FOOTNOTE:

[1] On the late phrase "Dan to Beersheba" as the extreme points of

religious life in Israel, see H. W. Hogg, _Expositor_, viii. 411-421

(1898); and for a complete discussion of the tribe, his art. "Dan" in

_Encyc. Bib._

DAN, a town of ancient Israel, near the head-waters of the Jordan,

inhabited before its conquest by the Danites by a peaceful commercial

population who called their city Laish or Leshem (Josh. xix. 47, Judg.

xviii.). It appears to have been even at this early period a sacred

city, the shrine of Micah being removed hither, and it was chosen by

Jeroboam as the site of one of his calf-shrines. It makes the north

limit of Palestine in the proverbial expression "from Dan to Beersheba."

The town was plundered by Benhadad of Damascus, and appears from that

time to have gradually declined. Its site is sought in the mound called

Tell-el-Kadi, "the hill of the judge" (Dan = "judge" in Hebrew), though

weighty authorities incline to place it 4 m. east of this, at Banias,

the old Caesarea Philippi. (See above.)

DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON (1819-1897), American journalist, was born in

Hinsdale, New Hampshire, on the 8th of August 1819. At the age of twelve

he became a clerk in his uncle's general store at Buffalo, which failed

in 1837. In 1839 he entered Harvard, but the impairment of his eyesight

in 1841 forced him to leave college, and caused him to abandon his

intention of entering the ministry and of studying in Germany. From

September 1841 until March 1846 he lived at Brook Farm, where he was

made one of the trustees of the farm, was head waiter when the farm

became a Fourierite phalanx, and was in charge of the phalanstery's

finances when its buildings were burned in 1846. He had previously

written for (and managed) the _Harbinger_, the Brook Farm organ, and had

written as early as 1844 for the Boston _Chronotype_. In 1847 he joined

the staff of the New York _Tribune_, and in 1848 he wrote from Europe

letters to it and other papers on the revolutionary movements of that

year. Returning to the _Tribune_ in 1849, he became its managing-editor,

and in this capacity actively promoted the anti-slavery cause, seeming

to shape the paper's policy at a time when Greeley was undecided and

vacillating. In 1862 his resignation was asked for by the board of

managers of the _Tribune_, apparently because of wide temperamental

differences between him and Greeley. Secretary of War Stanton

immediately made him a special investigating agent of the war

department; in this capacity Dana discovered frauds of quartermasters

and contractors, and as the "eyes of the administration," as Lincoln

called him, he spent much time at the front, and sent to Stanton

frequent reports concerning the capacity and methods of various generals

in the field; he went through the Vicksburg campaign and was at

Chickamauga and Chattanooga, and urged the placing of General Grant in

supreme command of all the armies in the field. Dana was second

assistant-secretary of war in 1864-1865, and in 1865-1866 conducted the

newly-established and unsuccessful Chicago _Republican_. He became the

editor and part-owner of the New York _Sun_ in 1868, and remained in

control of it until his death at Glen Cove, Long Island, New York, on

the 17th of October 1897. Under Dana's control the _Sun_ opposed the

impeachment of President Johnson; it supported Grant for the presidency

in 1868; it was a sharp critic of Grant as president; and in 1872 took

part in the Liberal Republican revolt and urged Greeley's nomination. It

favoured Tilden, the Democratic candidate for the presidency, in 1876,

opposed the Electoral Commission and continually referred to Hayes as

the "fraud president." In 1884 it supported Benjamin F. Butler, the

candidate of Greenback-Labor and Anti-Monopolist parties, for the

presidency, and opposed Blaine (Republican) and even more bitterly

Cleveland (Democrat); it supported Cleveland and opposed Harrison in

1888, although it had bitterly criticized Cleveland's first

administration, and was to criticize nearly every detail of his second,

with the exception of Federal interference in the Pullman strike of

1894; and in 1896, on the free-silver issue, it opposed Bryan, the

Democratic candidate for the presidency. Dana's literary style came to

be the style of the _Sun_--simple, strong, clear, "boiled down." _The

Art of Newspaper Making_, containing three lectures which he wrote on

journalism, was published in 1900. With George Ripley he edited _The New

American Cyclopaedia_ (15 vols., 1857-1863), reissued as the _American

Cyclopaedia_ in 1873-1876. He had excellent taste in the fine arts and

edited an anthology, _The Household Book of Poetry_ (1857). He was a

very good linguist, published several versions from the German, and read

the Romance and Scandinavian languages; he was an art connoisseur and

left a remarkable collection of Chinese porcelain. Dana's _Reminiscences

of the Civil War_ was published in 1898, as was his _Eastern Journeys,

Notes of Travel_. He also edited a campaign _Life of U. S. Grant_,

published over his name and that of General James H. Wilson in 1868.

See James Wilson, _The Life of Charles A. Dana_ (New York, 1907).

DANA, FRANCIS (1743-1811), American jurist, was born in Charlestown,

Massachusetts, on the 13th of June 1743. He was the son of Richard Dana

(1699-1772), a leader of the Massachusetts provincial bar, and a

vigorous advocate of colonial rights in the pre-revolutionary period.

Francis Dana graduated at Harvard in 1762, was admitted to the bar in

1767, and, being an opponent of the British colonial policy, became a

leader of the Sons of Liberty, and in 1774 was a member of the first

provincial congress of Massachusetts. During a two years' visit to

England he sought earnestly to gain friends to his colony's cause, but

returned to Boston in April 1776 convinced that a friendly settlement of

the dispute was impossible. He was a member of the Massachusetts

executive council from 1776 to 1780, and a delegate to the Continental

Congress from 1776 to 1778. As a member of the latter body he became

chairman in January 1778 of the committee appointed to visit Washington

at Valley Forge, and confer with him concerning the reorganization of

the army. This committee spent about three months in camp, and assisted

Washington in preparing the plan of reorganization which Congress in the

main adopted. In this year he was also a member of a committee to

consider Lord North's offer of conciliation, which he vigorously

opposed. In the autumn of 1779 he was appointed secretary to John Adams,

who had been selected as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties

of peace and commerce with Great Britain, and in December 1780 he was

appointed diplomatic representative to the Russian government. He

remained at St Petersburg from 1781 to 1783, but was never formally

received by the empress Catherine. In February 1784 he was again chosen

a delegate to Congress, and in January 1785 he became a justice of the

Massachusetts supreme court. He was chief justice of this court from

1791 to 1806, and presided with ability and rare distinction. He was an

earnest advocate of the adoption of the Federal constitution, was a

member of the Massachusetts convention which ratified that instrument,

and was one of the most influential advisers of the leaders of the

Federalist party. His tastes were scholarly, and he was one of the

founders of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He died at

Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 25th of April 1811.

His son, RICHARD HENRY DANA (1787-1879), was born in Cambridge,

Massachusetts, on the 15th of November 1787. He was educated at Harvard

in the class of 1808. Subsequently he studied law and in 1811 was

admitted to practice. But all other interests were early subordinated to

his love of literature, to which the greater part of his long life was

devoted. He became in 1814 a member of a literary society in Cambridge,

known as the Anthology Club. This club began the publication of a

monthly magazine, _The Monthly Anthology_, which gave way in 1815 to

_The North American Review_. In the editorial control of this periodical

he was associated with Jared Sparks and Edward T. Channing (1790-1856)

until 1821, contributing essays and criticisms which attracted wide

attention. In 1821-1822 he edited in New York a short-lived literary

magazine, _The Idle Man_. He published his first volume of _Poems_ in

1827, and in 1833 appeared his _Poems and Prose Writings_, republished

in 1850 in two volumes, in which were included practically all of his

poems and of his prose contributions to periodical literature. Although

the bulk of his published writings was not large, his influence on

American literature during the first half of the 19th century was

surpassed by that of few of his contemporaries.

RICHARD HENRY DANA (1815-1882), son of the last-mentioned, was born in

Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 1st of August 1815. He entered Harvard

in the class of 1835, but at the beginning of his junior year an illness

affecting his sight necessitated a suspension of his college work, and

in August 1834 he shipped before the mast for California, returning in

September 1836. The rough experience of this voyage did more than endow

him with renewed health; it changed him from a dreamy, sensitive boy,

hereditarily disinclined to any sort of active career, into a

self-reliant, energetic man, with broad interests and keen sympathies.

