Vegetation, Climate, and People.
The vegetation is very varied in the rock-strewn sides of the ravines,
in the granitic and quartzose regions it is very bare and weak. But
where the plateau level has been less disturbed, the thick _maxinde_
grass (x = sh) shows the richness of the soil; while the carefully
tended farms near the towns, beautiful with the rich green of the
ground-nut, thickly tangled with sweet-potatoes, or jungled with
cassava bushes, show what can be done with the soil, by clearing and a
little scratching with the hoe.
[Illustration: A CONGO VILLAGE.]
In the broader valleys, where the streams are smaller, or have done
less destruction to the country, grows the giant _diàdia_ grass, the
stems often attaining two and a half inches in circumference and a mean
height of fifteen feet; there may be found some of the richest soil in
the world. Where the _diàdia_ has been exists the wildest luxuriance
of vegetation; palms, plantain, Indian corn, ground-nuts, yams and
all garden produce are at their best, and ever at the mercy of the
elephants, who rejoice in such choice selection. In the Majinga country
the native houses have to be scattered through their rich farms, and
morning and night the people shout, scream, and beat their drums to
frighten off these giant marauders.
It is not a forest country. Strange clumps of trees grow on the tops
of the hills, which mark the ancient plateau level, but the rich
soil beside the streams and in the snug valleys is generally well
wooded. The vegetation presents an altogether tropical appearance,
the bracken in the glades is the only thing home-like. Rich creepers
drape the trees, beautiful palms lend their rare grace, and in their
seasons an endless succession of beautiful flowers, from huge arums to
a tiny crucifer of the richest scarlet, bright creepers, pure white
stephanotis-like blossoms, rich lilies, and many other gorgeous plants,
and bright berries, not in such wild, packed profusion that the eye is
bewildered with a blaze of beauty, but here and there with sufficient
interval to permit the due appreciation of their several lovelinesses.
The beauty of the leaf-forms is alone a pleasure; while the tints from
the darkest green to soft yellow, delicate pink, bronze, chocolate, and
bright crimson are mysteries of colour. On the rocky stream banks and
on the palm stems are graceful ferns, while the _lycopodium_ climbs
the bushes, mingled with the beautiful _selaginella_. The scenery of
the country is described in an unequalled manner by Mr. H. H. Johnston
in his book, _The River Congo_. Himself an accomplished artist, he
describes as only an artist can.
The vegetation suffers from the annual grass fires, which sweep the
country. As soon as the dry season has well set in (June) the burning
commences; in some parts it does not become general until August.
The grass is fired sometimes on a small scale by the children, that
they may hunt their rats, but the great fires occur when the natives
of a district combine for a grand hunt. For days the fire steadily
sweeps along, the game flee before it, hawks wheel above the line of
fire, catching the grasshoppers that seek to avoid the flames, while
smaller birds catch the lesser insects. The internodes of the burning
grass explode with a report like that of a pistol, and can be heard
distinctly a mile distant. Women and children follow on the line to dig
out the rats; and in the holes may be found rats, mice, snakes, and
lizards, seeking common protection from a common danger. At night the
horizon is lit up by the zigzag lines of fire, and in the daytime are
seen the thick columns of smoke slowly advancing, and filling the air
with a dull haze, which limits the horizon to ten or fifteen miles.
The climate of the Congo has been unduly vilified. In common with all
intertropical regions there is a malarial fever, which has claimed many
victims. It generally assumes an intermittent type, commencing with
an ague ‘shake;’ sometimes it is remittent, and combines with grave
symptoms. Although the precise nature of the malarial germ is still
unknown, continued study has enabled medical men to grapple much more
successfully with this great enemy. So long as it was the custom to
treat the fever with bleeding and calomel it was no wonder that Africa
was ‘the white man’s grave;’ that was not so much the fault of Africa
as the white man’s ignorance.
Traders on the coast have generally fair health, and many live to old
age. Ladies in the Mission stations and elsewhere live long on the
coast. Indeed, Dr. Laws, of Livingstonia, has expressed an opinion that
ladies, as a rule, stand the climate better than the men.
