Chaucer writes--

"The daisie, or els the eye of the daie,

The emprise, and the floure of flouris alle";

and again--

"To seen this floure agenst the sunne sprede

Whan it riseth early by the morrow,

That blissful sight softeneth all my sorrow";

and the flower is often alluded to with admiration by the other poets of

nature. To the farmer, however, the daisy is a weed, and a most wasteful

one, as it exhausts the soil and is not eaten by any kind of stock.

In French the daisy is termed _la marguerite_ ([Greek: margarites], a

pearl), and "herb margaret" is stated to be an old English appellation

for it. In Scotland it is popularly called the gowan, and in Yorkshire

it is the bairn wort, or flower beloved by children. The Christmas and

Michaelmas daisies are species of _Aster_; the ox-eye daisy is

_Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_, a common weed in meadows and waste places.

_B. perennis flore-pleno_, the double daisy, consists of dwarf, showy, 3

to 4 in. plants, flowering freely in spring if grown in rich light soil,

and frequently divided and transplanted. The white and pink forms, with

the white and red quilled, and the variegated-leaved _aucubaefolia_, are

some of the best.

DAKAR, a seaport of Senegal, and capital of French West Africa, in 14

deg. 40' N., 17 deg. 24' W. The town, which is strongly fortified, holds

a commanding strategic position on the route between western Europe and

Brazil and South Africa, being situated in the Gulf of Goree on the

eastern side of the peninsula of Cape Verde, the most westerly point of

Africa. It is the only port of Senegal affording safe anchorage for the

largest ships. Pop. (1904), within the municipal limits, 18,447;

including suburbs, 23,452.

The town consists for the most part of broad and regular streets and

possesses several fine public buildings, notably the palace of the

governor-general. It is plentifully supplied with good water and is

fairly healthy. It is the starting point of the railway to St Louis, and

is within five days steam of Lisbon. The harbour, built in 1904-1908, is

formed by two jetties, one of 6840 ft., the other of 1968 ft., the

entrance being 720 ft. wide. There are three commercial docks, with over

7000 ft. of quayage, ships drawing 26 ft. being able to moor alongside.

Cargo is transferred directly to the railway trucks. There is also a

naval dock and arsenal with a torpedo-boat basin 755 ft. by 410 ft. and

a dry dock 656 ft. long and 92 ft. broad. The Messageries Maritimes

Company use the port as a coaling station and provisioning depot for

their South American trade. Dakar is a regular port of call for other

French lines and for the Elder Dempster boats sailing between Liverpool

and the West Coast of Africa. It shares with Rufisque and St Louis the

external trade of Senegal and the adjacent regions. For trade statistics

see SENEGAL.

Dakar was originally a dependency of Goree and was founded in 1862, a

year after the declaration of a French protectorate over the mainland.

The port was opened for commerce in 1867, and in 1885 its importance was

greatly increased by the completion of the railway (163 m. long) to St

Louis. Dakar thus came into direct communication with the countries of

Upper Senegal and the middle Niger. In 1887 the town was made a commune

on the French model, all citizens irrespective of colour being granted

the franchise. In 1903 the offices of the governor-general and of the

court of appeal of French West Africa were transferred from St Louis to

Dakar, which is also the seat of a bishop. In February 1905 a submarine

cable was laid between Brest and Dakar, affording direct telegraphic

communication between France and her West African colonies by an all

French route.

DALAGUETE, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine

Islands, at the mouth of the Tapon river on the E. coast, 50 m. S.S.W.

of Cebu, the capital. The town has a healthy climate, cool during

November, December, January and February, and hot during the rest of the

year. The inhabitants grow hemp, Indian corn, coffee, sibucao, cacao,

cocoanuts (for copra) and sugar, weave rough fabrics and manufacture

tuba (a kind of wine used as a stimulant), clay pots and jars, salt and

soap. There is some fishing here. The language is Cebu-Visayan.

DALBEATTIE, a police burgh of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901)

3469. It lies on Dalbeattie Burn, 14(1/2) m. S.W. of Dumfries by the

Glasgow & South-Western railway. The town dates from 1780 and owes its

rise to the granite quarries at Craignair and elsewhere in the vicinity,

from which were derived the supplies used in the construction of the

Thames Embankment, the docks at Odessa and Liverpool and other works.

Besides quarrying, the industries include granite-polishing, concrete

(crushed granite) works, dye-works, paper-mills and artificial manures.

The estuary of the Urr, known as Rough Firth, is navigable by ships of

from 80 to 100 tons, and small vessels can ascend as far as the mouth of

Dalbeattie Burn, within a mile of the town. A mile to the north-west

stand the ruins of the castle of Buittle or Botel, where lived John de

Baliol, founder of Baliol college, who had married Dervorguila, daughter

of Alan (d. 1234), the last "king" of Galloway.

DALBERG, the name of an ancient and distinguished German noble family,

derived from the hamlet and castle (now in ruins) of Dalberg or Dalburg

near Kreuznach in the Rhine Province. In the 14th century the original

house of Dalberg became extinct in the male line, the fiefs passing to

Johann Gerhard, chamberlain of the see of Worms, who married the heiress

of his cousin, Anton of Dalberg, about 1330. His own family was of great

antiquity, his ancestors having been hereditary ministerials of the

bishop of Worms since the time of Ekbert the chamberlain, who founded in

1119 the Augustinian monastery of Frankenthal and died in 1132. By the

close of the 15th century the Dalberg family had grown to be of such

importance that, in 1494, the German King Maximilian I. granted them the

honour of being the first to receive knighthood at the coronation; this

part of the ceremonies being opened by the herald asking in a loud voice

"Is no Dalberg present?" (_Ist kein Dalberg da?_). This picturesque

privilege the family enjoyed till the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The

elder line of the family of Dalberg-Dalberg became extinct in 1848, the

younger, that of Dalberg-Herrnsheim, in 1833. The male line of the

Dalbergs is now represented only by the family of Hessloch, descended

from Gerhard of Dalberg (c. 1239), which in 1809 succeeded to the title

and estates in Moravia and Bohemia of the extinct counts of Ostein.

The following are the most noteworthy members of the family:

1. JOHANN VON DALBERG (1445-1503), chamberlain and afterwards bishop of

Worms, son of Wolfgang von Dalberg. He studied at Erfurt and in Italy,

where he took his degree of doctor _utriusque juris_ at Ferrara and

devoted himself more especially to the study of Greek. Returning to

Germany, he became privy councillor to the elector palatine Philip, whom

he assisted in bringing the university of Heidelberg to the height of

its fame. He was instrumental in founding the first chair of Greek,

which was filled by his friend Rudolph Agricola, and he also established

the university library and a college for students of civil law. He was

an ardent humanist, was president of the _Sodalitas Celtica_ founded by

the poet Konrad Celtes (q.v.), and corresponded with many of the leading

scholars of his day, to whom he showed himself a veritable Maecenas. He

was employed also on various diplomatic missions by the emperor and the

elector.

See K. Morneweg, _Johann von Dalberg, ein deutscher Humanist und

Bischof_ (Heidelberg, 1887).

2. KARL THEODOR ANTON MARIA VON DALBERG (1744-1817), archbishop-elector

of Mainz, arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, and afterwards

primate of the Confederation of the Rhine and grand-duke of Frankfort.

He was the son of Franz Heinrich, administrator of Worms, one of the

chief counsellors of the elector of Mainz. Karl had devoted himself to

the study of canon law, and entered the church; and, having been

appointed in 1772 governor of Erfurt, he won further advancement by his

successful administration; in 1787 he was elected coadjutor of Mainz and

of Worms, and in 1788 of Constance; in 1802 he became archbishop-elector

of Mainz and arch-chancellor of the Empire. As statesman Dalberg was

distinguished by his "patriotic" attitude, whether in ecclesiastical

matters, in which he leaned to the Febronian view of a German national

church, or in his efforts to galvanize the atrophied machinery of the

Empire into some sort of effective central government of Germany.

Failing in this, he turned to the rising star of Napoleon, believing

that he had found in "the truly great man, the mighty genius which

governs the fate of the world," the only force strong enough to save

Germany from dissolution. By the peace of Luneville, accordingly, though

he had to surrender Worms and Constance, he received Regensburg,

Aschaffenburg and Wetzlar. On the dissolution of the Empire in 1806 he

formally resigned the office of arch-chancellor in a letter to the

emperor Francis, and was appointed by Napoleon prince primate of the

Confederation of the Rhine. In 1810, after the peace of Vienna

(Schonbrunn), the grand-duchy of Frankfort was created for his benefit

out of his territories, which, in spite of the cession of Regensburg to

Bavaria, were greatly augmented. Dalberg's subservience, as a prince of

the Confederation, to Napoleon was specially resented since, as a

priest, he had no excuse of necessity on the ground of saving family or

dynastic interests; his fortunes therefore fell with those of Napoleon,

and, when he died on the 10th of February 1817, of all his dignities he

was in possession only of the archbishopric of Regensburg. Weak and

shortsighted as a statesman, as a man and prelate Dalberg was amiable,

conscientious and large-hearted. Himself a scholar and author, he was a

notable patron of letters, and was the friend of Goethe, Schiller and

Wieland.

See Karl v. Beaulieu-Marconnay, _Karl von Dalberg und seine Zeit_

(Weimar, 1879).

3. WOLFGANG HERIBERT VON DALBERG (1750-1806), brother of the above. He

was intendant of the theatre at Mannheim, which he brought to a high

state of excellence. His chief claim to remembrance is that it was he

who first put Schiller's earlier dramas on the stage, and it is to him

that the poet's _Briefe an den Freiherrn von Dalberg_ (Karlsruhe, 1819)

are addressed. He himself wrote several plays, including adaptations of

Shakespeare. His brother, Johann Friedrich Hugo von Dalberg (1752-1812),

canon of Trier, Worms and Spires, had some vogue as a composer and

writer on musical subjects.

4. EMMERICH JOSEPH, DUC DE DALBERG (1773-1833), son of Baron Wolfgang

Heribert. He was born at Mainz on the 30th of May 1773. In 1803 he

entered the service of Baden, which he represented as envoy in Paris.

After the peace of Schonbrunn (1809) he entered the service of Napoleon,

who, in 1810, created him a duke and councillor of state. He had from

the first been on intimate terms with Talleyrand, and retired from the

public service when the latter fell out of the emperor's favour. In 1814

he was a member of the provisional government by whom the Bourbons were

recalled, and he attended the congress of Vienna, with Talleyrand, as

minister plenipotentiary. He appended his signature to the decree of

outlawry launched in 1815 by the European powers against Napoleon. For

this his property in France was confiscated, but was given back after

the second Restoration, when he became a minister of state and a peer of

France. In 1816 he was sent as ambassador to Turin. The latter years of

his life he spent on his estates at Herrnsheim, where he died on the

27th of April 1833.

The due de Dalberg had inherited the family property of Herrnsheim from

his uncle the arch-chancellor Karl von Dalberg, and this estate passed,

through his daughter and heiress, Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, by

her marriage with Sir (Ferdinand) Richard Edward Acton, 7th baronet (who

assumed the additional name of Dalberg), to her son the historian, John

Emerich Edward Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton (q.v.).