He re-entered Harvard in December 1836 and graduated in June 1837. He

was a student at the Harvard law school from 1837 to 1840, and from

January 1839 to February 1840 he was also an instructor in elocution in

the college. In 1840 the notes of his sea-trip were published under the

title _Two Years Before the Mast_. The book attained an almost

unprecedented popularity both in America and in Europe, where it was

translated into several languages; and it came to be considered a

classic. Immediately after the appearance of this book Dana began the

practice of law, which brought him a large number of maritime cases. In

1841 he published _The Seaman's Friend_, republished in England as _The

Seaman's Manual_, which was long the highest authority on the legal

rights and duties of seamen. After gaining recognition as one of the

most prominent members of the Suffolk bar, he became associated in 1848

with the Free Soil movement, and took a prominent part in the Buffalo

convention of that year. This step, which caused him to be ostracized

for a time from the Boston circles in which he had been reared, brought

him the cases of the fugitive slaves, Shadrach, Sims and Burns, and of

the rescuers of Shadrach. On the night following the surrender of Burns

(May 1854) Dana was brutally assaulted on the Boston streets. In 1853 he

took a prominent part in the state constitutional convention. He allied

himself with the Republican party on its organization, but his inborn

dislike for political manoeuvring prevented his ever becoming prominent

in its councils. In 1857 he became a regular attendant at the meetings

of the famous Boston Saturday Club, to the members of which he dedicated

his account of a vacation trip, _To Cuba and Back_ (1857). He returned

to America from a trip round the world in time to participate in the

presidential campaign of 1860, and after Lincoln's inauguration he was

appointed United States district attorney for Massachusetts. In this

office in 1863 he won before the Supreme Court of the United States the

famous prize case of the "Amy Warwick," on the decision in which

depended the right of the government to blockade the Confederate ports,

without giving the Confederate States an international status as

belligerents. He brought out in 1865 an edition of _Wheaton's

International Law_, his notes constituting a most learned and valuable

authority on international law and its bearings on American history and

diplomacy; but immediately after its publication Dana was charged by the

editor of two earlier editions, William Beach Lawrence, with infringing

his copyright, and was involved in litigation which was continued for

thirteen years. In such minor matters as arrangement of notes and

verification of citations the court found against Dana, but in the main

Dana's notes were vastly different from Lawrence's. In 1865 Dana

declined an appointment as a United States district judge. During the

Reconstruction period he favoured the congressional plan rather than

that of President Johnson, and on this account resigned the

district-attorneyship. In 1867-1868 he was a member of the Massachusetts

House of Representatives, and in 1867 was retained with William M.

Evarts to prosecute Jefferson Davis, whose admission to bail he

counselled. In 1877 he was one of the counsel for the United States

before the commission which in accordance with the treaty of Washington

met at Halifax, N.S., to arbitrate the fisheries question between the

United States and Great Britain. In 1878 he gave up his law practice and

devoted the rest of his life to study and travel. He died in Rome,

Italy, on the 9th of January 1882.

See Charles Francis Adams, _Richard Henry Dana: a Biography_ (2 vols.,

Boston, Mass., 1891).

DANA, JAMES DWIGHT (1813-1895), American geologist, mineralogist and

zoologist, was born in Utica, New York, on the 12th of February 1813. He

early displayed a taste for science, which had been fostered by Fay

Edgerton, a teacher in the Utica high school, and in 1830 he entered

Yale College, in order to study under Benjamin Silliman the elder.

Graduating in 1833, for the next two years he was teacher of mathematics

to midshipmen in the navy, and sailed to the Mediterranean while engaged

in his duties. In 1836-1837 he was assistant to Professor Silliman in

the chemical laboratory at Yale, and then, for four years, acted as

mineralogist and geologist of a United States exploring expedition,

commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes, in the Pacific ocean (see WILKES,

CHARLES). His labours in preparing the reports of his explorations

occupied parts of thirteen years after his return to America in 1842. In

1844 he again became a resident of New Haven, married the daughter of

Professor Silliman, and in 1850, on the resignation of the latter, was

appointed Silliman Professor of Natural History and Geology in Yale

College, a position which he held till 1892. In 1846 he became joint

editor and during the later years of his life he was chief editor of the

_American Journal of Science and Arts_ (founded in 1818 by Benjamin

Silliman), to which he was a constant contributor, principally of

articles on geology and mineralogy. A bibliographical list of his

writings shows 214 titles of books and papers, beginning in 1835 with a

paper on the conditions of Vesuvius in 1834, and ending with the fourth

revised edition (finished in February 1895) of his _Manual of Geology_.

His reports on _Zoophytes_, on the _Geology of the Pacific Area_, and on

_Crustacea_, summarizing his work on the Wilkes expedition, appeared in

1846, 1849 and 1852-1854, in quarto volumes, with copiously illustrated

atlases; but as these were issued in small numbers, his reputation more

largely rests upon his _System of Mineralogy_ (1837 and many later

editions in 1892); _Manual of Geology_ (1862; ed. 4, 1895); _Manual of

Mineralogy_ (1848), afterwards entitled _Manual of Mineralogy and

Lithology_ (ed. 4, 1887); and Corals and Coral Islands (1872; ed. 2,

1890). In 1887 Dana revisited the Hawaiian Islands, and the results of

his further investigations were published in a quarto volume in 1890,

entitled _Characteristics of Volcanoes_. By the Royal Society of London

he was awarded the Copley medal in 1877; and by the Geological Society

the Wollaston medal in 1874. His powers of work were extraordinary, and

in his 82nd year he was occupied in preparing a new edition of his

_Manual of Geology_, the 4th edition being issued in 1895. He died on

the 14th of April 1895.

His son EDWARD SALISBURY DANA, born at New Haven on the 16th of November

1849, is author of _A Textbook of Mineralogy_ (1877; new ed. 1898) and a

_Text Book of Elementary Mechanics_ (1881). In 1879-80 he was professor

of natural philosophy and then became professor of physics at Yale.

See _Life of J. D. Dana_, by Daniel C. Gilman (1899).

DANAE, in Greek legend, daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. Her father,

having been warned by an oracle that she would bear a son by whom he

would be slain, confined Danae in a brazen tower. But Zeus descended to

her in a shower of gold, and she gave birth to Perseus, whereupon

Acrisius placed her and her infant in a wooden box and threw them into

the sea. They were finally driven ashore on the island of Seriphus,

where they were picked up by a fisherman named Dictys. His brother

Polydectes, who was king of the island, fell in love with Danae and

married her. According to another story, her son Perseus, on his return

with the head of Medusa, finding his mother persecuted by Polydectes,

turned him into stone, and took Danae back with him to Argos. Latin

legend represented her as landing on the coast of Latium and marrying

Pilumnus or Picumnus, from whom Turnus, king of the Rutulians, was

descended. Danae formed the subject of tragedies by Aeschylus,

Sophocles, Euripides, Livius Andronicus and Naevius. She is the

personification of the earth suffering from drought, on which the

fertilizing rain descends from heaven.

Apollodorus ii. 4; Sophocles, _Antigone_, 944; Horace, _Odes_, iii.

16; Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 410. See also P. Schwarz, _De Fabula

Danaeia_ (1881).

DANAO, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine

Islands, on the E. coast, at the mouth of the Danao river, 17 m. N.N.E.

of Cebu, the capital. Pop. (1903) 16,173. Danao has a comparatively cool

and healthy climate, is the centre of a rich agricultural region

producing rice, Indian corn, sugar, copra and cacao, and coal is mined

in the vicinity. The language is Cebu-Visayan.

DANAUS, in Greek legend, son of Belus, king of Egypt, and twin-brother

of Aegyptus. He was born at Chemmis (Panopolis) in Egypt, but having

been driven out by his brother he fled with his fifty daughters to

Argos, the home of his ancestress Io. Here he became king and taught the

inhabitants of the country to dig wells. In the meantime the fifty sons

of Aegyptus arrived in Argos, and Danaus was obliged to consent to their

marriage with his daughters. But to each of these he gave a knife with

injunctions to slay her husband on the marriage night. They all obeyed

except Hyperm(n)estra, who spared Lynceus. She was brought to trial by

her father, acquitted and afterwards married to her lover. Being unable

to find suitors for the other daughters, Danaus offered them in marriage

to the youths of the district who proved themselves victorious in racing

contests (Pindar, _Pythia_, ix. 117). According to another story,

Lynceus slew Danaus and his daughters and seized the throne of Argos

(schol. on Euripides, _Hecuba_, 886). By way of expiation for their

crime the Danaides were condemned to the endless task of filling with

water a vessel which had no bottom. This punishment, originally

inflicted on those who neglected certain mystic rites, was transferred

to those who, like the Danaides, despised the mystic rite of marriage;

cf. the water-bearing figure ([Greek: loutrophoros]) on the grave of

unmarried persons. The murder of the sons of Aegyptus by their wives is

supposed to represent the drying up of the rivers and springs of Argolis

in summer by the agency of the nymphs.

Apollodorus ii. 1; Horace, _Odes_, iii. 11; O. Waser, in _Archiv fur

Religionswissenschaft_, ii. Heft 1, 1899; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's

_Realencyclopadie_ and W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_;

Campbell Bonner, in _Harvard Studies_, xiii. (1902).