In these matters we are far readier to count up the misfortunes than to
note the large proportion of those who live long and do good work in
Africa.
New missions and scientific expeditions have paid the penalty for
ignorance and the difficulties of pioneering; but where the experience
of others can aid, and due precautions are observed, there is no reason
why the Congo should be considered more unhealthy than India generally.
It is certainly possible to live on the Congo. The writer, who was one
of the first party of the Baptist Missionary Society’s Congo Mission,
and has had five years’ pioneering work, had not a single fever during
the last two and a half years. This is rather exceptional, but speaks
well as to the possibilities. Indeed, there are many reasons why the
climate of India should be considered worse. The Indian temperature
is far higher, dysentery and cholera are annual scourges, and liver
complaints far more common.
The excellent _Observations Météorologiques_ of Dr. A. von Danckelman,
of the International Association (Asher and Co., Berlin), gives most
interesting statistics of the Lower Congo. The highest temperature
registered by him at an elevation of 375 feet was 96·5° Fahr., and
the lowest 53°, the highest mean temperature being 83°. The general
midday temperature in the house in the hot season is 80°-85°; and at
night 75°-80°. On the coast a cool breeze blows in from the sea from
about eleven o’clock in the morning; commencing somewhat later in
proportion to the distance in the interior. This same cool sea-breeze
blows freshly on the upper river, and even when high temperatures can
be taken in the sun the air is cool. Very frequently thick clouds cover
the sky and temper the heat. In this respect the Congo compares very
favourably with India, and with other parts of the African coast. On
the Congo a punkah is quite unnecessary at any time, in a house built
on a reasonable site.
The rainy season commences in the cataract region about September 15,
attaining the maxima in November and April, with a minimum (the ‘little
rains’) about Christmas time, and ceasing about May 15. The rise of the
river commences about August, for the northern rains, culminating about
January 1, when it falls rapidly until April 1. It then rises rapidly
to a second but lower maximum about May 1; it then steadily falls until
August. These dates may vary a fortnight, or even three weeks; that is
to say, they may occur so much earlier, but seldom later.
The rain generally falls at night, often with a violent tornado soon
after sundown. Heavy clouds appear on the horizon, the tornado arch
advances, the wind lulls, and with breathless suspense everything
prepares for the onslaught of the storm. A dull roar is heard. The
hiss of coming rain, fierce gusts of wind, and in a moment the deluge
is upon you. Wild wind, torrents of rain, incessant peals of thunder,
flashes of lightning every few seconds. The whole world seems to be
going to rack and ruin. After an hour or two the fury of the storm is
spent, and heavy rain continues for a while.
Considering the intensity of the electric disturbance, accidents by
lightning are rare. One or two cases only have been noted thus far: the
mission boat on the Cameroons River was struck, and three people on
board killed; a house of the International Association was fired; the
same thing occurred in a native village. Occasionally a tree is struck.
[Illustration: A SCENE ON THE CONGO.]
Game is not by any means abundant. Several species of antelope are
found, the most common being the harnessed antelope (_Tragelaphus
scriptus_). Elephants are numerous in some parts, but are very seldom
hunted. Leopards are found throughout the country. There are two
species of buffaloes on the upper river; west of Stanley Pool they are
less numerous, and more confined in their distribution. The gorilla
is reported three days north of Stanley Pool. The chimpanzee has been
heard of, but not seen. Many monkeys inhabit the woods. The jackal is
not uncommon; but the lion, which was common until fifty years ago,
has disappeared over the district between the Kwangu and the mouth of
the river. Hippopotami are very numerous; three varieties of crocodile
infest the rivers. Fish in great variety are caught by the natives in
traps and nets, and by hooks and spearing. Whitebait fishing affords
occupation to many men in the cataract regions. By day they sit on the
rocks waiting for the gleam of a shoal; and when one appears, in an
instant they have divested themselves of their scanty clothes, and rush
into the strong shallow water with their nets--not unlike a shrimper’s
net--each one a little beyond the other, and often are well rewarded
for their trouble. Their take is then dried in the sun and sold in the
market.