DALE, ROBERT WILLIAM (1829-1895), English Nonconformist divine, was born

in London on the 1st of December 1829, and was educated at Spring Hill

College, Birmingham, for the Congregational ministry. In 1853 he was

invited to Carr's Lane Chapel, Birmingham, as co-pastor with John Angell

James (q.v.), on whose death in 1859 he became sole pastor for the rest

of his life. In the London University M.A. examination (1853) Dale stood

first in philosophy and won the gold medal. The degree of LL.D. was

conferred upon him by the university of Glasgow during the lord

rectorship of John Bright. Yale University gave him its D.D. degree, but

he never used it, "not because it came from America, but because I have

a sentimental objection--perhaps it is something more--to divinity

degrees." Dale displayed a keen interest in Liberal politics and in the

municipal affairs of Birmingham; and his high moral ideal made him a

great force on the progressive side. In 1886 he adhered to Mr

Chamberlain in opposition to Irish Home Rule, but this difference did

not diminish his influence even among those Liberals and Nonconformists

who adopted the Gladstonian standpoint. In the education controversy of

1870 he took an important part, ably championing the Nonconformist

position. When Mr Foster's bill appeared, Dale attacked it on the

grounds that the schools would in many cases be purely denominational

institutions, that the conscience clause gave inadequate protection, and

that school boards were empowered by it to make grants out of the rates

to maintain sectarian schools. He was himself in favour of secular

education, claiming that it was the only logical solution and the only

legitimate outcome of Nonconformist principles. In Birmingham the

controversy was terminated in 1879 by a compromise, from which, however,

Dale stood aloof. His interest in educational affairs had led him to

accept a seat on the Birmingham school board. He was appointed a

governor of the grammar school, served on the royal commission of

education, and was also chairman of the council of Mansfield College,

Oxford, with the foundation of which he had much to do. He was a strong

advocate of disestablishment, holding that the church was essentially a

spiritual brotherhood, and that any vestige of political authority

impaired its spiritual work. In church polity he held that

congregationalism constituted the most fitting environment in which

religion could achieve her work. Perhaps the most effective

contributions he made to ecclesiastical literature were those dealing

with the history and principles of the congregational system. At his

death on the 13th of March 1895 he left an unfinished MS. of the history

of congregationalism, since edited and completed (1907) by his son, A.

W. W. Dale, principal of Liverpool University.

Dale's powers were fully appreciated by his colleagues in the

congregational ministry, and at the early age of thirty-nine he was

elected chairman of the Congregational union of England and Wales. His

addresses from the chair on "Christ and the Controversies of

Christendom," and the "Holy Spirit and the Christian Ministry" were

remarkable for a keen insight into the conditions and demands of the

age. For some years he edited the _Congregationalist_, a monthly

magazine connected with the denomination. In 1877 he was appointed Lyman

Beecher lecturer at Yale University, and visited America to deliver his

"Lectures on Preaching." At the International Council of

Congregationalists, meeting in London in 1891, the first gathering of

the kind, Dale was nominated for the presidency. He accepted the honour

and delivered an address on "The Divine Life in Man."

As a theologian Dale occupied an influential position amongst the

religious thinkers of the 19th century. He ably interpreted the

Evangelical thought of his age, but his Evangelicalism was of a broad

and progressive type. His chief contribution to constructive theological

thought is his work _On The Atonement_, in which he contends that the

death of Christ is the objective ground on which the sins of man were

remitted. Among his other theological books are: _The Epistle to the

Ephesians_ (a series of expositions), _Christian Doctrine_, _The Living

Christ and the Four Gospels_, _Fellowship with Christ_, _The Epistle to

James_, and _The Ten Commandments_.

DALE, SIR THOMAS (d. 1619), British naval commander and colonial

deputy-governor of Virginia. From about 1588 to 1609 he was in the

service of the Low Countries with the English army originally under

Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester; in 1606, while visiting in England, he

was knighted by King James; from 1611 to 1616 he was actually though not

always nominally in chief control of the province of Virginia either as

deputy-governor or as "high marshall," and he is best remembered for the

energy and the extreme rigour of his administration there, which

established order and in various ways seems to have benefited the

colony; he himself declared that he left it "in great prosperity and

peace." Under him began the first real expansion of the colony with the

establishment of the settlement of Henrico on and about what was later

known as Farrar's Island; it was he who, about 1614, took the first step

toward abolishing the communal system by the introduction of private

holdings, and it was during his administration that the first code of

laws of Virginia, nominally in force from 1610 to 1619, was effectively

tested. This code, entitled "Articles, Lawes, and Orders--Divine,

Politique, and Martiall," but popularly known as Dale's Code, was

notable for its pitiless severity, and seems to have been prepared in

large part by Dale himself. He left Virginia in 1616 with the intention

probably of returning to the service of the Low Countries, but instead

was given command of an English fleet sent against the Dutch, defeated

the enemy near Batavia in the East Indies late in the year 1618, arrived

at Masulipatam in July 1619, and died there on the 9th of the following

month.

An account of Dale's career in Virginia is given in Alexander Brown's

_The First Republic in America_ (Boston, 1898); a scholarly discussion

of "Dale's Code" by Walter F. Prince may be found in vol. i. of the

_Annual Report of the American Historical Association_ for 1899

(Washington, D.C., 1900), and the code itself is reprinted in Peter

Force's _Historical Tracts_, vol. iii., No. 11.

DALECARLIA (_Dalarne_, "the Dales"), a west midland region of Sweden,

virtually coincident with the district (_lan_) of Kopparberg, which

extends from the mountains of the Norwegian frontier to within 25 m. of

Gefle on the Baltic coast. It is a region full of historical

associations, and possesses strong local characteristics in respect of

its products, and especially of its people. The Dalecarlians or Dalesmen

speak their own peculiar dialect, wear their own peculiar costumes, and

are famed for their brave spirit and sturdy love of independence. In

1434, led by Engelbrecht, the miner, they rose against the oppressive

tyranny of the officers of Eric XIV. of Denmark, and in 1519-1523 it was

among them that Gustavus Vasa found his staunchest supporters in his

patriotic task of freeing Sweden from the yoke of the Danes. The

districts around Lakes Runn and Siljan ("the Eye of the Dales"), the

principal sheets of water in the valleys of the Dal rivers, are

consequently classic ground. By the banks of Lake Runn, for example, is

seen the barn in which Vasa threshed corn in disguise, when still a

fugitive from the Danes. The people are for the most part small peasant

proprietors. They eke out their scanty returns from tilling the soil by

a variety of home industries, such as making scythes, saws, bells,

wooden wares, hair goods, and so forth. About three quarters of the

whole district is covered with forest. Besides the wealth of the

forests, the Dales contain some of the largest and most prolific iron

mines in Sweden, notably those of Grangesberg. Copper is mined at Falun

(q.v.), the chief town of Kopparberg, and some silver and lead, zinc and

sulphur is found. In consequence of this the district has numerous

smelting furnaces, blasting and rolling mills, iron and metallurgical

works, as well as saw-mills, wood-pulp factories, and chemical works.

See G. H. Mellin, _Skildringar af den Skandinaviska Nordens Folklif og

Natur_, vol. iii. (1865); and Frederika Bremer, _I Dalarne_ (1845), of

which there is an English translation by William and Mary Howitt

(1852). For the dialect, see a paper by A. Noreen, in _De Svenska

Landsmalen_, vol. iv. (1881).

DALGAIRNS, JOHN DOBREE (1818-1876), English Roman Catholic priest, was

born in Guernsey on the 21st of October 1818. About the age of seventeen

he entered Exeter College, Oxford, and soon after taking his degree he

contributed a letter to Louis Veuillot's ultramontane organ _L'Univers_,

on "Anglican Church Parties," which gave him considerable repute.

Together with Mark Pattison and others, he translated the _Catena aurea_

of St Thomas Aquinas, a commentary on the Gospels, taken from the works

of the Fathers. He was a contributor to Newman's _Lives of the English

Saints_, for which he wrote the beautiful studies on the Cistercian

Saints. _The Life of St Stephen Harding_ has been translated into

several languages. Dalgairns became a Roman Catholic in 1845, and was

ordained priest in the following year. He joined his friend John Henry

Newman in Rome, and, together with him, entered the Congregation of the

Oratory. On his return to England in 1848, he was attached to the London

Oratory, where he laboured successfully as a priest, with the exception

of three years spent in Birmingham. Dalgairns was a prominent member of

the well-known "Metaphysical Society." He died at Burgess Hill, near

Brighton, on the 6th of April 1876. During the Catholic period of his

life, Dalgairns wrote _The Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, with

an Introduction on the History of Jansenism_ (London 1853); _The German

Mystics of the Fourteenth Century_ (London, 1858); _The Holy Communion,

its Philosophy, Theology and Practice_ (Dublin, 1861).

A list of his contributions on religious and philosophical subjects,

to the reviews and periodicals, is given in J. Gillow's

_Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics_, vol. ii.

DALGARNO, GEORGE (c. 1626-1687), English writer, was born at Old

Aberdeen about 1626. He appears to have studied at Marischal College;

but he finally settled in Oxford, where, according to Wood, "he taught a

private grammar-school with good success for about thirty years," and

where he died on the 28th of August 1687. He was master of Elizabeth

school, Guernsey, for some ten years, but resigned in 1672. In his work

entitled _Didascalocophus, or the Deaf and Dumb Man's Tutor_ (Oxford,

1680), he explained, for the first time, the hand alphabet for the deaf

and dumb, though he does not claim to have invented this method of

communication. Twenty years before the publication of his

_Didascalocophus_, Dalgarno had given to the world a very ingenious

piece entitled _Ars Signorum_ (1661), dividing ideas into seventeen

classes, to be represented by the letters of the Latin alphabet with the

addition of two Greek characters. Among the Sloane manuscripts are

several tracts by Dalgarno, further elucidating his system of universal

shorthand. Leibnitz on various occasions alluded to the _Ars signorum_

in commendatory terms.

The chief works of Dalgarno were reprinted (1834) for the Maitland

Club.

DALHOUSIE, JAMES ANDREW BROUN RAMSAY, 1ST MARQUESS and 10TH EARL OF

(1812-1860), British statesman and Indian administrator, was born at

Dalhousie Castle, Scotland, on the 22nd of April 1812. He crowded into

his short life conspicuous public services in England, and established

an unrivalled position among the master-builders of the Indian empire.

Denounced on the eve of his death as the chief offender who failed to

notice the signs of the mutiny of 1857, and even aggravated the crisis

by his overbearing self-consciousness, centralizing activity and

reckless annexations, he stands out in the clear light of history as the

far-sighted governor-general who consolidated British rule in India,

laid truly the foundations of its later administration, and by his sound

policy enabled his successors to stem the tide of rebellion.

He was the third son of George Ramsay, 9th earl of Dalhousie

(1770-1838), one of Wellington's generals, who, after holding the

highest offices in Canada, became commander-in-chief in India, and of

his wife Christina Broun of Coalstoun, a lady of noble lineage and

distinguished gifts. From his father he inherited a vigorous

self-reliance and a family pride which urged him to prove worthy of the

Ramsays who had "not crawled through seven centuries of their country's

history," while to his mother he owed his high-bred courtesy and his

deeply seated reverence for religion. The Ramsays of Dalhousie (or

Dalwolsie) in Midlothian were a branch of the main line of Scottish

Ramsays, of whom the earliest known is Simon de Ramsay, of Huntingdon,

England, mentioned in 1140 as the grantee of lands in West Lothian at

the hands of David I. A Sir William de Ramsay of Dalhousie swore fealty

to Edward I. in 1296, but is famous for having in 1320 signed the letter

to the pope asserting the independence of Scotland; and his supposed

son, Sir Alexander Ramsay (d. 1342), was the Scottish patriot and

capturer of Roxburgh Castle (1342), who, having been made warder of the

castle and sheriff of Teviotdale by David II., was soon afterwards

carried off and starved to death by his predecessor, the Douglas, in

revenge. Sir John Ramsay of Dalhousie (1580-1626), James VI.'s

favourite, is famous for rescuing the king in the Gowrie conspiracy, and

was created (1606) Viscount Haddington and Lord Ramsay of Barns

(subsequently baron of Kingston and earl of Holderness in England). The

barony of Ramsay of Melrose was granted in 1618 to his brother George

Ramsay of Dalhousie (d. 1629), whose son William Ramsay (d. 1674) was

made 1st earl of Dalhousie in 1633.

The 9th earl was in 1815 created Baron Dalhousie in the peerage of the

United Kingdom, and had three sons, the two elder of whom died early.

