has been

cultivated and much prized throughout most of these regions from the

remotest antiquity. Its cultivation and use are described on the mural

tablets of the ancient Assyrians. In Arabia it is the chief source of

national wealth, and its fruit forms the staple article of food in that

country. The tree has also been introduced along the Mediterranean

shores of Europe; but as its fruit does not ripen so far north, the

European plants are only used to supply leaves for the festival of Palm

Sunday among Christians, and for the celebration of the Passover by

Jews. It was introduced into the new world by early Spanish

missionaries, and is now cultivated in the dry districts of the

south-western United States and in Mexico. The date palm is a beautiful

tree, growing to a height of from 60 to 80 ft., and its stem, which is

strongly marked with old leaf-scars, terminates in a crown of graceful

shining pinnate leaves. The flowers spring in branching spadices from

the axils of the leaves, and as the trees are unisexual it is necessary

in cultivation to fertilize the female flowers by artificial means. The

fruit is oblong, fleshy and contains one very hard seed which is deeply

furrowed on the inside. The fruit varies much in size, colour and

quality under cultivation. Regarding this fruit, W. G. Palgrave

(_Central and Eastern Arabia_) remarked: "Those who, like most Europeans

at home, only know the date from the dried specimens of that fruit shown

beneath a label in shop-windows, can hardly imagine how delicious it is

when eaten fresh and in Central Arabia. Nor is it, when newly gathered,

heating,--a defect inherent to the preserved fruit everywhere; nor does

its richness, however great, bring satiety; in short it is an article of

food alike pleasant and healthy." In the oases of Sahara, and in other

parts of Northern Africa, dates are pounded and pressed into a cake for

food. The dried fruit used for dessert in European countries contains

more than half its weight of sugar, about 6% of albumen, and 12% of

gummy matter. All parts of the date palm yield valuable economic

products. Its trunk furnishes timber for house-building and furniture;

the leaves supply thatch; their footstalks are used as fuel, and also

yield a fibre from which cordage is spun.

_Date sugar_ is a valuable commercial product of the East Indies,

obtained from the sap or toddy of _Phoenix sylvestris_, the toddy palm,

a tree so closely allied to the date palm that it has been supposed to

be the parent stock of all the cultivated varieties. The juice, when not

boiled down to form sugar, is either drunk fresh, or fermented and

distilled to form arrack. The uses of the other parts and products of

this tree are the same as those of the date palm products. _Date palm

meal_ is obtained from the stem of a small species, _Phoenix

farinifera_, growing in the hill country of southern India.

For further details see Sir G. Watt, _Dictionary of the Economic

Products of India_ (1892); and _The Date Palm_, U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 53 (W. T.

Swingle), 1904.