DANBURITE, a rare mineral species consisting of calcium and boron

orthosilicate, CaB2(SiO4)2, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. It

was discovered by C.U. Shepard in 1839 at Danbury, Connecticut, U.S.A.,

and named by him after this locality. The crystals are prismatic in

habit, and closely resemble topaz in form and interfacial angles. There

is an imperfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane. Crystals are

transparent to translucent, and colourless to pale yellow; hardness 7;

specific gravity 3.0. At Danbury the mineral occurs with microcline and

oligoclase embedded in dolomite. Large crystals, reaching 4 in. in

length, have been found with calcite in veins traversing granite at

Russell in St Lawrence county, New York. Smaller but well-developed

crystals have been found on gneiss at Mt. Scopi and Petersthal (the

valley of the Vals Rhine) in Switzerland. Splendid crystals have

recently been obtained from Japan.

DANBURY, a city and one of the county-seats of Fairfield county,

Connecticut, U.S.A., in Danbury township, in the south-west part of the

state, on the Still river, a tributary of the Housatonic. Pop. (1890)

16,552; (1900) 16,537 (3702 foreign-born); (1910) 20,234. In 1900 the

population of the township, including that of the city, was 19,474, and

in 1910, 23,502. Danbury is served by three divisions of the New York,

New Haven & Hartford railway; by the Danbury & Harlem electric railway,

which connects at Goldens Bridge, New York, with the Harlem division of

the New York Central; and by an electric line to Bethel, Connecticut.

Lake Kenosia, about 2(1/2) m. from the centre of the city, is a pleasure

resort. A state normal school was opened in Danbury in 1904, and there

is a home for destitute and homeless children under private

(unsectarian) control. The city has good water-power, and the

municipality owns the water works. The principal industry is the

manufacture of felt hats, begun in 1780, and in 1905 engaging about

thirty factories, with a product for the year valued at $5,798,107

(71.9% of the value of all the factory products of the city, and 15.8%

of the value of all the felt hats produced in the United States). The

city ranked first among the cities of the country in this industry in

1900 and second in 1905, and in 1905 no other city showed so high a

degree of specialization in it. Silver-plated ware (mostly manufactured

by Rogers Bros.) is another important product. At Danbury is held

annually the well-known agricultural Danbury Fair. The township was

settled in 1684 by emigrants from Norwalk, and received its present name

in 1687. When the War of Independence opened, Enoch Crosby, believed to

be the original of Harvey Birch, the hero of J. F. Cooper's _The Spy_,

was a resident of Danbury. A depot of military supplies was established

in the village of Danbury in 1776; in April 1777 Governor William Tryon,

of New York, raided the place, destroying the military stores and

considerable private property. During his retreat he was attacked (April

26th) at Ridgefield (about 9 m. south by east of Danbury) by the

Americans under General David Wooster (1710-1777), who was fatally

wounded in the conflict (being succeeded by General Benedict Arnold),

and to whose memory a monument was erected in Danbury in 1854. Danbury

was chartered as a borough in 1832 and as a city in 1880. In 1870 the

_Danbury News_ was established by the consolidation of the

_Jeffersonian_ and the _Times_, by James Montgomery Bailey (1841-1894),

from 1865 to 1870 proprietor of the _Times_. He wrote for the _News_

humorous sketches, which made him and the paper famous, Bailey being

known as the "Danbury News Man"; among his books are _Life in Danbury_

(1873), _The Danbury News Man's Almanac_ (1873), _They All Do It_

(1877), _England from a Back Window_ (1878), _Mr Philip's Goneness_

(1879), _The Danbury Boom_ (1880), and _History of Danbury_ (1896).

DANBY, FRANCIS (1793-1861), English painter, was born in the south of

Ireland on the 16th of November 1793. His father farmed a small property

he owned near Wexford, but his death caused the family to remove to

Dublin, while Francis was still a schoolboy. He began to practice

drawing at the Royal Dublin Society's schools; and under an erratic

young artist named O'Connor he began painting landscape. Danby also made

acquaintance with George Petrie, and all three left for London together

in 1813. This expedition, undertaken with very inadequate funds, quickly

came to an end, and they had to get home again by walking. At Bristol

they made a pause, and Danby, finding he could get trifling sums for

water-colour drawings, remained there working diligently and sending to

the London exhibitions pictures of importance. There his large pictures

in oil quickly attracted attention. "The Upas Tree" (1820) and "The

Delivery of the Israelites" (1825) brought him his election as an

associate of the Royal Academy. He left Bristol for London, and in 1828

exhibited his "Opening of the Sixth Seal" at the British Institution,

receiving from that body a prize of 200 guineas; and this picture was

followed by two others from the Apocalypse. He suddenly left London,

declaring that he would never live there again, and that the Academy,

instead of aiding him, had, somehow or other, used him badly. Some

insurmountable domestic difficulty overtook him also, and for eleven or

twelve years he lived on the Lake of Geneva, a Bohemian with

boat-building fancies, painting only now and then. He returned to

England in 1841, when his sons, James and Thomas, both artists, were

growing up. Other pictures by him were "The Golden Age" and "The Evening

Gun," the first begun before he left England, the second painted after

his return; he had taken up his abode at Exmouth, where he died on the

9th of February 1861.

DANCE, the name of an English family distinguished in architecture, art

and the drama. GEORGE DANCE, the elder (1700-1768), obtained the

appointment of architect to the city of London, and designed the Mansion

House (1739); the churches of St Botolph, Aldgate (1741), St Luke's, Old

Street; St Leonard, Shoreditch; the old excise office; Broad Street; and

other public works of importance. He died on the 8th of February 1768.

His eldest son, JAMES DANCE (1722-1744), was born on the 17th of March

1722, and educated at the Merchant Taylors' School and St John's

College, Oxford, which he left before graduating. He took the name of

Love, and became an actor and playwright of no great merit. In the

former capacity he was for twelve years connected with Drury Lane

theatre. He wrote "an heroic poem" on _Cricket_, about 1740, and a

volume of _Poems on Several Occasions_ (1754), and a number of

comedies--the earliest _Pamela_ (1742).

George Dance's third son, Sir NATHANIEL DANCE-HOLLAND, Bart.

(1735-1811), was born on the 18th of May 1735, and studied art under

Francis Hayman, and in Italy, where he met Angelica Kauffmann, to whom

he was devotedly and hopelessly attached. From Rome he sent home "Dido

and Aeneas" (1763), and he continued to paint occasional historical

pictures of the same quasi-classic kind throughout his career. On his

return to England he took up portrait-painting with great success, and

contributed to the first exhibition of the Royal Academy, of which he

was a foundation member, full-length portraits of George III. and his

queen. These, and his portraits of Captain Cook and of Garrick as

Richard III., engraved by Dixon, are his best-known works. Himself a

rich man, in 1790 he married a widow with L15,000 a year, dropped his

profession, and became M.P. for East Grinstead, taking the additional

name of Holland. He was made a baronet in 1800. He died on the 15th of

October 1811, leaving a fortune of L200,000.

George Dance's fifth and youngest son, GEORGE DANCE, the younger

(1741-1825), succeeded his father as city surveyor and architect in

1768. He was then only twenty-seven, had spent several years abroad,

chiefly in Italy with his brother Nathaniel, and had already

distinguished himself by designs for Blackfriars Bridge sent to the 1761

exhibition of the Incorporated Society of Artists. His first important

public work was the rebuilding of Newgate prison in 1770. The front of

the Guildhall was also his. He, too, was a foundation member of the

Royal Academy, and for a number of years the last survivor of the forty

original academicians. His last years were devoted to art rather than to

architecture, and after 1798 his Academy contributions consisted solely

of chalk portraits of his friends, seventy-two of which were engraved

and published (1808-1814). He resigned his office in 1815, and after

many years of illness died on the 14th of January 1825, and was buried

in St Paul's. His son, CHARLES DANCE (1794-1863), was for thirty years

registrar, taxing officer and chief clerk of the insolvent debtors'

court, retiring, when it was abolished, on an allowance. In

collaboration with J. R. Planche and others, or alone, he wrote a great

number of extravaganzas, farces and comediettas. He was one of the

first, if not the first, of the burlesque writers, and was the author of

those produced so successfully by Madame Vestris for years at the

Olympic. Of his farces, _Delicate Ground, Who Speaks First?_, _A Morning

Call_ and others are still occasionally revived. He died on the 6th of

January 1863.

DANCE (Fr. _danse_; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger.