His youngest son, the subject of this article, was small in stature, but

his firm chiselled mouth, high forehead and masterful manner intimated a

dignity that none could overlook. Yet his early life gave little promise

of the dominating force of his character or of his ability to rise to

the full height of his splendid opportunities. Nor did those brought

into closest intimacy with him, whether at school or at Oxford, suspect

the higher qualities of statesmanship which afterwards established his

fame on so firm a foundation.

Several years of his early boyhood were spent with his father and mother

in Canada, reminiscences of which were still vivid with him when

governor-general of India. Returning to Scotland he was prepared for

Harrow, where he entered in 1825. Two years later he was removed from

school, his entire education being entrusted to the Rev. Mr Temple,

incumbent of a quiet parish in Staffordshire. To this gentleman he

referred in later days as having taught him all he knew, and to his

training he must have owed those habits of regularity and that

indomitable industry which marked his adult life. In October 1829 he

passed on to Christ Church, Oxford, where he worked fairly hard, won

some distinction, and made many lifelong friends. His studies, however,

were so greatly interrupted by the protracted illness and death in 1832

of his only surviving brother, that Lord Ramsay, as he then became, had

to content himself with entering for a "pass" degree, though the

examiners marked their appreciation of his work by placing him in the

fourth class of honours for Michaelmas 1833. He then travelled in Italy

and Switzerland, enriching with copious entries the diary which he

religiously kept up through life, and storing his mind with valuable

observations.

An unsuccessful but courageous contest at the general election in 1835

for one of the seats in parliament for Edinburgh, fought against such

veterans as the future speaker, James Abercrombie, afterwards Lord

Dunfermline, and John Campbell, future lord chancellor, was followed in

1837 by Ramsay's return to the House of Commons as member for East

Lothian. In the previous year he had married Lady Susan Hay, daughter of

the marquess of Tweeddale, whose companionship was his chief support in

India, and whose death in 1853 left him a heartbroken man. In 1838 his

father had died after a long illness, while less than a year later he

lost his mother.

Succeeding to the peerage, the new earl soon made his mark in a speech

delivered on the 16th of June 1840 in support of Lord Aberdeen's Church

of Scotland Benefices Bill, a controversy arising out of the

Auchterarder case, in which he had already taken part in the "general

assembly" in opposition to Dr Chalmers. In May 1843 he became

vice-president of the board of trade, Gladstone being president, and was

sworn in as a member of the privy council. Succeeding Gladstone as

president in 1845, he threw himself into the work during the crisis of

the railway mania with such energy that his health partially broke down

under the strain. In the struggle over the corn laws he ranged himself

on the side of Sir Robert Peel, and after the failure of Lord John

Russell to form a ministry he resumed his post at the board of trade,

entering the cabinet on the retirement of Lord Stanley. When Peel

resigned office in June 1846, Lord John offered Dalhousie a seat in the

cabinet, an offer which he declined from a fear that acceptance might

"involve the loss of public character." Another attempt to secure his

services in the appointment of president of the railway board was

equally unsuccessful; but in 1847 he accepted the post of

governor-general of India in succession to Lord Hardinge, on the

understanding that he was to be left in "entire and unquestioned

possession" of his own "personal independence with reference to party

politics."

Dalhousie assumed charge of his dual duties as governor-general of India

and governor of Bengal on the 12th of January 1848, and shortly

afterwards he was honoured with the green ribbon of the Order of the

Thistle. In writing to the president of the board of control, Sir John

Hobhouse, he was able to assure him that everything was quiet. This

statement, however, was to be falsified by events almost before it could

reach England. For on the 19th of April Vans Agnew of the civil service

and Lieutenant Anderson of the Bombay European regiment, having been

sent to take charge of Multan from Diwan Mulraj, were murdered there,

and within a short time the Sikh troops and sardars joined in open

rebellion. Dalhousie agreed with Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief,

that the Company's military forces were neither adequately equipped

with transport and supplies, nor otherwise prepared to take the field

immediately. He also foresaw the spread of the rebellion, and the

necessity that must arise, not merely for the capture of Multan, but

also for the entire subjugation of the Punjab. He therefore resolutely

delayed to strike, organized a strong army for operations in November,

and himself proceeded to the Punjab. Despite the brilliant successes

gained by Herbert Edwardes in conflict with Mulraj, and Goagh's

indecisive victories at Ramnagar in November, at Sadulapur in December,

and at Chillianwalla in the following month, the stubborn resistance at

Multan showed that the task required the utmost resources of the

government. At length, on the 22nd of January 1849, the Multan fortress

was taken by General Whish, who was thus set at liberty to join Gough at

Gujrat. Here a complete victory was won on the 21st of February, the

Sikh army surrendered at Rawal Pindi, and their Afghan allies were

chased out of India. For his services the earl of Dalhousie received the

thanks of parliament and a step in the peerage, as marquess.

The war being now over, Dalhousie, without waiting for instructions from

home, annexed the Punjab, and made provision for the custody and

education of the infant maharaja. For the present the province was

administered by a triumvirate under the personal supervision of the

governor-general, and later, a place having been found for Henry

Lawrence in Rajputana, by John Lawrence as sole commissioner. Twice did

Dalhousie tour through its length and breadth, settling on the spot all

matters of importance, and when he left India no province could show a

better record of progress.

One further addition to the empire was made by conquest. The arrogant

Burmese court at Ava was bound by the treaty of Yandabo, 1826, to

protect British ships in Burmese waters, but the outrageous conduct of

the governor of Rangoon towards the masters of the "Monarch" and

"Champion" met with no redress from the king. Dalhousie adopted the

maxim of Lord Wellesley "that an insult offered to the British flag at

the mouth of the Ganges should be resented as promptly and fully as an

insult offered at the mouth of the Thames"; but, anxious to save the

cost of war, he tried to settle the dispute by diplomacy. When that

failed he made vigorous preparation for the campaign to be undertaken in

the autumn, giving his attention to the adequate provision of rations,

boat transport, and medical supplies, composing differences between the

military contingents from Bengal and Madras, and between the military

and naval forces employed, and conferring with General Godwin whom he

had chosen to command the expedition. Martaban was taken on the 5th of

April 1852, and Rangoon and Bassein shortly afterwards. Since, however,

the court of Ava showed no sign of submission, the second campaign

opened in October, and after the capture of Prome and Pegu the

annexation of the province of Pegu was declared by a proclamation dated

the 20th of December 1853. To any further invasion of the Burmese empire

Dalhousie was firmly opposed, being content to "consolidate" the

Company's possessions by uniting Arakan to Tenasserim. By his wise

policy he pacified the new province, placing Colonel Arthur Phayre in

sole charge of it, personally visiting it, and establishing a complete

system of telegraphs and communications.

These military operations added force to the conviction which Dalhousie

had formed of the need of consolidating the Company's ill-knit

possessions, and as a step in that direction he decided to apply the

doctrine of "lapse," and annex any Hindu native states, created or

revived by the grants of the British government, in which there was a

failure of male lineal descendants, reserving for consideration the

policy of permitting adoptions in other Hindu chiefships tributary and

subordinate to the British government as paramount. Under the first head

he recommended the annexation of Satara in January 1849, of Jaitpur and

Sambalpur in the same year, and of Jhansi and Nagpur in 1853. In these

cases his action was approved by the home authorities, but his proposal

to annex Karauli in 1849 was disallowed, while Baghat and the petty

estate of Udaipur, which he had annexed in 1851 and 1852 respectively,

were afterwards restored to native rule.

Other measures with the same object were carried out in the Company's

own territories. Bengal, too long ruled by the governor-general or his

delegate, was placed under a separate lieutenant-governor in May 1854; a

department of public works was established in each presidency, and

engineering colleges were provided. An imperial system of telegraphs

followed; the first link of railway communication was completed in 1855;

well-considered plans mapped out the course of other lines and their

method of administration; the Ganges canal, which then exceeded "all the

irrigation lines of Lombardy and Egypt together," was completed; and

despite the cost of wars in the Punjab and Burma, liberal provision was

made for metalled roads and bridges. The useless military boards were

swept away; selection took the place of seniority in the higher

commands; an army clothing and a stud department were created, and the

medical service underwent complete reorganization.

"Unity of authority coupled with direct responsibility" was the keynote

of his policy. In nine masterly minutes he suggested means for

strengthening the Company's European forces, calling attention to the

dangers that threatened the English community, "a handful of scattered

strangers"; but beyond the additional powers of recruitment which at his

entreaty were granted in the last charter act of 1853, his proposals

were shelved by the home authorities, who scented no danger and wished

to avoid expense. In his administration Dalhousie vigorously asserted

the control of the civil government over military affairs, and when Sir

Charles Napier ordered certain allowances, given as compensation for the

dearness of provisions, to be granted to the sepoys on a system which

had not been sanctioned from headquarters, and threatened to repeat the

offence, the governor-general found it necessary to administer such a

rebuke that the hot-headed soldier resigned his command.

Dalhousie's reforms were not confined to the departments of public works

and military affairs. He created an imperial system of post-offices,

reducing the rates of carrying letters and introducing postage stamps.

To him India owes the first department of public instruction; it was he

who placed the gaols under proper inspection, abolishing the practice of

branding convicts; put down the crime of _meriahs_ or human sacrifices;

freed converts to other religions from the loss of their civil rights;

inaugurated the system of administrative reports; and enlarged and

dignified the legislative council of India. His wide interest in

everything that concerned the welfare of the country was shown in the

encouragement he gave to the culture of tea, in his protection of

forests, in the preservation of ancient and historic monuments. With the

object of improving civil administration, he closed the useless college

in Calcutta for the education of young civilians, establishing in its

place a proper system of training them in _mufasal_ stations, and

subjecting them to departmental examinations. He was equally careful of

the well-being of the European soldier, providing him with healthy

recreations and public gardens. To the civil service he gave improved

leave and pension rules, while he purified its _moral_ by forbidding all

share in trading concerns, by vigorously punishing insolvents, and by

his personal example of careful selection in the matter of patronage. As

a comprehensive view of the constitution of the Indian government,

dealing with the functions of its various members and the different

parts of the official machinery, nothing could be more masterly than his

minute of the 13th of October 1852. Indeed no governor-general ever

penned a larger number of weighty papers dealing with public affairs in

India. Even after laying down office and while on his way home, he

forced himself, ill as he was, to review his own administration in a

document of such importance that the House of Commons gave orders for

its being printed (Blue Book 245 of 1856).

His foreign policy was guided by a desire to recognize the

"independence" of the larger native states, and to avoid extending the

political relations of his government with foreign powers outside India.

Pressed to intervene in Hyderabad, he refused to do so, laying down the

doctrine that interference was only justified "if the administration of

native princes tends unquestionably to the injury of the subjects or of

the allies of the British government." Protection in his view carried no

right of interference in the affairs of what he called "independent"

states. In this spirit he negotiated in 1853 a treaty with the nizam,

which provided funds for the maintenance of the contingent kept up by

the British in support of that prince's authority, by the assignment of

the Berars in lieu of annual payments of the cost and large outstanding

arrears. "The Berar treaty," he told Sir Charles Wood, "is more likely

to keep the nizam on his throne than anything that has happened for

fifty years to him," while at the same time the control thus acquired

over a strip of territory intervening between Bombay and Nagpur promoted

his policy of consolidation and his schemes of railway extension. The

same spirit induced him to tolerate a war of succession in Bahawalpur,

so long as the contending candidates did not violate British territory.

This reluctance to increase his responsibilities further caused him to

refrain from punishing Dost Mahommed for the part he had taken in the

Sikh War, and resolutely to refuse to enter upon any negotiations until

the amir himself came forward. Then he steered a middle course between

the proposals of his own agent, Herbert Edwardes, who advocated an

offensive alliance, and those of John Lawrence, who would have avoided

any sort of engagement. He himself drafted the short treaty of peace and

friendship which Lawrence signed in 1855, that officer receiving in 1856

the order of K.C.B, in acknowledgment of his services in the matter.