The grey parrots fly home in the evenings in great flocks, whistling
and screaming, the happiest birds there are. There is an endless
variety of bird-life, which as the mating season nears dons brighter
and more striking colouring.
Not very promising was the aspect which the wild people dwelling on
the banks of the Congo River presented to Mr. Stanley during the first
journey through these unknown regions. As he approached a village, the
great war drums and horns thundered through the woods, canoes were
manned, and, apparently without the remotest reason, they proceeded to
attack the white man with his little flock.
Fierce, wild savagery, loathsome cannibalism, cruelty, the densest
darkness and degradation of heathenism--such was the aspect as the two
white men, with some one hundred and fifty followers, endeavoured
quietly and peaceably to paddle in midstream past the villages.
[Illustration: NGOMBE WARRIOR.]
We have talked with these folk about this humiliating phase of humanity.
‘Why did you attack the _mundele_ (white man)?’
‘We did not, but we were going to.’
‘Why? Sit down, and tell us all about it.’
This to a Zombo slave of the Bayansi of Bolobo, who had been sold by
his countrymen for ivory, when scarcely more than a baby. His forehead
scored with the tribal mark of his master, he was in bearing and speech
a thorough Mubangi, but remembered his old language, as there are many
such slaves on the upper river.
‘The news reached us,’ he said, ‘that a white man and his followers
were coming down the river. Every one above us had attacked him for
the honour and glory of having fought one of the mysterious whites we
hear of, and for whose cloth we trade. We could not let the opportunity
pass; had we done so, we should have been behind the rest, and become
the ridicule of the river. When we went to trade, and joined the dance
in friendly towns, the girls would sing how their braves had fought the
white man, while the Bolobo people had hidden in the grass like women.
We manned our canoes, and hid behind the long point above our town;
but a little above us the white man crossed to the other side of the
river. We waited to see what would happen, and soon one of our people
came from the opposite towns, and told us that the white man was buying
food, and giving beads, brass wire, and glorious things. We quickly
filled our canoes with plaintain, cassava pudding, fowls, etc., and
hurried over, and so we did not fight after all.’
That was the beginning of better days for Mr. Stanley. The story as we
heard it at Stanley Pool explains in a measure the persistent savage
attacks.
Since November, 1882, there has been a station of the International
Association at Bolobo; and the Congo Mission is hoping shortly to
occupy that populous district.
* * * * *
The inhabitants of Africa have been divided into six great races.
Their languages form the basis of such division. Mr. R. N. Cust,
the Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, has recently published
a valuable work on the Languages of Africa, and the coloured map
accompanying it presents the distribution of races very graphically
to the eye. To the north we find the Semitic race. In the Sahara, on
the Nile, in Abyssinia and in Somali land, a Hamitic race, speaking
languages allied to Ethiopic. From Gambia to the mouths of the Niger
the Negro race, of whom the Ashantees are types.
Interspersed among the Negro and Hamitic races are detached peoples,
speaking languages of the Nuba Fullah group, of whom the Masai, among
whom Mr. Thomson has been travelling, to the east of the Victoria
Nyanza, may be taken as types.
To the south of all these is the great Bantu (= men) race. A line drawn
eastward from the Gulf of Biafra to the Indian Ocean will mark roughly
the boundary of this greatest of the African races. Near to the Cape of
Good Hope are found the Hottentot Bushman, a degraded race, who appear
to have been the aborigines, but now driven to the remotest corner, are
still yielding to the stronger Bantus.
It is surmised that some dwarf races, said to be scattered through the
Bantu countries, may be of this aboriginal stock, but no satisfactory
opportunities have yet offered for ascertaining the truth. These dwarfs
are always a little beyond the countries visited by travellers, a few
specimens, said to belong to them, have been seen, but their country is
ever elusive. It is likely that they may prove to be degraded tribes of
the races among whom they dwell, just as the Niam Niams are believed to
be Nuba-Fullahs.
Of the Bantus the Zulu Kaffirs may be the best known types, although
they have borrowed from the Hottentots the clicks that so much
disfigure their language.
With the exception of these hypothetical dwarfs, the inhabitants of the
Congo basin are all Bantus.