_danson_, to stretch). The term "dancing" in its widest sense includes

three things:--(1) the spontaneous activity of the muscles under the

influence of some strong emotion, such as social joy or religious

exultation; (2) definite combinations of graceful movements performed

for the sake of the pleasure which the exercise affords to the dancer

or to the spectator; (3) carefully trained movements which are meant by

the dancer vividly to represent the actions and passions of other

people. In the highest sense it seems to be for prose-gesture what song

is for the instinctive exclamations of feeling. Regarded as the outlet

or expression of strong feeling, dancing does not require much

discussion, for the general rule applies that such demonstrations for a

time at least sustain and do not exhaust the flow of feeling. The voice

and the facial muscles and many of the organs are affected at the same

time, and the result is a high state of vitality which among the

spinning Dervishes or in the ecstatic worship of Bacchus and Cybele

amounted to something like madness. Even here there is traceable an

undulatory movement which, as Herbert Spencer says, is "habitually

generated by feeling in its bodily discharge." But it is only in the

advanced or volitional stage of dancing that we find developed the

essential feature of _measure_, which has been said to consist in "the

alternation of stronger muscular contractions with weaker ones," an

alternation which, except in the cases of savages and children, "is

compounded with longer rises and falls in the degree of muscular

excitement." In analysing the state of mind which this measured dancing

produces, we must first of all allow for the pleasant glow of excitement

caused by the excess of blood sent to the brain. But apart from this,

there is an agreeable sense of uniformity in the succession of muscular

efforts, and in the spaces described, and also in the period of their

recurrence. If the steps of dancing and the intervals of time be not

precisely equal, there is still a pleasure depending on the gradually

increasing intensity of motion, on the undulation which uniformly rises

in order to fall. As Florizel says to Perdita, "When you do dance, I

wish you a wave of the sea" (_Winter's Tale_, iv. 3). The mind feels the

beauty of emphasis and cadence in muscular motion, just as much as in

musical notes. Then, the figure of the dance is frequently a circle or

some more graceful curve or series of curves,--a fact which satisfies

the dancer as well as the eye of the spectator. But all such effects are

intensified by the use of music, which not only brings a perfectly

distinct set of pleasurable sensations to dancer and spectator, but by

the control of dancing produces an inexpressibly sweet harmony of sound

and motion. This harmony is further enriched if there be two dancing

together on one plan, or a large company of dancers executing certain

evolutions, the success of which depends on the separate harmonies of

all the couples. The fundamental condition is that throughout the dance

all the dancers keep within their bases of gravity. This is not only

required for the dancers' own enjoyment, but, as in the famous Mercury

on tiptoe, it is essential to the beautiful effect for the spectator.

The idea of much being safely supported by little is what proves

attractive in the posturing ballet. But this is merely one condition of

graceful dancing, and if it be made the chief object the dancer sinks

into the acrobat.

Dancing is, in fact, the universal human expression, by movements of the

limbs and body, of a sense of rhythm which is implanted among the

primitive instincts of the animal world. The rhythmic principle of

motion extends throughout the universe, governing the lapse of waves,

the flow of tides, the reverberations of light and sound, and the

movements of celestial bodies; and in the human organism it manifests

itself in the automatic pulses and flexions of the blood and tissues.

Dancing is merely the voluntary application of the rhythmic principle,

when excitement has induced an abnormally rapid oxidization of brain

tissue, to the physical exertion by which the overcharged brain is

relieved. This is primitive dancing; and it embraces all movements of

the limbs and body expressive of joy or grief, all pantomimic

representations of incidents in the lives of the dancers, all

performances in which movements of the body are employed to excite the

passions of hatred or love, pity or revenge, or to arouse the warlike

instincts, and all ceremonies in which such movements express homage or

worship, or are used as religious exercises. Although music is not an

essential part of dancing, it almost invariably accompanies it, even in

the crudest form of a rhythm beaten out on a drum.

_Primitive and Ancient Dancing._--In Tigre the Abyssinians dance the

_chassee_ step in a circle, and keep time by shrugging their shoulders

and working their elbows backwards and forwards. At intervals the

dancers squat on the ground, still moving the arms and shoulders in the

same way. The Bushmen dance in their low-roofed rooms supporting

themselves by sticks; one foot remains motionless, the other dances in a

wild irregular manner, while the hands are occupied with the sticks. The

Gonds, a hill-tribe of Hindustan, dance generally in pairs, with a

shuffling step, the eyes on the ground, the arms close to the body, and

the elbows at an angle with the closed hand. Advancing to a point, the

dancer suddenly erects his head, and wheels round to the starting point.

The women of the Pultooah tribe dance in a circle, moving backwards and

forwards in a bent posture. The Santal women, again, are slow and

graceful in dance; joining hands, they form themselves into the arc of a

circle, towards the centre of which they advance and then retire, moving

at the same time slightly towards the right, so as to complete the

circle in an hour. The Kukis of Assam have only the rudest possible

step, an awkward hop with the knees very much bent. The national dance

of the Kamchadale is one of the most violent known, every muscle

apparently quivering at every movement. But there, and in some other

cases where men and women dance together, there is a trace of deliberate

obscenity; the dance is, in fact, a rude representation of sexual

passion. It has been said that some of the Tasmanian _corrobories_ have

a phallic design. The Yucatan dance of _naual_ may also be mentioned.

The Andamans hop on one foot and swing the arms violently backwards and

forwards. The Veddahs jump with both feet together, patting their

bodies, or clapping their hands, and make a point of bringing their long

hair down in front of the face. In New Caledonia the dance consists of a

series of twistings of the body, the feet being lifted alternately, but

without change of place. The Fijians jump half round from side to side

with their arms akimbo. The only modulation of the Samoan dance is one

of time--a _crescendo_ movement, which is well-known in the modern

ball-room. The Javans are perhaps unique in their distinct and graceful

gestures of the hands and fingers. At a Mexican feast called

Huitzilopochtli, the noblemen and women danced tied together at the

hands, and embracing one another, the arms being thrown over the neck.

This resembles the dance variously known as the Greek Bracelet or Brawl,

[Greek: Hormos], or Bearsfeet; but all of them[1] probably are to a

certain extent symbolical of the relations between the sexes. Actual

contact of the partners, however, is quite intelligible as matter of

pure dancing; for, apart altogether from the pleasure of the embrace,

the harmony of the double rotation adds very much to the enjoyment. In a

very old Peruvian dance of ceremony before the Inca, several hundreds of

men formed a chain, each taking hold of the hand of the man beyond his

immediate neighbour, and the whole body moving forwards and backwards

three steps at a time as they approached the throne. In this, as in the

national dance of the Coles of Lower Bengal, there was perhaps a

suggestion of "l'union fait la force." In Yucatan stilts were

occasionally used for dancing.

It seldom happens that dancing takes place without accompaniment, either

by the dancers or by others. This is not merely because the feelings

which find relief in dancing express themselves at the same time in

other forms; in some cases, indeed, the vocal and instrumental elements

largely predominate, and form the ground-work of the whole emotional

demonstration. Whether they do so or not will of course depend on the

intellectual advancement of the nation or tribe and upon the particular

development of their aesthetical sensibility. A striking instance occurs

among the Zulus, whose grand dances are merely the accompaniment to the

colloquial war and hunting songs, in which the women put questions which

are answered by the men. So also in Tahiti there is a set of national

ballads and songs, referring to many events in the past and present

lives of the people. The fisherman, the woodsman, the canoe-builder,

has each his trade song, which on public occasions at least is

illustrated by dancing. But the accompaniment is often consciously

intended, by an appeal to the ear, to regulate and sustain the

excitement of the muscles. And a close relation will be found always to

exist between the excellence of a nation's dancing and the excellence or

complexity of its music and poetry. In some cases the performer himself

sings or marks time by the clanking of ornaments on his person. In

others the accompaniment consists sometimes of a rude chant improvised

by those standing round, or of music from instruments, or of mere

clapping of the hands, or of striking one stick against another or on

the ground, or of "marking time," in the technical sense. The Tasmanians

beat on a rolled-up kangaroo-skin. The Kamchadales make a noise like a

continuous hiccough all through the dance. The Andamans use a large

hollow dancing-board, on which one man is set apart to stamp. Sometimes

it is the privilege of the tribal chief to sing the accompaniment while

his people dance. The savages of New Caledonia whistle and strike upon

the hip.

The rude imitative dances of early civilization are of extreme interest.

In the same way the dances of the Ostyak tribes (Northern Asiatic)

imitate the habitual sports of the chase and the gambols of the wolf and

the bear and other wild beasts, the dancing consisting mainly of sudden

leaps and violent turns which exhaust the muscular powers of the whole

body. The Kamchadales, too, in dancing, imitate bears, dogs and birds.