While, however, Dalhousie was content with a mutual engagement with the

Afghan chief, binding each party to respect the territories of the

other, he saw that a larger measure of interference was needed in

Baluchistan, and with the khan of Kalat he authorized Major Jacob to

negotiate a treaty of subordinate co-operation on the 14th of May 1854.

The khan was guaranteed an annual subsidy of Rs. 50,000, in return for

the treaty which "bound him to us wholly and exclusively." To this the

home authorities demurred, but the engagement was duly ratified, and the

subsidy was largely increased by Dalhousie's successors. On the other

hand, he insisted on leaving all matters concerning Persia and Central

Asia to the decision of the queen's advisers. The frontier tribesmen it

was obviously necessary to coerce into good behaviour after the

annexation of the Punjab. "The hillmen," he wrote, "regard the plains as

their food and prey," and the Afridis, Mohmands, Black Mountain tribes,

Waziris and others had to be taught that their new neighbours would not

tolerate outrages. But he proclaimed to one and all his desire for

peace, and urged upon them the duty of tribal responsibility.

The settlement of the Oudh question was reserved to the last. The home

authorities had begged Dalhousie to prolong his tenure of office during

the Crimean War, but the difficulties of the problem no less than

complications elsewhere had induced him to delay operations. In 1854 he

appointed Outram as resident at the court of Lucknow, directing him to

submit a report on the condition of the province. This was furnished in

March 1855. But though the state of disorder and misrule revealed by it

called for prompt remedy, Dalhousie, looking at the treaty of 1801,

considered that he was bound to proceed in the matter of reform with the

king's consent. He proposed, therefore, to demand a transfer to the

Company of the entire administration, the king merely retaining his

royal rank, certain privileges in the courts, and a liberal allowance.

If he should refuse this arrangement, a general rising was almost

certain to follow, and then the British government would of necessity

intervene on its own terms. On the 21st of November 1855 the court of

directors instructed Dalhousie to assume the powers essential to the

permanence of good government in Oudh, and to give the king no option

unless he was sure that his majesty would surrender the administration

rather than risk a revolution. Dalhousie was in wretched health and on

the eve of retirement when the belated orders reached him; but he at

once laid down instructions for Outram in every detail, moved up troops,

and elaborated a scheme of government with particular orders as to

conciliating local opinion. The king refused to sign the treaty put

before him, and a proclamation annexing the province was therefore

issued on the 13th of February 1856.

Only one important matter now remained to him before quitting office.

The insurrection of the half-civilized Kolarian Santals of Bengal

against the extortions of landlords and money-lenders had been severely

repressed, but the causes of the insurrection had still to be reviewed

and a remedy provided. By removing the tract of country from the

ordinary regulations, enforcing the residence of British officers there,

and employing the Santal headmen in a local police, he ensured a system

of administration which afterwards proved eminently successful.

At length, after seven years of strenuous labour, Dalhousie, on the 6th

of March 1856, set sail for England on board the Company's "Firoze," an

object of general sympathy and not less general respect. At Alexandria

he was carried by H.M.S. "Caradoc" to Malta, and thence by the "Tribune"

to Spithead, which he reached on the 13th of May. His return had been

eagerly looked for by statesmen who hoped that he would resume his

public career, by the Company which voted him an annual pension of

L5000, by public bodies which showered upon him every mark of respect,

and by the queen who earnestly prayed for the "blessing of restored

health and strength." That blessing was not to be his. He lingered on,

seeking sunshine in Malta and medical treatment at Malvern, Edinburgh

and other places in vain obedience to his doctors. The outbreak of the

mutiny led to bitter attacks at home upon his policy, and to strange

misrepresentation of his public acts, while on the other hand John

Lawrence invoked his counsel and influence, and those who really knew

his work in India cried out, "Oh, for a dictator," and his return "for

one hour!" To all these cries he turned a deaf ear, refusing to

embarrass those who were responsible by any expressions of opinion,

declining to undertake his own defence or to assist in his vindication

through the public press, and by his last directions sealing up his

private journal and papers of personal interest against publication

until fifty years after his death. On the 9th of August 1859 his

youngest daughter, Edith, was married at Dalhousie Castle to Sir James

Fergusson, Bart. In the same castle Dalhousie died on the 19th of

December 1860; he was buried in the old churchyard of Cockpen.

Dalhousie's family consisted of two daughters, and the marquessate

became extinct at his death.

The detailed events of the period will be found in Sir William

Lee-Warner's _Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie, K.T._; Sir E. Arnold's

_Dalhousie's Administration of British India_; Sir C. Jackson's

_Vindication of Dalhousie's Indian Administration_; Sir W. W. Hunter's

_Dalhousie_; Capt. L. J. Trotter's _Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie_;

the duke of Argyll's _India under Dalhousie and Canning_; Broughton

MSS. (British Museum); and parliamentary papers. (W. L.-W.)

DALHOUSIE, FOX MAULE RAMSAY, 11th EARL OT (1801-1874), was the eldest

son of William Ramsay Maule, 1st Baron Panmure (1771-1852), and a

grandson of George, 8th earl of Dalhousie. Born on the 22nd of April

1801 and christened Fox as a compliment to the great Whig, he served for

a term in the army, and then in 1835 entered the House of Commons as

member for Perthshire. In Lord Melbourne's ministry (1835-1841) Maule

was under-secretary for home affairs, and under Lord John Russell he was

secretary-at-war from July 1846 to January 1852, when for two or three

weeks he was president of the board of control. In April 1852 he became

the 2nd Baron Panmure, and early in 1855 he joined Lord Palmerston's

cabinet, filling the new office of secretary of state for war. Panmure

held this office until February 1858, being at the war office during the

concluding period of the Crimean War and having to meet a good deal of

criticism, some of which was justified and some of which was not. In

December 1860 he succeeded his kinsman, the marquess of Dalhousie, as

11th earl of Dalhousie, and he died childless on the 6th of July 1874.

Always interested in church matters, Dalhousie was a prominent supporter

of the Free Church of Scotland after the disruption of 1843. On his

death the barony became extinct, but his earldom passed to his cousin,

George Ramsay (1806-1880), an admiral who, in 1875, was created a peer

of the United Kingdom as Baron Ramsay. George's grandson, Arthur George

Maule Ramsay (b. 1878), became the 14th earl in 1887.

See the _Panmure Papers_, a selection from Panmure's correspondence,

edited in two volumes (1908), by Sir G. Douglas, Bart., and Sir G. D.

Ramsay. These numerous letters throw much light on the concluding

stage of the Crimean War.

DALIN, OLOF VON (1708-1763), Swedish poet, was born on the 29th of

August 1708 in the parish of Vinberg in Halland, where his father was

the minister. He was nearly related to Rydelius, the philosophical

bishop of Lund, and he was sent at a very early age to be instructed by

him, Linnaeus being one of his fellow-pupils. While studying at Lund,

Dalin had visited Stockholm in the year 1723, and in 1726 entered one of

the public offices there. Under the patronage of Baron Ralamb he rapidly

rose to preferment, and his skill and intelligence won him golden

opinions. In 1733 he started the weekly _Svenska Argus_, on the model of

Addison's _Spectator_, writing anonymously till 1736. His next work was

_Tankar ofver Critiquer_ (Thoughts about Critics, 1736). With the avowed

purpose of enlarging the horizon of his cultivation and tastes, Dalin

set off, in company with his pupil, Baron Ralamb's son, on a tour

through Germany and France, in 1739-1740. On his return the shifting of

political life at home caused him to write his famous satiric allegories

of _The Story of the Horse_ and _Aprilverk_ (1738), which were very

popular and provoked countless imitations. His didactic epos of _Svenska

Friheten_ (Swedish Liberty) appeared in 1742. Hitherto Addison and Pope

had been his models; in this work he draws his inspiration from Thomson,

whose poem of _Liberty_ it emulated. On the accession of Adolphus

Freduck in 1751 Dalin received the post of tutor to the crown prince,

afterwards Gustavus III. He had enjoyed the confidence of Queen Louisa

Ulrika, sister of Frederick the Great of Germany, while she was crown

princess, and she now made him secretary of the Swedish academy of

literature, founded by her in 1753. His position at court involved him

in the queen's political intrigues, and separated him to a vexatious

degree from the studies in which he had hitherto been absorbed. He held

the post of tutor to the crown prince until 1756, when he was arrested

on suspicion of having taken part in the attempted _coup d'etat_ of that

year, and was tried for his life before the diet. He was acquitted, but

was forbidden on any pretence to show himself at court. This period of

exile, which lasted until 1761, Dalin spent in the preparation of the

third volume of his great historical work, the _Svea Rikes historia_

(History of the Swedish Kingdom), which came down to the death of

Charles IX. in 1611. The first two volumes appeared in 1746-1750; the

third, in two parts, in 1760-1762. Dalin had been ennobled in 1751, and

made privy councillor in 1753; and now, in 1761, he once more took his

place at court. During his exile, however, his spirit and his health had

been broken; in a fit of panic he had destroyed some packets of his best

unpublished works and this he constantly brooded over. On the 12th of

August 1763 he died at his house in Drottningholm. In the year 1767 his

writings in _belles lettres_ were issued in six volumes, edited by J. C.

Bokman, his half-brother. Amid an enormous mass of occasional verses,

anagrams, epigrams, impromptus and the like, his satires and serious

poems were almost buried. But some of these former, even, are found to

be songs of remarkable grace and delicacy, and many display a love of

natural scenery and a knowledge of its forms truly remarkable in that

artificial age. His dramas also are of interest, particularly his

admirable comedy of _Den afvundsjuke_ (The Envious Man, 1738); he also

wrote a tragedy, _Brynilda_ (1739), and a pastoral in three scenes on

King Adolphus Frederick's return from Finland. During the early part of

his life he was universally admitted to be _facile princeps_ among the

Swedish poets of his time.

See also K. Warburg, "Olof von Dalin," in the _Handlingar_ (vol. lix.,

1884) of the Swedish Academy. A selection of his works was edited by

E. V. Lindblad (Orebro, 1872).

DALKEITH, a municipal and police burgh of Edinburghshire, Scotland,

lying between the North and South Esk, 7(1/2) m. S.E. of Edinburgh, by

the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 7035; (1901) 6812. It is an

important agricultural centre, and has every week one of the largest

grain-markets in Scotland. Besides milling, brewing and tanning, the

chief industries are the making of carpets, brushes and bricks, and iron

and brass founding. Near Eskbank, a handsome residential quarter with a

railway station, coal-mining is carried on. Market-gardening, owing to

the proximity of the capital, flourishes. The parish church--an old

Gothic edifice, which was originally the Castle chapel, and was restored

in 1852--the municipal buildings, corn exchange, Foresters' hall and

Newmills hospital are among the principal public buildings. Dalkeith was

the birthplace of Professor Peter Guthrie Tait, the mathematician

(1831-1901). Dalkeith Palace, a seat of the duke of Buccleuch, was

designed by Sir John Vanbrugh in 1700 for the widow of the duke of

Monmouth, countess of Buccleuch in her own right. It occupies the site

of a castle which belonged first to the Grahams and afterwards to the

Douglases, and was sold in 1642 by William, seventh or eighth earl of

Morton, to Francis, second earl of Buccleuch, for the purpose of raising

money to assist Charles I. in the Civil War. The palace has been the

residence of several sovereigns during their visits to Edinburgh, among

them George IV. in 1822, Queen Victoria in 1842, and Edward VII. in

1903. The picture gallery possesses important examples of the Old

Masters; the gardens are renowned for their fruit and flowers; and the

beautiful park of over 1000 acres--containing a remnant of the

Caledonian Forest, with oaks, beeches and ashes of great girth and

height--is watered by the North and South Esk, which unite before they

leave the policy. About 1 m. south is Newbattle Abbey, the seat of the

marquess of Lothian, delightfully situated on the South Esk. It is built

on the site of an abbey founded by David I., the ancient crypt being

incorporated in the mansion. The library contains many valuable books

and illuminated MSS., and excellent pictures and carvings. In the park

are several remarkable trees, among them one of the largest beeches in

the United Kingdom. Two miles still farther south lies Cockpen,

immortalized by the Baroness Nairne's humorous song "The Laird of

Cockpen," and Dalhousie Castle, partly ancient and partly modern, which

gives a title to the earls of Dalhousie. About 6 m. south-east of

Dalkeith are Borthwick and Crichton castles, 1 m. apart, both now in

ruins. Queen Mary spent three weeks in Borthwick Castle, as in durance

vile, after her marriage with Bothwell, and fled from it to Dunbar in

the guise of a page. The castle, which is a double tower, was besieged

by Cromwell, and the marks of his cannon-balls are still visible. In the

manse of the parish of Borthwick, William Robertson, the historian, was

born in 1721. About 4 m. west of Dalkeith is the village of Burdiehouse,

the limestone quarries of which are famous for fossils. The name is said

to be a corruption of Bordeaux House, which was bestowed on it by Queen

Mary's French servants, who lived here when their mistress resided at

Craigmillar.

DALKEY, a small port and watering-place of Co. Dublin, Ireland, in the

south parliamentary division; 9 m. S.E. of Dublin by the Dublin &

South-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 3398. It is

pleasantly situated on and about Sorrento Point, the southern horn of

Dublin Bay. Dalkey Island, lying off the town, has an ancient ruined

chapel, of the history of which nothing is certainly known, and a

disused battery, which protected the harbour, a landing-place of some

former importance. A castle in the town, of the 15th century, is

restored to use as offices for the urban district council. There are

also ruins of an old church, the dedication of which, like the island

chapel, is ascribed to one St Begnet, perhaps a diminutive form of Bega,

but the identity is not clear. Until the close of the 18th century

Dalkey was notorious for the burlesque election of a "king," a mock

ceremony which became invested with a certain political importance.

DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMES (1759-1817), American statesman and financier,

was born on the island of Jamaica, West Indies, on the 21st of June

1759, the son of Dr Robert C. Dallas (d. 1774), a Scottish physician

then practising there. Dr Dallas soon returned to England with his

family, and Alexander was educated at Edinburgh and Westminster. He

studied law for a time in the Inner Temple, and in 1780 returned to

Jamaica. There he met the younger Lewis Hallam (1738-1808), a pioneer

American theatrical manager and actor, who induced him to remove to the

United States, and in 1783 he settled in Philadelphia, where he at once

took the oath of allegiance to the United States, was admitted to

practise law in 1785, and rapidly attained a prominent position at the

bar. He was interested in the theatrical projects of Hallam, for whom he

wrote several dramatic compositions, and from 1787 to 1789 he edited

_The Columbian Magazine_. From 1791 to 1801 he was secretary of the

commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Partly owing to his publication of an able

pamphlet against the Jay treaty in 1795, he soon acquired a position of

much influence in the Democratic-Republican party in the state. During

the Whisky Insurrection he was paymaster-general of the state militia.

His official position as secretary did not entirely prevent him from

continuing his private law practice, and, with Jared Ingersoll, he was

the counsel of Senator William Blount in his impeachment trial. Dallas

was United States attorney for the eastern district of Pennsylvania from

1801 until 1814, a period marked by bitter struggles between the

Democratic-Republican factions in the state, in which he took a leading

part in alliance with Governor Thomas M'Kean and Albert Gallatin, and in

opposition to the radical factions led by Michael Leib (1759-1822) and

William Duane (1760-1835), of the _Aurora_. The quarrel led in 1805 to

the M'Kean party seeking Federalist support. By such an alliance,

largely due to the political ingenuity of Dallas, M'Kean was re-elected.

In October 1814 President Madison appointed Dallas secretary of the

treasury, to succeed George W. Campbell (1768-1848), whose brief and

disastrous term had been marked by wholesale bank suspensions, and an

enormous depreciation of state and national bank notes. The appointment

itself inspired confidence, and Dallas's prompt measures still further

relieved the situation. He first issued new interest-bearing treasury

notes of small denominations, and in addition proposed the

re-establishment of a national bank, by which means he expected to

increase the stability and uniformity of the circulating medium, and

furnish the government with a powerful engine in the upholding of its

credit. In spite of his already onerous duties, Dallas, with

characteristic energy, served also as secretary of war _ad interim_ from

March to August 1815, and in this capacity successfully reorganized the

army on a peace footing. Although peace brought a more favourable

condition of the money market, Dallas's attempt to fund the treasury

notes on a satisfactory basis was unsuccessful, but a bill, reported by

Calhoun, as chairman of the committee on national currency, for the

establishment of a national bank, became law on the 10th of April 1816.

Meanwhile (12th of February 1816) Dallas, in a notable report,

recommended a protective tariff, which was enacted late in April,

largely in accordance with his recommendation. Although Dallas left the

cabinet in October 1816, it was through his efforts that the new bank

began its operations in the following January, and specie payments were

resumed in February. Dallas, who belonged to the financial school of

Albert Gallatin, deserves to rank among America's greatest financiers.

He found the government bankrupt, and after two years at the head of the

treasury he left it with a surplus of $20,000,000; moreover, as Henry

Adams points out, his measures had "fixed the financial system in a firm

groove for twenty years." He retired from office to resume his practice

of the law, but the burden of his official duties had undermined his

health, and he died suddenly at Philadelphia on the 16th of June 1817.

He was the author of several notable political pamphlets and state

papers, and in addition edited _The Laws of Pennsylvania, 1700-1801_

(1801), and _Reports of Cases ruled and adjudged by the Courts of the

United States and of Pennsylvania before and since the Revolution_ (4

vols., 1790-1807; new edition with notes by Thomas J. Wharton, 1830). He

wrote _An Exposition of the Causes and Character of the War of 1812-15_

(1815), which was republished by government authority in New York and

London and widely circulated. He left in MS. an unfinished _History of

Pennsylvania_.

His brother, ROBERT CHARLES DALLAS (1754-1824), was born in Jamaica, and

lived at various times in the West Indies, the United States, England

and France. He was an intimate friend of Lord Byron. He wrote

_Recollections of Lord Byron_ (1824), and several novels, plays and

miscellaneous works.

See G. M. Dallas, _Life and Writings of Alexander James Dallas_

(Philadelphia, 1871).

DALLAS, GEORGE MIFFLIN (1792-1864), American statesman and diplomat, was

born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 10th of July 1792. He

graduated at Princeton in 1810 at the head of his class; then studied

law in the office of his father, Alexander J. Dallas, the financier, and

was admitted to the bar in 1813. In the same year he accompanied Albert

Gallatin, as his secretary, to Russia, and in 1814 returned to the

United States as the bearer of important dispatches from the American

peace commissioners at Ghent. He practised law in New York and

Philadelphia, was chosen mayor of Philadelphia in 1828, and in 1829 was

appointed by President Jackson, whom he had twice warmly supported for

the presidency, United States attorney for the eastern district of

Pennsylvania, a position long held by his father. From 1831 to 1833 he

was a Democratic member of the United States Senate, in which he

advocated a compromise tariff and strongly supported Jackson's position

in regard to nullification. On the bank question he was at first at

variance with the president; in January 1832 he presented in the Senate

a memorial from the bank's president, Nicholas Biddle, and its managers,

praying for a recharter, and subsequently he was chairman of a committee

which reported a bill re-chartering the institution for a fifteen-year

period. Afterwards, however, his views changed and he opposed the bank.

From 1833 to 1835 Dallas was attorney-general of Pennsylvania, and from

1835 to 1839 was minister to Russia. During the following years he was

engaged in a long struggle with James Buchanan for party leadership in

Pennsylvania. He was vice-president of the United States from 1845 to

1849, but the appointment of Buchanan as secretary of state at once shut

him off from all hope of party patronage or influence in the Polk

administration, and he came to be looked upon as the leader of that body

of conservative Democrats of the North, who, while they themselves

chafed at the domination of Southern leaders, were disposed to disparage

all anti-slavery agitation. By his casting vote at a critical period

during the debate in the Senate on the tariff bill of 1846, he

irretrievably lost his influence with the protectionist element of his

native state, to whom he had given assurances of his support of the

Tyler tariff of 1842. For several years after his retirement from

office, he devoted himself to his law practice, and in 1856 succeeded

James Buchanan as United States minister to England, where he remained

until relieved by Charles Francis Adams in May 1861. During this trying

period he represented his country with ability and tact, making every

endeavour to strengthen the Union cause in Great Britain. He died at

Philadelphia on the 1st of December 1864. He wrote a biographical memoir

for an edition of his father's writings, which was published in 1871.

His _Diary_ of his residence in St Petersburg and London was published

in Philadelphia in 1892.

DALLAS, a city and the county-seat of Dallas county, Texas, U.S.A.,

about 220 m. N.W. of Houston, on the E. bank of the Trinity river. Pop.

(1880) 10,358; (1890) 38,067; (1900) 42,638, of whom 9035 were negroes

and 3381 were foreign-born; (1910) 92,104. Area, about 15 sq. m. Dallas

is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Gulf, Colorado &

Santa Fe, the Houston & Texas Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the

St Louis South-western, the Texas & New Orleans, the Trinity & Brazos

Valley, and the Texas & Pacific railways, and by interurban electric

railways to Fort Worth and Sherman. The lower channel of the Trinity

river has been greatly improved by the Federal government; but in 1908

the river was not navigable as far as Dallas. Among public buildings are

the Carnegie library (1901), Dallas county court house, the city hall,

the U.S. government building, St Matthew's cathedral (Prot. Episc.), the

cathedral of the Sacred Heart (Rom. Cath.), the city hospital, St Paul's

sanitarium (Rom. Cath.), and the Baptist Memorial sanitarium.

Educational institutions include Dallas medical college (1901), the

colleges of medicine and pharmacy of Baylor University, the medical

college of South-western University (at Georgetown, Texas), Oak Cliff

female academy, Patton seminary, St Mary's female college (Prot.

Episc.), and Holy Trinity college (Rom. Cath.). The city had in 1908

three parks--Bachman's Reservoir (500 acres); Fair (525 acres)--the

Texas state fair grounds, in which an annual exhibition is held--and

City park (17 acres). Lake Cliff, Cycle and Oak Lawn parks are amusement

grounds. A Confederate soldiers' monument, a granite shaft 50 ft. high,

was erected in 1897, with statues of R. E. Lee, Jefferson Davis,

"Stonewall" Jackson and A. S. Johnston. Dallas was in 1900 the third

city in population and the most important railway centre in Texas. It is

a shipping centre for a large wheat, fruit and cotton-raising region,

and the principal jobbing market for northern Texas, Oklahoma and part

of Louisiana, and the biggest distributing point for agricultural

machinery in the South-west. It is a livestock market, and one of the

chief centres in the United States for the manufacture of saddlery and

leather goods, and of cotton-gin machinery. It has flour and grist mills

(the products of which ranked first in value among the city's

manufactures in 1905), wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing

establishments, cooperage works, railway repair shops, cotton

compresses, lumber yards, salt works, and manufactories of cotton-seed

oil and cake, boots and shoes and cotton and agricultural machinery. In

1900 and 1905 it was the principal manufacturing centre in the state,

the value of its factory product in 1905 being $15,627,668, an increase

of 64.7% over that in 1900. The water-works are owned and operated by

the city, and the water is taken from the Elm fork of Trinity river.

There are several artesian wells. Dallas, named in honour of G. M.

Dallas, was settled in 1841, and first chartered as a city in 1856. The

city is governed, under a charter of 1907, by a mayor and four

commissioners, who together pass ordinances, appoint nearly all city

officers, and generally are responsible for administering the

government. In addition a school board is elected by the people. The

charter contains initiative and referendum provisions, provides for the

recall of any elective city official, and prohibits the granting of any

franchise for a longer term than twenty years.