The _Kru_ dances of the Coast Negroes represent hunting scenes; and on

the Congo, before the hunters start, they go through a dance imitating

the habits of the gorilla and its movements when attacked. The Damara

dance is a mimic representation of the movements of oxen and sheep, four

men stooping with their heads in contact and uttering harsh cries. The

canter of the baboon is the humorous part of the ceremony. The Bushmen

dance in long irregular jumps, which they compare to the leaping of a

herd of calves, and the Hottentots not only go on all-fours to

counterfeit the baboon, but they have a dance in which the buzzing of a

swarm of bees is represented. The Kennowits in Borneo introduce the mias

and the deer for the same purpose. The Australians and Tasmanians in

their dances called _corrobories_ imitate the frog and the kangaroo

(both leaping animals). The hunt of the emu is also performed, a number

of men passing slowly round the fire and throwing their arrows about so

as to imitate the movements of the animal's head while feeding. The

Gonds are fond of dancing the bison hunt, one man with skin and horns

taking the part of the animal. Closely allied to these are the mimic

fights, almost universal among tribes to which war is one of the great

interests of life. The Bravery dance of the Dahomans and the Hoolee of

the Bhil tribe in the Vindhya Hills are illustrations. The latter seems

to have been reduced to an amusement conducted by professionals who go

from village to village,--the battle being engaged in by women with long

poles on the one side, and men with short cudgels on the other. There is

here an element of comedy, which also appears in the Fiji club-dance.

This, although no doubt originally suggested by war, is enlivened by the

presence of a clown covered with leaves and wearing a mask. The

monotonous song accompanying the club-dance is by way of commentary or

explanation. So, also, in Guatemala there is a public _baile_ or dance,

in which all the performers, wearing the skins and heads of beasts, go

through a mock battle, which always ends in the victory of those wearing

the deer's head. At the end the victors trace in the sand with a pole

the figure of some animal; and this exhibition is supposed to have some

historical reference. But nearly all savage tribes have a regular

war-dance, in which they appear in fighting costume, handle their

weapons, and go through the movements of challenge, conflict, pursuit or

defeat. The women generally supply the stimulus of music. There is one

very picturesque dance of the Natal Kaffirs, which probably refers to

the departure of the warriors for the battle. The women appeal

plaintively to the men, who slowly withdraw, stamping on the ground and

darting their short spears or _assegais_ towards the sky. In

Madagascar, when the men are absent on war, the women dance for a great

part of the day, believing that this inspires their husbands with

courage. In this, however, there may be some religious significance.

These war-dances are totally distinct from the institution of military

drill, which belongs to a later period, when social life has become less

impulsive and more reflective.[2] There can be little doubt that some of

the characteristic movements of these primitive hunting and war-dances

survive in the smooth and ceremonious dances of the present day. But the

early mimetic dance was not confined to these two subjects; it embraced

the other great events of savage life--the drama of courtship and

marriage, the funeral dance, the consecration of labour, the celebration

of harvest or vintage;[3] sometimes, too, purely fictitious scenes of

dramatic interest, while other dances degenerated into games. For

instance, in Yucatan one man danced in a cowering attitude round a

circle, while another followed, hurling at him _bohordos_ or canes,

which were adroitly caught on a small stick. Again, in Tasmania, the

dances of the women describe their "clamber for the opossum, diving for

shell-fish, digging for roots, nursing children and quarrelling with

husbands." Another dance, in which a woman by gesture taunts a chieftain

with cowardice, gives him an opportunity of coming forward and

recounting his courageous deeds in dance. The funeral dance of the Todas

(another Indian hill-tribe) consists in walking backwards and forwards,

without variation, to a howling tune of "ha! hoo!" The meaning of this

is obscure, but it can scarcely be solely an outburst of grief. In

Dahomey the blacksmiths, carpenters, hunters, braves and bards, with

their various tools and instruments, join in a dramatic dance. We may

add here a form of dance which is almost precisely equivalent to the

spoken incantation. It is used by the professional devil-dancer of the

wild Veddahs for the cure of diseases. An offering of eatables is put on

a tripod of sticks, and the dancer, decorated with green leaves, goes

into a paroxysm of dancing, in the midst of which he receives the

required information. This, however, rather belongs to the subject of

religious dances.

It is impossible here to enumerate either the names or the forms of the

sacred dances which formed so prominent a part of the worship of

antiquity. A mystic philosophy found in them a resemblance to the

courses of the stars. This Pythagorean idea was expanded by Sir John

Davies, in his epic poem _Orchestra_, published in 1596. They were

probably adapted to many purposes,--to thanksgiving, praise,

supplication and humiliation. It is only one striking illustration of

this widespread practice, that there was at Rome a very ancient order of

priests especially named Salii, who struck their shields and sang

_assamenta_ as they danced. The practice reappeared in the early church,

special provision being made for dancing in the choir. Scaliger, who

astonished Charles V. by his dancing powers, says the bishops were

called _Praesules_, because they led the dance on feast days. According

to some of the fathers, the angels are always dancing, and the glorious

company of the apostles is really a _chorus_ of dancers. Dancing,

however, fell into discredit with the feast of the _Agapae_. St

Augustine says, "Melius est fodere quam saltare"; and the practice was

generally prohibited for some time. No church or sect has raged so

fiercely against the cardinal sin of dancing as the Albigenses of

Languedoc and the Waldenses, who agreed in calling it the devil's

procession. After the middle of the 18th century there were still traces

of religious dancing in the cathedrals of Spain, Portugal and

Roussillon--especially in the Mozarabic Mass of Toledo. An account of

the numerous secular dances, public and private, of Greece and Rome will

be found in the classical histories, and in J. Weaver's _Essay towards a

History of Dancing_, (London, 1712), which, however, must be revised by

more recent authorities. The Pyrrhic (derived from the Memphitic) in all

its local varieties, the Bacchanalia and the Hymenaea were among the

more important. The name of Lycurgus is also associated with the

Trichoria. Among the stage dances of the Athenians, which formed

interludes to the regular drama, one of the oldest was the Delian dance

of the Labyrinth, ascribed to Theseus, and called [Greek: Geranos], from

its resemblance to the flight of cranes, and one of the most powerful

was the dance of the Eumenides. A further development of the art took

place at Rome, under Augustus, when Pylades and Bathyllus brought

serious and comic pantomime to great perfection. The subjects chosen

were such as the labours of Hercules, and the surprise of Venus and Mars

by Vulcan. The state of public feeling on the subject is well shown in

Lucian's amusing dialogue _De Saltatione_. Before this Rome had only

very inferior buffoons, who attended dinner parties, and whose art

traditions belonged not to Greece, but to Etruria.[4] Apparently,

however, the Romans, though fond of ceremony and of the theatre, were by

temperament not great dancers in private. Cicero says: "Nemo fere saltat

sobrius, nisi forte insanit." But the Italic dance of the imperial

theatre, supported by music and splendid dresses, supplanted for a time

the older dramas. It was the policy of Augustus to cultivate other than

political interests for the people; and he passed laws for the

protection and privilege of the pantomimists. They were freed from the

_jus virgarum_, and they used their freedom against the peace of the

city. Tiberius and Domitian oppressed and banished them; Trajan and

Aurelius gave them such titles as decurions and priests of Apollo; but

the pantomime stage soon yielded to the general corruption of the

empire.

_Modern Dancing._--In modern civilized countries dancing has developed

as an art and pastime, as an entertainment. Its direct application to

arouse emotion or religious feeling tends to be obscured and finally

dropped out.

Italy, in the 15th century, saw the renaissance of dancing, and France

may be said to have been the nursery of the modern art, though

comparatively few modern dances are really French in origin. The

national dances of other countries were brought to France, studied

systematically, and made perfect there. An English or a Bohemian dance,

practised only amongst peasants, would be taken to France, polished and

perfected, and would at last find its way back to its own country, no

more recognizable than a piece of elegant cloth when it returns from the

printer to the place from which as "grey" material it was sent. The fact

that the terminology of dancing is almost entirely French is a

sufficient indication of the origin of the rules that govern it. The

earliest dances that bear any relation to the modern art are probably

the _danses basses_ and _danses hautes_ of the 16th century. The _danse

basse_ was the dance of the court of Charles IX. and of good society,

the steps being very grave and dignified, not to say solemn, and the

accompaniment a psalm tune. The _danses hautes_ or _baladines_ had a

skipping step, and were practised only by clowns and country people.

More lively dances, such as the _Gaillarde_ and _Volta_, were introduced

into France from Italy by Catherine de' Medici, but even in these the

interest was chiefly spectacular. Other dances of the same period were

the _Branle_ (afterwards corrupted to _Braule_, and known in England as

the Brawle)--a kind of generic dance which was capable of an almost

infinite amount of variety. Thus there were imitative dances--_Branles

mimes_, such as the _Branles des Ermites_, _Branles des flambeaux_ and

the _Branles des lavandieres_. The _Branle_ in its original form had

steps like the _Allemande_. Perhaps the most famous and stately dance of

this period was the _Pavane_ (of Spanish origin), which is very fully

described in Tabouret's _Orchesographie_, the earliest work in which a

dance is found minutely described. The _Pavane_, which was really more a

procession than a dance, must have been a very gorgeous and noble sight,

and it was perfectly suited to the dress of the period, the stiff

brocades of the ladies and the swords and heavily-plumed hats of the

gentlemen being displayed in its simple and dignified measures to great

advantage. The dancers in the time of Henry III. of France usually

sang, while performing the _Pavane_, a _chanson_, of which this is one

of the verses:

"Approche donc, ma belle,

Approche-toi, mon bien;

Ne me sois plus rebelle,

Puisque mon coeur est tien;

Pour mon ame apaiser,

Donne-moi un baiser."