DALLE (pronounced "dal," Fr. for a flag-stone or flat tile), a rapid

falling over flat smooth rock surfaces in a river bed, especially in

rivers flowing between basaltic rocks. The name is common in America,

and came into use through the French employes of the Hudson's Bay

Company. Well-known "dalles" are on the St Louis, St Croix and Wisconsin

rivers. The "dalles" of the Columbia river are very beautiful, and have

given its name to Dalles (1910 pop. 4880), county-seat of Wasco county,

Oregon.

DALLIN, CYRUS EDWIN (1861- ), American sculptor, was born at

Springville, Utah, on the 22nd of November 1861. He was a pupil of

Truman H. Bartlett in Boston, of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, the Academie

Julien and the sculptors Henri M. Chapu and Jean Dampt (born 1858), in

Paris, and on his return to America became instructor in modelling in

the state normal art school in Boston. He is best known for his plastic

representations of the North American Indian--especially for "The Signal

of Peace" in Lincoln Park, Chicago, and "The Medicine Man," in Fairmount

Park, Philadelphia. As a boy he had lived among the Indians in the Far

West, and had learned their language. His later works include "Pioneer

Monument," Salt Lake City; "Sir Isaac Newton," Congressional Library,

Washington; and "Don Quixote." He won a silver medal at the Paris

Exposition, 1900, and a gold medal at the St Louis Exposition, 1904.

DALLING AND BULWER, WILLIAM HENRY LYTTON EARLE BULWER, BARON

(1801-1872), better known as Sir HENRY BULWER, English diplomatist and

author, was born in London on the 13th of February 1801. His father,

General William Earle Bulwer, when colonel of the 106th regiment, had

married Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, who--as the only child of Richard

Warburton Lytton, of Knebworth Park, in Hertfordshire--was sole heiress

of the family of Norreys-Robinson-Lytton of Monacdhu in the island of

Anglesea and of Guersylt in Denbighshire. Three sons were the fruit of

this marriage. The second, afterwards Lord Dalling, was amply provided

for by his selection as heir to his maternal grandmother; the paternal

estates in Norfolk went to his elder brother William, and the maternal

property in Herts to the youngest, Edward, known first as Bulwer the

novelist and dramatist, and afterwards as the first Baron Lytton (q.v.)

of Knebworth.

General Bulwer, as brigadier-general of volunteers, was one of the four

commanding officers to whom was entrusted the defence of England in

1804, when threatened with invasion by Napoleon. Three years afterwards,

on the 7th of July 1807, he died prematurely at fifty-two at Heyden

Hall. His young widow had then devolved upon her not only the double

charge of caring for the estates in Herts and Norfolk, but the far

weightier responsibility of superintending the education of her three

sons, then in their earliest boyhood. Henry Bulwer was educated at

Harrow, under Dr George Butler, and at Trinity College and Downing

College, Cambridge. In 1822 he published a small volume of verse,

beginning with an ode on the death of Napoleon. It is chiefly

interesting now for its fraternal dedication to Edward Lytton Bulwer,

then a youth of nineteen.

On leaving Cambridge in the autumn of 1824, Henry Bulwer went, as

emissary of the Greek committee then sitting in London, to the Morea,

carrying with him L80,000 sterling, which he handed over to Prince

Mavrocordato and his colleagues, as the responsible leaders of the War

of Independence. He was accompanied on this expedition by Hamilton

Browne, who, a year before, had been despatched by Lord Byron to

Cephalonia to treat with the insurgent government. Shortly after his

return to England in 1826, Bulwer published a record of this excursion,

under the title of _An Autumn in Greece_. Meanwhile, bent for the moment

upon following in his father's footsteps, he had, on the 19th of October

1825, been gazetted as a cornet in the 2nd Life Guards. Within less than

eight months, however, he had exchanged from cavalry to infantry, being

enrolled on the 2nd of June 1826 as an ensign in the 58th regiment. That

ensigncy he retained for little more than a month, obtaining another

unattached, which he held until the 1st of January 1829, when he finally

abandoned the army. The court, not the camp, was to be the scene of his

successes; and for thirty-eight years altogether--from August 1827 to

August 1865--he contrived, while maturing from a young attache to an

astute and veteran ambassador, to hold his own with ease, and in the end

was ranked amongst the subtlest intellects of his time as a master of

diplomacy. His first appointment in his new profession was as an attache

at Berlin. In April 1830 he obtained his next step through his

nomination as an attache at Vienna. Thence, exactly a year afterwards,

he was employed nearer home in the same capacity at the Hague.

As yet ostensibly no more than a careless lounger in the _salons_ of the

continent, the young ex-cavalry officer veiled the keenest observation

under an air of indifference. His constitutional energy, which

throughout life was exceptionally intense and tenacious, wore from the

first a mask of languor. When in reality most cautious he was seemingly

most negligent. No matter what he happened at the moment to take in

hand, the art he applied to it was always that highest art of all, the

_ars celare artem_. His mastery of the lightest but most essential

weapon in the armoury of the diplomatist, tact, came to him as it seemed

intuitively, and from the outset was consummate. Talleyrand himself

would have had no reason, even in Henry Bulwer's earliest years as an

attache, to write entreatingly, "_pas de zele_," to one who concealed so

felicitously, even at starting, a lynx-like vigilance under an aspect

the most phlegmatic. He had hardly reached his new post at the Hague

when he found and seized his opportunity. The revolutionary explosion of

July at Paris had been echoed on the 25th of August 1830 by an outburst

of insurrection at Brussels. During the whole of September a succession

of stormy events swept over Belgium, until the popular rising reached

its climax on the 4th of October in the declaration of Belgian

independence by the provisional government. At the beginning of the

revolution, the young attache was despatched by the then foreign

secretary at Whitehall, Lord Aberdeen, to watch events as they arose and

report their character. In the execution of his special mission he

traversed the country in all directions amidst civil war, the issue of

which was to the last degree problematic. Under those apparently

bewildering circumstances, he was enabled by his sagacity and

penetration to win his spurs as a diplomatist. Writing almost haphazard

in the midst of the conflict, he sent home from day to day a series of

despatches which threw a flood of light upon incidents that would

otherwise have appeared almost inexplicable. Scarcely a week had

elapsed, during which his predictions had been wonderfully verified,

when he was summoned to London to receive the congratulations of the

cabinet. He returned to Brussels no longer in a merely temporary or

informal capacity. As secretary of legation, and afterwards as charge

d'affaires, he assisted in furthering the negotiations out of which

Belgium rose into a kingdom. Scarcely had this been accomplished when he

wrote what may be called the first chapter of the history of the newly

created Belgian kingdom. It appeared in 1831 as a brief but luminous

paper in the January number of the _Westminster Review_. And as the

events it recorded had helped to inaugurate its writer's career as a

diplomatist, so did his narrative of those occurrences in the pages of

the Radical quarterly signalize in a remarkable way the commencement of

his long and consistent career as a Liberal politician. Shortly before

his appearance as a reviewer, and immediately prior to the carrying of

the first Reform Bill, Bulwer had won a seat in the House of Commons as

member for Wilton, afterwards in 1831 and 1832 sitting there as M.P. for

Coventry. Nearly two years having elapsed, during which he was absent

from parliament, he was in 1834 returned to Westminster as member for

Marylebone. That position he retained during four sessions, winning

considerable distinction as a debater. Within the very year in which he

was chosen by the Marylebone electors, he brought out in two volumes,

entitled _France--Literary, Social and Political_, the first half of a

work which was only completed upon the publication, two years

afterwards, of a second series, also in two volumes, under the title of

_The Monarchy of the Middle Classes_. Through its pages he made good his

claim to be regarded not merely as a keen-witted observer, but as one of

the most sagacious and genial delineators of the generic Frenchman,

above all of that supreme type of the race, with whom all through his

life he especially delighted to hold familiar intercourse, the true

Parisian. Between the issuing from the press of these two series, Henry

Bulwer had prefixed an intensely sympathetic _Life of Lord Byron_ to the

Paris edition of the poet's works published by Galignani,--a memoir

republished sixteen years afterwards. A political argument of a

curiously daring and outspoken character, entitled _The Lords, the

Government, and the Country_, was given to the public in 1836 by Bulwer,

in the form of an elaborate letter to a constituent. At this point his

literary labours, which throughout life were with him purely labours

by-the-way, ceased for a time, and he disappeared during three decades

from authorship and from the legislature.

During the period of his holding the position of charge d'affaires at

Brussels, Bulwer had seized every opportunity of making lengthened

sojourns at Paris, always for him the choicest place of residence. It

was in the midst of one of these _dolce far niente_ loiterings on the

boulevards that, on the 14th of August 1837, he received his nomination

as secretary of embassy at Constantinople. Recognizing his exceptional

ability Lord Ponsonby, the British ambassador at Constantinople, at once

entrusted to him the difficult task of negotiating a commercial treaty,

which had the double object of removing the intolerable conditions which

hampered British trade with Turkey and of dealing a blow at the

threatening power of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, by shattering the

system of monopolies on which it was largely based. In this difficult

task Bulwer was helped by the hatred of Sultan Mahmed II. for Mehemet

Ali, but the treaty was none the less a remarkable proof of his

diplomatic skill, and the compliment was well deserved when Palmerston,

in writing his congratulations to him from Windsor Castle, on the 13th

of September 1838, pronounced the treaty a _capo d'opera_, adding that

without reserve it would be at once ratified. Shortly after this

achievement Bulwer was nominated secretary of embassy at St Petersburg.

Illness, however, compelled him to delay his northern journey--almost

opportunely, as it happened, for in June 1839 he was despatched, in the

same capacity, to the more congenial atmosphere of Paris. At that

juncture the developments of the feud between Mehemet Ali and the Porte

were threatening to bring England and France into armed collision (see

MEHEMET ALI). In 1839 and 1840, during the temporary absence of his

chief, Lord Granville, the secretary of embassy was gazetted _ad

interim_ charge d'affaires at the court of France, and thus during this

critical time he had fresh opportunities of winning distinction as a

diplomatist.

On the 14th of November 1843 he was appointed ambassador at the court of

the young Spanish queen Isabella II. Upon his arrival at Madrid signal

evidence was afforded of the estimation in which he was then held as a

diplomatist. He was chosen arbitrator between Spain and Morocco, then

confronting each other in deadly hostility, and, as the result of his

mediation, a treaty of peace was signed between the two powers in 1844.

In 1846 a much more formidable difficulty arose,--one which, after

threatening war between France and England, led at last to a diplomatic

rupture between the British and Spanish governments. The dynastic

intrigues of Louis Philippe were the immediate cause of this

estrangement, and those intrigues found their climax in what has ever

since been known in European annals as the Spanish Marriages. The storm

sown in the Spanish marriages was reaped in the whirlwind of the

February revolution. And the explosion which took place at Paris was

answered a month afterwards at Madrid by a similar outbreak. Marshal

Narvaez thereupon assumed the dictatorship, and wreaked upon the

insurgents a series of reprisals of the most pitiless character. These

excessive severities of the marshal-dictator the British ambassador did

his utmost to mitigate. When at last, however, Narvaez carried his

rigour to the length of summarily suppressing the constitutional

guarantees, Bulwer sent in a formal protest in the name of England

against an act so entirely ruthless and unjustifiable. This courageous

proceeding at once drew down upon the British envoy a counter-stroke as

ill-judged as it was unprecedented. Narvaez, with matchless effrontery,

denounced the ambassador from England as an accomplice in the

conspiracies of the Progressistas; and despite his position as an envoy,

and in insolent defiance of the Palmerstonian boast, _Civis

Britannicus_, Bulwer, on the 12th of June, was summarily required to

quit Madrid within twenty-four hours. Two days afterwards M. Isturitz,

the Spanish ambassador at the court of St James's, took his departure

from London. Diplomatic relations were not restored between the two

countries until years had elapsed, nor even then until after a formal

apology, dictated by Lord Palmerston, had been signed by the prime

minister of Queen Isabella. Before his return the ambassador was

gazetted a K.C.B., being promoted to the grand cross some three years

afterwards. In addition to this mark of honour he received the formal

approbation of the ministry, and with it the thanks of both Houses of

Parliament.

Before the year of his return from the peninsula had run out Sir Henry

Bulwer was married to the Hon. Georgiana Charlotte Mary Wellesley,

youngest daughter of the 1st Baron Cowley, and niece to the duke of

Wellington. Early in the following year, on the 27th of April 1849, he

was nominated ambassador at Washington. There he acquired immense

popularity. His principal success was the compact known as the

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.), ratified in May 1850, pledging the

contracting governments to respect the neutrality of the meditated ship

canal through Central America, bringing the waters of the Atlantic and

Pacific into direct communication. After having been accredited as

ambassador to the United States for three years, Sir Henry Bulwer, early

in 1852, was despatched as minister plenipotentiary at the court of the

grand duke of Tuscany at Florence. Shortly after his retirement from

that post in the January of 1855, he was entrusted with various

diplomatic missions, in one of which he was empowered as commissioner

under the 23rd article of the treaty of Paris, 1856, to investigate the

state of things in the Danubian principalities, with a view to their

definite reorganization. Finally he was installed, from May 1858 to

August 1865, as the immediate successor, after the close of the Crimean

war, of the "Great Elchi," Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, as

ambassador extraordinary to the Ottoman Porte at Constantinople.

In the winter of 1865 Bulwer returned home from the Bosporus, and

retired with a pension. He was elected member for Tamworth on the 17th

of November 1868, and retained his seat until gazetted as a peer of the

realm on the 21st of March 1871, under the title of Baron Dalling and

Bulwer of Wood Dalling in the county of Norfolk. Upon the eve of his

return to his old haunts as a debater and a politician he had asserted

his claim to literary distinction by giving to the world in two volumes

his four masterly sketches of typical men, entitled _Historical

Characters_. This work, dedicated to his brother Edward, in testimony of

the writer's fraternal affection and friendship, portrayed in luminous

outline Talleyrand the Politic Man, Cobbett the Contentious Man, Canning

the Brilliant Man, and Mackintosh the Man of Promise. Two other kindred

sketches, those of Sir Robert Peel and Viscount Melbourne, having been

selected from among their author's papers, were afterwards published

posthumously. Another work of ampler outline and larger pretension was

begun and partially issued from the press during Lord Dalling's

lifetime, but not completed. This was the _Life of Viscount Palmerston_,

the first two volumes of which were published in 1870. A third volume

appeared four years afterwards. Even then it left the story of the

English statesman broken off so abruptly that the work remained at the

last the merest fragment. It was completed by Evelyn Ashley.

Lord Dalling died unexpectedly on the 23rd of May 1872 at Naples. He had

no issue, and the title became extinct. In his public career he enjoyed

a three-fold success--as ambassador, as politician and as man of

letters. His popularity in society was at all times remarkable, mainly

no doubt from his mastery of all the subtler arts of a skilled

conversationalist. The apparent languor with which he related an

anecdote, flung off a _bon mot_, or indulged in a momentary stroke of

irony imparted interest to the narrative, wings to the wit and point to

the sarcasm in a manner peculiarly his own. (C. K.)

DALLMEYER, JOHN HENRY (1830-1883), Anglo-German optician, was born on

the 6th of September 1830 at Loxten, Westphalia, the son of a landowner.

On leaving school at the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to an

Osnabruck optician, and in 1851 he came to London, where he obtained

work with an optician, W. Hewitt, who shortly afterwards, with his

workmen, entered the employment of Andrew Ross, a lens and telescope

manufacturer. Dallmeyer's position in this workshop appears to have been

an unpleasant one, and led him to take, for a time, employment as French

and German correspondent for a commercial firm. After a year he was,

however, re-engaged by Ross as scientific adviser, and was entrusted

with the testing and finishing of the highest class of optical

apparatus. This appointment led to his marriage with Ross's second

daughter, Hannah, and to the inheritance, at Ross's death (1859), of a

third of his employer's large fortune and the telescope manufacturing

portion of the business. Turning from astronomical work to the making of

photographic lenses (see PHOTOGRAPHY), he introduced improvements in

both portrait and landscape lenses, in object-glasses for the microscope

and in condensers for the optical lantern. In connexion with celestial

photography he constructed photo-heliographs for the Wilna observatory

in 1863, for the Harvard College observatory in 1864, and, in 1873,

several for the British government. Dallmeyer's instruments achieved a

wide success in Europe and America, taking the highest awards at various

international exhibitions. The Russian government gave him the order of

St Stanislaus, and the French government made him chevalier of the

Legion of Honour. He was for many years upon the councils of both the

Royal Astronomical and Royal Photographic societies. About 1880 he was

advised to give up the personal supervision of his workshops, and to

travel for his health, but he died on board ship, off the coast of New

Zealand, on the 30th of December 1883.

His second son, THOMAS RUDOLPHUS DALLMEYER (1859-1906), who assumed

control of the business on the failure of his father's health, was

principally known as the first to introduce telephotographic lenses into

ordinary practice (patented 1891), and he was the author of a standard

book on the subject (_Telephotography_, 1899). He served as president of

the Royal Photographic Society in 1900-1903.

DALL' ONGARO, FRANCESCO (1808-1873), Italian writer, born in Friuli, was

educated for the priesthood, but abandoned his orders, and taking to

political journalism founded the _Favilla_ at Trieste in the Liberal

interest. In 1848 he enlisted under Garibaldi, and next year was a

member of the assembly which proclaimed the republic in Rome, being

given by Mazzini the direction of the _Monitor officiale_. On the

downfall of the republic he fled to Switzerland, then to Belgium and

later to France, taking a prominent part in revolutionary journalism; it

was not till 1860 that he returned to Italy, where he was appointed

professor of dramatic literature at Florence. Subsequently he was

transferred to Naples, where he died on the 10th of January 1873. His

patriotic poems, _Stornelli_, composed in early life, had a great

popular success; and he produced a number of plays, notably

_Fornaretto_, _Bianca Capello_, _Fasma_ and _Il Tesoro_. His collected

_Fantasie drammatiche e liriche_ were published in his lifetime.

DALMATIA (Ger. _Dalmatien_; Ital. _Dalmazia_; Serbo-Croatian,

_Dalmacija_), a kingdom and crownland of the Austro-Hungarian empire, in

the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula, and on the Adriatic Sea.

Dalmatia is bounded, on the landward side, by Croatia and Bosnia, in the

N. and N.E.; and by Herzegovina and Montenegro, in the S.E. and S. Its

area amounts to 4923 sq. m.; its greatest length, from north-west to

south-east, is 210 m.; its breadth reaches 35 m. between Point Planca

and the Bosnian frontier, diminishing to less than 1 m. at Cattaro. Near

the ports of Klek and Castelnuovo the Herzegovinian frontier comes down

to the sea,[1] but only for a total distance of 14(1/2) m.

_Physical Features._--No part of the Mediterranean shore, except the

coast of Greece, is so deeply indented as the Dalmatian littoral, with

its multitude of rock-bound bays and inlets. It is sheltered from the

open sea by a rampart of islands which vary greatly in size; a few being

large enough to support several thousand inhabitants, while others are

mere reefs, swept bare by the sea, or tenanted only by rabbits and

seabirds. This Dalmatian archipelago, separated from the Istrian by the

Gulf of Quarnerolo, forms two island groups, the northern or Liburnian,

and the southern; with open water intervening, off Point Planca. In calm

weather the channels between the islands and the mainland resemble a

chain of landlocked lakes, brilliantly clear to a depth of several

fathoms. As a rule, the surrounding hills are rugged, bleached almost

white or pale russet, and destitute of verdure; but their monotony is

relieved by the half-ruined castles and monasteries clinging to the

rocks, or by the beauty of such cities as Ragusa, or Arbe, with its

fantastic row of steeples overlooking the beach. The principal islands,

Arbe, Brazza, Curzola, Lacroma, Lesina, Lissa and Meleda, are described

under separate headings. The promontory of Sabbioncello, or Punta di

Stagno, which juts out for 41 m. into the sea, between Curzola and

Lesina, is almost another island; for its breadth, which nowhere exceeds

5 m., dwindles to about 1 m. at the narrow isthmus which unites it with

the shore. There are two small ports on this isthmus--on the south,

Stagno Grande (Serbo-Croatian, _Ston Veliki_), once celebrated for its

salt and shipbuilding industries, and, on the north, Stagno Piccolo

(_Ston Mali_). Dalmatia possesses a magnificent anchorage in the Bocche

di Cattaro, and there are numerous lesser havens, at Sebenico, Trau,

Zara and elsewhere along the coast and among the islands.

The country is almost everywhere hilly or mountainous. On the Croatian

border rises the lofty barrier of the Velebit, which culminates in Sveto

Brdo (5751 ft.), and Vakanski Vrh (5768 ft.). The Dinaric Alps form the

frontier between Dalmatia and Bosnia; Dinara (6007 ft.), which gives its

name to the whole chain, and Troglav (6276 ft.), being the highest

Dalmatian summits. North-west of Sinj rise the Svilaja and Mosec

Planinas; the ridges of Mosor and Biokovo, with Sveto Juraj (5781 ft.),

follow the windings of the coast from Spalato to Macarsca; Orjen marks

the meeting-place of the Herzegovinian, Montenegrin and Dalmatian

frontiers, and the Sutorman range appears in the extreme south. The

barren dry limestone of the Dalmatian highlands has been aptly compared

with a petrified sponge; for it is honeycombed with underground caverns

and water-courses, into which the rainfall is at once filtered. Thus

arises a complete system of subterranean rivers, with waterfalls, lakes

and regular seasons of flood. Even the few surface rivers vanish and

emerge again at intervals. The Trebinjcica, for instance, disappearing

in Herzegovina, supplies both the broad and swift estuary of Ombla, near

Ragusa, and the fresh-water spring of Doli, which issues from the bottom

of the sea. Apart from the Ombla, and the Narenta (Serbo-Croatian,

_Neretva_; Roman, _Naro_), which creates a broad marshy delta between

Metkovic and the sea, Dalmatia has only three rivers more than 25 m.

long; the Zermagna (_Zrmanja_, _Tedanium_), Kerka, (_Krka_, _Titius_),

and Cetina (_Cetina_; _Narona_ or _Tilurus_). The Zermagna skirts the

southern foothills of the Velebit and falls into the harbour of

Novigrad. Better known is the Kerka, which rises in the Dinaric Alps and

flows south-westward to the Adriatic. Near Scardona (_Skradin_) it

spreads into a broad lake, and forms several fine waterfalls, after

receiving its tributary the Cikola (_Cikola_), from the east. South of

Spalato, the Cetina, which also springs from the Dinaric Alps, descends

to the sea at Almissa (_Omis_), after passing between the Mosor and

Biokovo ranges. There are a few small lakes near Zara, Zaravecchia and

the Narenta estuary; while the fertile, but unhealthy, hollows among the

mountains fill with water after heavy rain, and sometimes cause

disastrous floods. But most parts of the country suffer from drought.

For an account of the chief geological formations see BALKAN PENINSULA.

Small quantities of iron, lignite, asphalt and bay salt are the only

minerals of commercial importance.

The climate is warm and healthy, the mean temperature at Zara being 57

deg. F., at Lesina 62 deg., and at Ragusa 63 deg. The prevailing wind is

the sirocco, or S.E.; but the terrible Bora, or N.N.E., may blow at any

season of the year. The average annual rainfall is about 28 in., but a

dry and a wet year usually alternate.