In the _Pavane_ and _Branle_, and in nearly all the dances of the 17th

and 18th centuries, the practice of kissing formed a not unimportant

part, and seems to have added greatly to the popularity of the pastime.

Another extremely popular dance was the _Saraband_, which, however, died

out after the 17th century. It was originally a Spanish dance, but

enjoyed an enormous success for a time in France. Every dance at that

time had its own tune or tunes, which were called by its own name, and

of the _Saraband_ the chevalier de Grammont wrote that "it either

charmed or annoyed everyone, for all the guitarists of the court began

to learn it, and God only knows the universal twanging that followed."

Vauquelin des Yveteaux, in his eightieth year, desired to die to the

tune of the _Saraband_, "so that his soul might pass away sweetly."

After the _Pavane_ came the _Courante_, a court dance performed on

tiptoe with slightly jumping steps and many bows and curtseys. The

_Courante_ is one of the most important of the strictly modern dances.

The minuet and the waltz were both in some degree derived from it, and

it had much in common with the famous _Seguidilla_ of Spain. It was a

favourite dance of Louis XIV., who was an adept in the art, and it was

regarded in his time as of such importance that a nobleman's education

could hardly have been said to be begun until he had mastered the

_Courante_.

The dance which the French brought to the greatest perfection--which

many, indeed, regard as the fine flower of the art--was the _Minuet_.

Its origin, as a rustic dance, is not less antique than that of the

other dances from which the modern art has been evolved. It was

originally a _branle_ of Poitou, derived from the _Courante_. It came to

Paris in 1650, and was first set to music by Lully. It was at first a

gay and lively dance, but on being brought to court it soon lost its

sportive character and became grave and dignified. It is mentioned by

Beauchamps, the father of dancing-masters, who flourished in Louis

XIV.'s reign, and also by Blondy, his pupil; but it was Pecour who

really gave the minuet its popularity, and although it was improved and

made perfect by Dauberval, Gardel, Marcel and Vestris, it was in Louis

XV.'s reign that it saw its golden age. It was then a dance for two in

moderate triple time, and was generally followed by the gavotte.

Afterwards the minuet was considerably developed, and with the gavotte

became chiefly a stage dance and a means of display; but it should be

remembered that the minuets which are now danced on the stage are

generally highly elaborated with a view to their spectacular effect, and

have imported into them steps and figures which do not belong to the

minuet at all, but are borrowed from all kinds of other dances. The

original court minuet was a grave and simple dance, although it did not

retain its simplicity for long. But when it became elaborated it was

glorified and moulded into a perfect expression of an age in which

deportment was most sedulously cultivated and most brilliantly polished.

The "languishing eye and smiling mouth" had their due effect in the

minuet; it was a school for chivalry, courtesy and ceremony; the hundred

slow graceful movements and curtseys, the pauses which had to be filled

by neatly-turned compliments, the beauty and bravery of attire--all were

eloquent of graces and outward refinements which we cannot boast now.

The fact that the measure of the minuet has become incorporated in the

structure of the symphony shows how important was its place in the

polite world. The _Gavotte_, which was often danced as a pendant to the

minuet, was also originally a peasant's dance, a _danse des Gavots_, and

consisted chiefly of kissing and capering. It also became stiff and

artificial, and in the later and more prudish half of the 18th century

the ladies received bouquets instead of kisses in dancing the gavotte.

It rapidly became a stage dance, and it has never been restored to the

ballroom. Gretry attempted to revive it, but his arrangement never

became popular. Other dances which were naturalized in France were the

_Ecossaise_, popular in 1760; the _Cotillon_, fashionable under Charles

X., derived from the peasant _branles_ and danced by ladies in short

skirts; the _Galop_, imported from Germany; the _Lancers_, invented by

Laborde in 1836; the _Polka_, brought by a dancing-master from Prague in

1840; the _Schottische_, also Bohemian, first introduced in 1844; the

_Bourree_, or French clog-dance; the _Quadrille_, known in the 18th

century as the _Contre-danse_; and the _Waltz_, which was danced as a

_volte_ by Henry III. of France, but only became popular in the

beginning of the 19th century. We shall return to the history of some of

these later dances in discussing the dances at present in use.

If France has been the nursery and school of the art of dancing, Spain is

its true home. There it is part of the national life, the inevitable

expression of the gay, contented, irresponsible, sunburnt nature of the

people. The form of Spanish dances has hardly changed; some of them are

of great antiquity, and may be traced back with hardly a break to the

performances in ancient Rome of the famous dancing-girls of Cadiz. The

connexion is lost during the period of the Arab invasion, but the art was

not neglected, and Jovellanos suggests that it took refuge in the

Asturias. At any rate, dances of the 10th and 12th centuries have been

preserved uncorrupted. The earliest dances known were the _Turdion_, the

_Gibidana_, the _Pie-de-gibao_, and (later) the _Madama Orleans_, the

_Alemana_ and the _Pavana_. Under Philip IV. theatrical dancing was in

high popularity, and ballets were organized with extraordinary

magnificence of decoration and costume. They supplanted the national

dances, and the _Zarabanda_ and _Chacona_ were practically extinct in the

18th century. It is at this period that the famous modern Spanish dances,

the _Bolero_, _Seguidilla_ and the _Fandango_, first appear. Of these the

_Fandango_ is the most important. It is danced by two people in 6-8 time,

beginning slowly and tenderly, the rhythm marked by the click of

castanets, the snapping of the fingers and the stamping of feet, and the

speed gradually increasing until a whirl of exaltation is reached. A

feature of the _Fandango_ and also of the _Seguidilla_ is a sudden pause

of the music towards the end of each measure, upon which the dancers

stand rigid in the attitudes in which the stopping of the music found

them, and only move again when the music is resumed. M. Vuillier, in his

_History of Dancing_, gives the following description of the

_Fandango_:--"Like an electric shock, the notes of the Fandango animate

all hearts. Men and women, young and old, acknowledge the power of this

air over the ears and soul of every Spaniard. The young men spring to

their places, rattling castanets or imitating their sound by snapping

their fingers. The girls are remarkable for the willowy languor and

lightness of their movements, the voluptuousness of their

attitudes--beating the exactest time with tapping heels. Partners tease

and entreat and pursue each other by turns. Suddenly the music stops, and

each dancer shows his skill by remaining absolutely motionless, bounding

again into the full life of the Fandango as the orchestra strikes up. The

sound of the guitar, the violin, the rapid tic-tac of heels (_taconeos_),

the crack of fingers and castanets, the supple swaying of the dancers,

fill the spectator with ecstasy. The measure whirls along in a rapid

triple time. Spangles glitter; the sharp clank of ivory and ebony

castanets beats out the cadence of strange, throbbing, deepening

notes--assonances unknown to music, but curiously characteristic,

effective and intoxicating. Amidst the rustle of silks, smiles gleam over

white teeth, dark eyes sparkle and droop and flash up again in flame. All

is flutter and glitter, grace and animation--quivering, sonorous,

passionate, seductive."

The _Bolero_ is a comparatively modern dance, having been invented by

Sebastian Cerezo, a celebrated dancer of the time of King Charles III.

It is remarkable for the free use made in it of the arms, and is said to

be derived from the ancient _Zarabanda_, a violent and licentious dance,

which has entirely disappeared, and with which the later Saraband has

practically nothing in common. The step of the _Bolero_ is low and

gliding but well marked. It is danced by one or more couples. The

_Seguidilla_ is hardly less ancient than the _Fandango_, which it

resembles. Every province in Spain has its own _Seguidilla_, and the

dance is accompanied by _coplas_, or verses, which are sung either to

traditional melodies or to the tunes of local composers; indeed, the

national music of Spain consists largely of these coplas. Baron

Davillier, among several specimens of _Seguidillas_, gives this one

"Mi corazon volando

Se fue a tu pecho;

Le cortaste las alas,

Y quedo dentro.