_Fauna._--Bears, badgers and wild cats, with a larger number of wolves

and foxes, find shelter in the Dinaric Alps and on the heights of

Svilaja, Mosor and Biokovo; while jackals exist on Curzola and

Sabbioncello, almost their last refuges in Europe. Roedeer are uncommon,

and the wild boar, chamois, red-deer and beaver are extinct; but hares

and rabbits abound. The game-laws are not strict, and are often evaded

by the Morlachs; but moderate sport may be obtained in the fens formed

by the Cetina about Sinj, and the lagoons of the Narenta estuary; both

regions being frequented by wild swans, geese, duck, snipe and other

aquatic birds. Among land-birds, the commonest are quails, woodcock,

partridges, and especially the so-called "stone-fowl" (_Steinhuhn_,

_Perdix Graeca_). Tortoises are numerous; snakes, lizards, scorpions and

innumerable sand-flies infest the dry hillsides; and the limestone

caverns are peopled by sightless bats, reptiles, fish, flies, beetles,

spiders, crustacea and molluscs.

_Fisheries._--No region of Europe is richer in its marine fauna and

flora. Sponge and coral fisheries afford a valuable source of income to

the peasantry, many of whom also go northward for the sardine and tunny

fisheries of the Istrian coast, while salmon, trout and eels are caught

in the Dalmatian rivers.

_Flora._--The olive, almond, fig, orange, palm, aloe, myrtle,

locust-tree and other characteristic members of the Mediterranean flora

thrive in the sheltered valleys of the Dalmatian littoral, where

almond-blossoms appear in mid-winter, and the palm occasionally bears

ripe fruit. The _marasca_, or wild cherry, is abundant, and yields the

celebrated liqueur called _maraschino_. But at a little distance from

the rivers and on the more exposed parts of the coast the aspect of the

country changes entirely. Patches of thin grass, heather, juniper,

thyme, tamarisks and mountain roses hardly relieve the bareness and

aridity of the seaward slopes.

_Forests._--Oaks, pines and beeches still, in a few parts, clothe the

landward slopes, but, as a rule, the forests for which Dalmatia was once

famous were cut down for the Venetian shipyards or burned by pirates;

while every attempt at replanting is frustrated by the shallowness of

the soil, the drought and the multitude of goats that browse on the

young trees.

_Agriculture._--Little more than one-tenth of the whole surface is under

the plough; the rest, where it is not altogether sterile, being chiefly

mountain pasture, vineyards and garden land. Asses are the favourite

beasts of burden; goats are strikingly numerous; and sheep are kept for

the sake of their mutton, which is almost the only animal food freely

consumed by the peasantry. Cattle-breeding, bee-keeping, and the

cultivation of fruit and vegetables, especially potatoes and beetroot,

are among the principal resources of the people, while wheat, rye,

barley, oats, Indian corn, hemp and millet are also grown. Viticulture

is carried on with great and increasing success (see WINE).

_Land-tenure._--Individual proprietorship of the soil is rare, for,

despite the decadence of the _zadruga_ or household community, the

tenure of land and the privilege of using the communal domain still

appertain to the family as a whole. There are a few large estates, but

most of the land is parcelled out in small holdings.

_Industries._--Besides fishing, farming and such allied trades as

shipbuilding, wine and oil pressing, and the distillation of spirits,

notably _maraschino_, a few other industries are practised, such as

tile-burning and the manufacture of soap; but these are of minor

importance. Certain crafts are also carried on by the country-folk, in

their own homes; thus the peasant is sometimes his own mason, carpenter,

weaver and miller. Manufactured goods and foodstuffs are imported, in

return for asphalt, lignite, bay salt, wine, spirits, oil, honey, wax

and hides; and there is a lucrative transit trade with Bosnia and

Herzegovina, Montenegro, Turkey and various Adriatic and Mediterranean

ports.

_Communications._--Communications are defective, some parts of the

interior being only accessible by the roughest of mountain roads. The

principal railway, in point of size, traverses the central districts,

linking together Knin, Spalato, Sebenico and Sinj; but the southern

lines, which unite Dalmatia with Herzegovina and terminate at Ragusa,

Metkovic and Castlenuovo on the Bocche di Cattaro, are almost of equal

importance, Cattaro being one of the chief outlets for Montenegrin

commerce, while the vessels which steam up the Narenta to Metkovic carry

the bulk of the sea-borne trade of Herzegovina. In 1897 Dalmatia

possessed 151 post and 98 telegraph offices.

_Chief Towns._--The chief towns are Zara, the capital, with 32,506[2]

inhabitants in 1900, Spalato (27,198), Sebenico (24,751), Trau (17,064),

Ragusa (13,174), Macarsca (11,016), and Cattaro (5418). All these are

described under separate headings.

_Population and National Characteristics._--With a constant excess of

male over female children, the population increased steadily from 1869

to 1900, when it reached 591,597. Of this total 1% are foreigners and

about 3% Italians, whose numbers tend slowly to diminish. The Morlachs,

who constitute the remaining 96%, belong to the Serbo-Croatian branch of

the Slavonic race, having absorbed the Latinized Illyrians, Albanians

and other alien elements with which they have been associated. The name

of _Morlachs_, _Morlaks_ or _Morlacks_ commonly bestowed by English

writers on the Dalmatian Slavs, though sometimes restricted to the

peasantry of the hills, is an abbreviated form of _Mavrovlachi_, meaning

either "Black Vlachs," or, less probably, "Sea Vlachs." It was

originally applied to the scattered remnants of the Latin or Latinized

inhabitants of central Illyria, who were driven from their homes by the

barbarian invaders during the 7th century, and took refuge among the

mountains. Throughout the middle ages the Mavrovlachi were usually

nomadic shepherds, cattle-drovers or muleteers. In the 14th century they

emigrated from central Illyria into northern Dalmatia and maritime

Croatia; and these regions were thenceforward known as _Morlacchia_,

until the 18th century. Gradually, however, the Mavrovlachi became

identified with the Slavs, whose language and manners they adopted, and

to whom they gave their own name. In northern Dalmatia the Slavs of the

interior are still called _Morlacchi_; in the south this name expresses

contempt. Of the Vlachs, properly so called, very few are left in the

country; although the name Vlachs (q.v.) is frequently used by the Slavs

to designate the Italians and the town-dwellers generally. The literary

languages of Dalmatia are Italian and Serbo-Croatian; the spoken

language is, in each case, modified by the introduction of various

dialect forms.

The Morlachs wear a picturesque and brightly-coloured costume,

resembling that of the Serbs (see SERVIA). In appearance they are

sometimes blond, with blue or grey eyes, like the Shumadian peasantry of

Servia; more often, olive-skinned, with dark hair and eyes, like the

Montenegrins, whom they rival in stature, strength and courage; while

their conservative spirit, their devotion to national traditions, poetry

and music, their pride, indolence and superstition, are typically

Servian. Dalmatian public life is deeply affected by the jealousies

which subsist between the Slavs and the Italians, whose influence,

though everywhere waning, remains predominant in some of the towns; and

between Orthodox "Serbs," who use the Cyrillic alphabet, and Roman

Catholic "Croats," who prefer the Latin.

_Government._--Dalmatia occupies a somewhat anomalous position in the

Austro-Hungarian state system. Itself a crownland of Austria, returning

eleven members to the Austrian parliament, it is severed geographically

from the other Austrian lands by the Hungarian kingdom of Croatia.

Ethnologically it is one with Croatia, and it is included in the

official title of the Croatian king, i.e. the emperor. The political

system is based on a law of the 26th of February 1861. The provincial

diet is composed of 43 members, comprising the Roman Catholic

archbishop, the Orthodox bishop of Zara and representatives of the chief

taxpayers, the towns and the communes. Benkovac, on the main road from

Zara to Spalato, Cattaro, Curzola, Imotski, 21 m. N. by E. of Macarsca,

Knin, Lesina, Macarsca, Ragusa, Sebenico, Sinj, Spalato and Zara, give

names to the twelve administrative districts, of which they are the

capitals.

_Defence._--Conscription is in force, as elsewhere in Austria, and the

Dalmatian coast furnishes the Austrian--as formerly the Venetian--navy

with many of its best recruits.

_Religion._--Roman Catholicism is the religion of more than 80% of the

population, the remainder belonging chiefly to the Orthodox Church. The

Roman Catholic archbishop has his seat in Zara, while Cattaro, Lesina,

Ragusa, Sebenico and Spalato are bishoprics. At the head of the Orthodox

community stands the bishop of Zara.

The use of Slavonic liturgies written in the Glagolitic alphabet, a very

ancient privilege of the Roman Catholics in Dalmatia and Croatia, caused

much controversy during the first years of the 20th century. There was

considerable danger that the Latin liturgies would be altogether

superseded by the Glagolitic, especially among the northern islands and

in rural communes, where the Slavonic element is all-powerful. In 1904

the Vatican forbade the use of Glagolitic at the festival of SS. Cyril

and Methodius, as likely to impair the unity of Catholicism. A few

years previously the Slavonic archbishop Rajcevic of Zara, in discussing

the "Glagolitic controversy," had denounced the movement as "an

innovation introduced by Panslavism to make it easy for the Catholic

clergy, after any great revolution in the Balkan States, to break with

Latin Rome." This view is shared by very many, perhaps by the majority,

of the Roman Catholics in Dalmatia.

_Education._--Education progressed slowly between 1860 and 1900,

attendance at school being often a hardship in the poor and widely

scattered hamlets of the interior. In 1890 more than 80% of the

population could neither read nor write, although schools are maintained

by every commune. In 1893 the country possessed 5 intermediate and 337

elementary schools, 6 theological seminaries, 6 gymnasia, and about 40

continuation and technical schools.

_Antiquities._--To the foreign visitor Dalmatia is chiefly interesting

as a treasury of art and antiquities. The grave-mounds of Curzola,

Lesina and Sabbioncello have yielded a few relics of prehistoric man,

and the memory of the early Celtic conquerors and Greek settlers is

preserved only in a few place-names; but the monuments left by the

Romans are numerous and precious. They are chiefly confined to the

cities; for the civilization of the country was always urban, just as

its history is a record of isolated city-states rather than of a united

nation. Beyond the walls of its larger towns, little was spared by the

barbarian Goths, Avars and Slavs; and the battered fragments of Roman

work which mark the sites of Salona, near Spalato, and of many other

ancient cities, are of slight antiquarian interest and slighter artistic

value. Among the monuments of the Roman period, by far the most

noteworthy in Dalmatia, and, indeed, in the whole Balkan Peninsula, is

the Palace of Diocletian at Spalato (q.v.). Dalmatian architecture was

Byzantine in its general character from the 6th century until the close

of the 10th. The oldest memorials of this period are the vestiges of

three basilicas, excavated in Salona, and dating from the first half of

the 7th century at latest. Byzantine art, in the latter half of this

period and the two succeeding centuries, continued to flourish in those

cities which, like Zara, gave their allegiance to Venice; just as, in

the architecture of Trau and other cities dominated by Hungary, there

are distinct traces of German influence. The belfry of S. Maria, at

Zara, erected in 1105, is first in a long list of Romanesque buildings.

At Arbe there is a beautiful Romanesque campanile which also belongs to

the 12th century; but the finest example in this style is the cathedral

of Trau. The 14th century Dominican and Franciscan convents in Ragusa

are also noteworthy. Romanesque lingered on in Dalmatia until it was

displaced by Venetian Gothic in the early years of the 15th century. The

influence of Venice was then at its height. Even in the hostile republic

of Ragusa the Romanesque of the custom-house and Rectors' palace is

combined with Venetian Gothic, while the graceful balconies and ogee

windows of the Prijeki closely follow their Venetian models. Gothic,

however, which had been adopted very late, was abandoned very early; for

in 1441 Giorgio Orsini of Zara, summoned from Venice to design the

cathedral of Sebenico, brought with him the influence of the Italian

Renaissance. The new forms which he introduced were eagerly imitated and

developed by other architects, until the period of decadence--which

virtually concludes the history of Dalmatian art--set in during the

latter half of the 17th century. Special mention must be made of the

carved woodwork, embroideries and plate preserved in many churches. The

silver statuette and the reliquary of St Biagio at Ragusa, and the

silver ark of St Simeon at Zara, are fine specimens of Byzantine and

Italian jewellers' work, ranging in date from the 11th or 12th to the

17th century.