Por atrevido

Se quedara por siempre

En el metido."[5]

M. Vuillier quotes a _copla_ which he heard at Polenza, in the Balearic

Islands. This verse is formed on the rhythm of the _Malaguena_:

"Una estrella se ha pardida

En el ciel y no parece;

En tu cara se ha metido;

Y en tu frente resplandece."[6]

The _Jota_ is the national dance of Aragon, a lively and splendid, but

withal dignified and reticent, dance derived from the 16th-century

_Passacaille_. It is still used as a religious dance. The _Cachuca_ is a

light and graceful dance in triple time. It is performed by a single

dancer of either sex. The head and shoulders play an important part in

the movements of this dance. Other provincial dances now in existence

are the _Jaleo de Jerez_, a whirling measure performed by gipsies, the

_Palotea_, the _Polo_, the _Gallegada_, the _Muyneria_, the _Habas

Verdes_, the _Zapateado_, the _Zorongo_, the _Vito_, the _Tirano_ and

the _Tripola Trapola_. Most of these dances are named either after the

places where they are danced or after the composers who have invented

tunes for them. Many of them are but slight variations from the

_Fandango_ and _Seguidilla_.

The history of court dancing in Great Britain is practically the same as

that of France, and need not occupy much of our attention here. But

there are strictly national dances still in existence which are quite

peculiar to the country, and may be traced back to the dances and games

of the Saxon gleemen. The Egg dance and the Carole were both Saxon

dances, the Carole being a Yule-tide festivity, of which the present-day

Christmas carol is a remnant. The oldest dances which remain unchanged

in England are the Morris dances, which were introduced in the time of

Edward III. The name Morris or Moorish refers to the origin of these

dances, which are said to have been brought back by John of Gaunt from

his travels in Spain. The Morris dances are associated with May-day, and

are danced round a maypole to a lively and capering step, some of the

performers having bells fastened to their knees in the Moorish manner.

They are dressed as characters of old English tradition, such as Robin

Hood, Maid Marian, Friar Tuck, Little John and Tom the Piper. All the

true country dances of Great Britain are of an active and lively

measure; they may all, indeed, be said to be founded on the jig; and the

hornpipe, which is a kind of jig, is the national dance of England.

Captain Cook, on his voyages, made his sailors dance hornpipes in calm

weather to keep them in good health. A characteristic of English dances

was that they partook to a great extent of the nature of games; there

was little variety in the steps, which were nearly all those of the jig

or hornpipe, but these were incorporated into various games or plays, of

which the Morris dances were the most elaborate. Richard Baxter wrote

that "sometimes the Morris dancers would come into the church in all

their linen and scarves and antic dresses, with Morris bells jingling at

their legs; and as soon as Common Prayer was read, did haste and

presently to their play again." May-day has always been celebrated in

England with rustic dances and festivities. Before the Reformation there

were no really national dances in use at court; but in the reign of

Elizabeth the homely, domestic style of dancing reached the height of

its popularity. Remnants of many of these dances remain to-day in the

games played by children and country people; "Hunt the Slipper," "Kiss

in the Ring," "Here we go round the Mulberry Bush," are examples. All

the Tudor dances were kissing dances, and must have been the occasion of

a great deal of merriment. Mrs Groves gives the following description of

the Cushion dance:--"The dance is begun by a single person, man or

woman, who, taking a cushion in hand, dances about the room, and at the

end of a short time stops and sings: 'This dance it will no farther go,'

to which the musician answers: 'I pray you, good sir, why say so?'

'Because Joan Sanderson will not come to.' 'She must come to whether she

will or no,' returns the musician, and then the dancer lays the cushion

before a woman; she kneels and he kisses her, singing 'Welcome, Joan

Sanderson.' Then she rises, takes up the cushion, and both dance and

sing 'Prinkum prankum is a fine dance, and shall we go dance it over

again?' Afterwards the woman takes the cushion and does as the man did."

Other popular dances--generally adapted to the tunes of popular songs,

the nature of some of which may be guessed from their titles--were the

Trenchmore, Omnium-gatherum, Tolly-polly, Hoite cum toite, Dull Sir

John, Faine I would, Sillinger, All in a Garden Green, An Old Man's a

Bed Full of Bones, If All the World were Paper, John, Come Kiss Me Now,

Cuckholds All Awry, Green Sleeves and Pudding Pies, Lumps of Pudding,

Under and Over, Up Tails All, The Slaughter House, Rub her Down with

Straw, Have at thy Coat Old Woman, The Happy Marriage, Dissembling Love,

Sweet Kate, Once I Loved a Maiden Fair. Dancing practically disappeared

during the Puritan _regime_, but with the Restoration it again became

popular. It underwent no considerable developments, however, until the

reign of Queen Anne, when the glories of Bath were revived in the

beginning of the 18th century, and Beau Nash drew up his famous codes of

rules for the regulation of dress and manners, and founded the balls in

which the polite French dances completely eclipsed the simpler English

ones. An account of a dancing lesson witnessed by a fond parent at this

time is worth quoting, as it shows how far the writer (but not his

daughter) had departed from the jolly, romping traditions of the old

English dances:--"As the best institutions are liable to corruption, so,

sir, I must acquaint you that very great abuses are crept into this

entertainment. I was amazed to see my girl handed by and handing young

fellows with so much familiarity, and I could not have thought it had

been my child. They very often made use of a most impudent and

lascivious step called _setting_ to partners, which I know not how to

describe to you but by telling you that it is the very reverse of _back_

to _back_. At last an impudent young dog bid the fiddlers play a dance

called _Moll Patley_, and, after having made two or three capers, ran to

his partner, locked his arms in hers, and whisked her round cleverly

above ground in such a manner that I, who sat upon one of the lowest

benches, saw farther above her shoe than I can think fit to acquaint you

with. I could no longer endure these enormities, wherefore, just as my

girl was going to be made a whirligig, I ran in, seized my child and

carried her home." What we may call polite dancing, when it became

fashionable, soon invaded London, its first home being Madame Cornely's

famous Carlisle House in Soho Square. Ranelagh and Vauxhall and Almack's

were all extensively patronized, and the rage for magnificent

entertainment and dancing culminated in the erection of the palatial

Pantheon in Oxford Street--a place so universally patronized that even

Dr Johnson was to be found there. White's and Boodle's were also famous

assembly rooms, but the most exclusive of all these establishments was

Almack's, the original of Brooks's Club.

The only true national dances of Scotland are reels, strathspeys and

flings, while in Ireland there is but one dance--the jig, which is

there, however, found in many varieties and expressive of many shades of

emotion, from the maddest gaiety to the wildest lament. Curiously

enough, although the Welsh dance often, they have no strictly national

dances.

Dancing in present-day society is a comparatively simple affair, as

five-sixths of almost all ball programmes consists of waltzes. The

origin of the waltz is a much-debated subject, the French, Italians and

Bavarians each claiming for their respective countries the honour of

having given birth to it. As a matter of fact the waltz, as it is now

danced, comes from Germany; but it is equally true that its real origin

is French, since it is a development of the _Volte_, which in its turn

came from the _Lavolta_ of Provence, one of the most ancient of French

dances. The _Lavolta_ was fashionable in the 16th century and was the

delight of the Valois court. The _Volte_ danced by Henry III. was really

a _Valse a deux pas_; and Castil-Blaze says that "the waltz which we

took again from the Germans in 1795 had been a French dance for four

hundred years." The change, it is true, came upon it during its visit to

Germany, hence the theory of its German origin. The first German waltz

tune is dated 1770--"Ach! du lieber Augustin." It was first danced at

the Paris opera in 1793, in Gardel's ballet _La Dansomanie_. It was

introduced to English ballrooms in 1812, when it roused a storm of

ridicule and opposition, but it became popular when danced at Almack's

by the emperor Alexander in 1816. The waltz _a trois temps_ has a

sliding step in which the movements of the knees play an important part.

The _tempo_ is moderate, so as to allow three distinct movements on the

three beats of each bar; and the waltz is written in 3-4 time and in

eight-bar sentences. Walking up and down the room and occasionally

breaking into the step of the dance is not true waltzing, and the habit

of pushing one's partner backwards along the room is an entirely English

one. But the dancer must be able to waltz equally well in all

directions, pivoting and crossing the feet when necessary in the reverse

turn. It need hardly be said that the feet should never leave the floor

in the true waltz. Gungl, Waldteufel and the Strauss family may be said

to have moulded the modern waltz to its present form by their rhythmical

and agreeable compositions. There are variations which include hopping

and lurching steps; these are degradations, and foreign to the spirit of

the true waltz.

The _Quadrille_ is of some antiquity, and a dance of this kind was first

brought to England from Normandy by William the Conqueror, and was

common all over Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. The term

quadrille means a kind of card game, and the dance is supposed to be in

some way connected with the game. A species of quadrille appeared in a

French ballet in 1745, and since that time the dance has gone by that

name. Like many other dances, it came from Paris to Almack's in 1815,

and in its modern form was danced in England for the first time by Lady

Jersey, Lady Harriet Butler, Lady Susan Ryder and Miss Montgomery, with

Count Aldegarde, Mr Montgomery, Mr Harley and Mr Montague. It

immediately became popular. It then consisted of very elaborate steps,

which in England have been simplified until the degenerate practice has

become common of walking through the dance. The quadrille, properly

danced, has many of the graces of the minuet. It is often stated that

the square dance is of modern French origin. This is incorrect, and

probably arises from a mistaken identification of the terms quadrille

and square dance. "Dull Sir John" and "Faine I would" were square dances

popular in England three hundred years ago.

An account of the country-dance, with the names of some of the old

dance-tunes, has been given above. The word is not, as has been

supposed, an adaptation of the French _contre-danse_, neither is the

dance itself French in origin. According to the _New English

Dictionary_, _contre-danse_ is a corruption of "country-dance," possibly

due to a peculiar feature of many of such dances, like Sir Roger de

Coverley, where the partners are drawn up in lines opposite to each

other. The earliest appearance of the French word is in its application

to English dances, which are contrasted with the French; thus in the

_Memoirs of Grammont_, Hamilton says: "On quitta les danses francaises

pour se mettre aux contre-danses." The English "country-dances" were

introduced into France in the early part of the 18th century and became

popular; later French modifications were brought back to England under

the French form of the name, and this, no doubt, caused the

long-accepted but confused derivation.

The _Lancers_ were invented by Laborde in Paris in 1836. They were

brought over to England in 1850, and were made fashionable by Madame

Sacre at her classes in Hanover Square Rooms. The first four ladies to

dance the lancers in England were Lady Georgina Lygon, Lady Jane

Fielding, Mdlle. Olga de Lechner and Miss Berkeley.

The _Polka_, the chief of the Bohemian national dances, was adopted by

Society in 1835 at Prague. Josef Neruda had seen a peasant girl dancing

and singing the polka, and had noted down the tune and the steps. From

Prague it readily spread to Vienna, and was introduced to Paris by

Cellarius, a dancing-master, who gave it at the Odeon in 1840. It took

the public by storm, and spread like an infection through England and

America. Everything was named after the polka, from public-houses to

articles of dress. Mr Punch exerted his wit on the subject weekly, and

even _The Times_ complained that its French correspondence was

interrupted, since the polka had taken the place of politics in Paris.

The true polka has three slightly jumping steps, danced on the first

three beats of a four-quaver bar, the last beat of which is employed as

a rest while the toe of the unemployed foot is drawn up against the heel

of the other.

The _Galop_ is strictly speaking a Hungarian dance, which became popular

in Paris in 1830. But some kind of a dance corresponding to the galop

was always indulged in after _Voltes_ and _Contre-danses_, as a relief

from their grave and constrained measures.

The _Washington Post_ and several varieties of _Barn-dance_ are of

American origin, and became fashionable towards the end of the 19th

century.

The _Polka-Mazurka_ is extremely popular in Vienna and Budapest, and is

a favourite theme with Hungarian composers. The six movements of this

dance occupy two bars of 3-4 time, and consist of a mazurka step joined

to the polka. It is of Polish origin.

The _Polonaise_ and _Mazurka_ are both Polish dances, and are still

fashionable in Russia and Poland. Every State ball in Russia is opened

with the ceremonious Polonaise.

The _Schottische_, a kind of modified polka, was "created" by Markowski,

who was the proprietor of a famous dancing academy in 1850. The

_Highland Schottische_ is a fling. The Fling and Reel are Celtic dances,

and form the national dances of Scotland and Denmark. They are

complicated measures of a studied and classical order, in which free use

is made of the arms and of cries and stampings. The _Strathspey_ is a

slow and grandiose modification of the Reel.

_Sir Roger de Coverley_ is the only one of the old English social dances

which has survived to the present day, and it is frequently danced at

the conclusion of the less formal sort of balls. It is a merry and

lively game in which all the company take part, men and women facing

each other in two long rows. The dancers are constantly changing places

in such a way that if the dance is carried to its conclusion everyone

will have danced with everyone else. The music was first printed in

1685, and is sometimes written in 2-4 time, sometimes in 6-8 time, and

sometimes in 3-9 time.

The _Cotillon_ is a modern development of the French dance of the same

name referred to above. It is an extremely elaborate dance, in which a

great many toys and accessories are employed; hundreds of figures may be

contrived for it, in which presents, toys, lighted tapers, biscuits,

air-balloons and hurdles are used.

_Ballet, &c._--The modern ballet (q.v.) seems to have been first

produced on a considerable scale in 1489 at Tortona, before Duke

Galeazzo of Milan. It soon became a common amusement on great occasions

at the European courts. The ordinary length was five acts, each

containing several _entrees_, and each _entree_ containing several

quadrilles. The accessories of painting, sculpture and movable scenery

were employed, and the representation often took place at night. The

allegorical, moral and ludicrous ballets were introduced to France by

Baif in the time of Catherine de' Medici. The complex nature of these

exhibitions may be gathered from the title of one played at Turin in

1634--_La verita nemica della apparenza, sollevata dal tempo._ Of the

ludicrous, one of the best known was the Venetian ballet of _I a verita

raminga_. Now and then, however, a high political aim may be discovered,

as in the "Prosperity of the Arms of France," danced before Richelieu in

1641, or "Religion uniting Great Britain to the rest of the World,"

danced at London on the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to the elector

Frederick. Outside the theatre, the Portuguese revived an ambulatory

ballet which was played on the canonization of Carlo Borromeo, and to

which they gave the name of the Tyrrhenic Pomp. During this time also

the ceremonial ball (with all its elaborate detail of _courante_, minuet

and saraband) was cultivated. The fathers of the church assembled at

Trent gave a ball in which they took a part. Masked balls, too,

resembling in some respects the Roman Saturnalia, became common towards

the end of the 17th century. In France a ball was sometimes diversified

by a masquerade, carried on by a limited number of persons in

character-costume. Two of the most famous were named "au Sauvage" and

"des Sorciers." In 1715 the regent of France started a system of public

balls in the opera-house, which did not succeed. Dancing, also, formed a

leading element in the Opera Francais introduced by Quinault. His

subjects were chiefly marvellous, drawn from the classical mythologies;

and the choral dancing was not merely _divertissement_, but was intended

to assist and enrich the dramatic action of the whole piece.

_Musical Gymnastics._--Dancing is an important branch of physical

education. Long ago Locke pointed out (_Education_, SS 67, 196) that the

effects of dancing are not confined to the body; it gives to children,

he says, not mere outward gracefulness of motion, but manly thoughts and

a becoming confidence. Only lately, however, has the advantage been

recognized of making gymnastics attractive by connecting it with what

Homer calls "the sweetest and most perfect of human enjoyments." The

practical principle against heavy weights and intense monotonous

exertion of particular muscles was thus stated by Samuel Smiles

(_Physical Education_, p. 148):--"The greatest benefit is derived from

that exercise which calls into action the greatest number of muscles,

and in which the action of these is intermitted at the shortest

intervals." It required only one further step to see how, if light and

changing movements were desirable, music would prove a powerful stimulus

to gymnastics. It touches the play-impulse, and substitutes a

spontaneous flow of energy for the mechanical effort of the will. The

force of imitation or contagion, one of the most valuable forces in

education, is also much increased by the state of exhilaration into

which dancing puts the system. This idea was embodied by Froebel in his

_Kindergarten_ plan, and was developed by Jahn and Schreber in Germany,

by Dio Lewis in the United States, and by Ling (the author of the

_Swedish Cure Movement_) in Sweden.

AUTHORITIES.--For the old division of the _Ars Gymnastica_ into

_palaestrica_ and _saltatoria_, and of the latter into _cubistica_,

_sphaeristica_ and _orchestica_, see the learned work of Hieronymus

Mercurialis, _De arte Gymnastica_ (Amsterdam, 1572). Cubistic was the

art of throwing somersaults, and is described minutely by Tuccaro in

his _Trois Dialogues_ (Paris, 1599). Sphaeristic included several

complex games at ball and tilting--the Greek [Greek: korukos], and the

Roman _trigonalis_ and _paganica_. Orchestic, divided by Plutarch into

_latio_, _figura_ and _indicatio_, was really imitative dancing, the

"silent poetry" of Simonides. The importance of the [Greek:

cheironomia] or hand-movement is indicated by Ovid:--"Si vox est,

canta; si mollia brachia, salta." For further information as to modern

dancing, see Rameau's _Le maitre a danser_ (1726); Querlon's _Le

triomphe des graces_ (1774); Cahousac, _La danse ancienne et moderne_

(1754); Vuillier, _History of Dancing_ (Eng. trans., 1897); Giraudet,

_Traite de la danse_ (1900). (W. C. S.; A. B. F. Y.)