As before stated, language is the basis of such classification. With
the other races they have nothing in common. In roots, grammatical
construction and all distinguishing features of language, the Bantu
dialects have a marked individuality, differing almost totally from
the other races, while showing the most marked affinities among
themselves. It would be inappropriate to burden the present paper with
a lengthy dissertation on the peculiarities of the Bantu languages.
The most marked feature is the euphonic concord, a principle by which
the characteristic prefix of the noun is attached to the pronouns and
adjectives, qualifying it, and to the verb of which it is the subject.
Thus _ma_tadi _mama_ _ma_mpwena _ma_mpembe _me_jitanga beni: these
great white stones are very heavy. Quoting J. R. Wilson, Mr. Cust
remarks that ‘The Bantu languages are soft, pliant, and flexible, to an
almost unlimited extent. Their grammatical principles are founded on
the most systematic and philosophical basis, and the number of words
may be multiplied to an almost indefinite extent. They are capable of
expressing all the nicer shades of thought and feeling, and perhaps
no other languages of the world are capable of more definiteness and
precision of expression. Livingstone justly remarks that a complaint of
the poverty of the language is often only a sure proof of the scanty
attainments of the complainant. As a fact the Bantu languages are
exceedingly rich.’ My own researches fully confirm these remarks. The
question is very naturally raised, Whence do these savages possess so
fine a language? Is it an evolution now in process from something ruder
and more savage or from something inarticulate? The marked similarity
of the dialects points to a common origin; their richness, superiority,
and the regularity of the individual character maintained over so large
an area, give a high idea of the original language which was spoken
before they separated.
Heathenism is degrading, and under its influence everything is going
backwards. We are led by the evidence of the language to look for
a better, nobler origin of the race, rather than to consider it an
evolution from something infinitely lower. The Bantu languages are as
far removed from others of the continent as English is from Turkish or
Chinese. Some earlier writers have endeavoured to trace similarities,
but later research has proved that they do not exist. The origin of
the race must ever remain a mystery. What, when, and where, cannot be
ascertained, for no memorials exist in books or monuments. The Bantu
race and languages cannot be an evolution from something inferior;
they are a degradation from something superior. Coastwards there
are traditions of change and movement on the part of the people; in
the east and on the south marauding tribes and slave-hunters have
devastated large tracts of country, but there is no sign of general
movement on the part of the Bantus.
The traditions of countries along the coast where white men have long
settled speak of much greater, more powerful kingdoms in the past; and
after due allowance has been made for exaggeration, it is too evident
that the kings of Congo, Kabinda, Loango, and Angola, exerted at one
time far more influence than they do to-day. Indeed, the King of Congo
is the only chief who maintains his style and title; the others have
become extinct during this century. We find then the whole country in a
state of disintegration; every town a separate state, and its chief, to
all practical purposes, independent.
Makoko, the Teke chief with whom De Brazza made his famous treaty,
is said to have levied taxes on the north bank people near his town.
The King of Congo used to receive a tribute from the remnants of the
old Congo empire; but to-day he has to content himself with levying
a mild blackmail on passing caravans, and receives a present, when
he gives the ‘hat’ and the insignia of office to those who succeed
to chieftainships over which in olden times the kings exercised
suzerainty. Few, indeed, of those acknowledge him to-day even to that
extent.
These independent townships group themselves into tribes and tribelets;
it is, however, a matter of great difficulty to learn the tribal names,
which are best obtained from neighbours. The old Congo empire formerly
included the countries on the south bank from the coast to Stanley
Pool, and southward to the Bunda-speaking people of Ngola (Angola),
while homage was rendered by the kings of Loango and Kabinda. To-day
the influence of the king is merely nominal outside his town. He is
respected, however, in a radius of thirty or forty miles, but seldom if
ever interferes in any matters.
San Salvador is situated on a plateau 1,700 feet above the sea, about
two-and-a-half miles long by one mile wide. Broad valleys 300 feet deep
surround it, and in the south flows the little river Lueji, a tributary
of the Lunda-Mpozo.
There are abundant traces of its former importance. The ruins of a
stone wall, two feet thick and fifteen feet high, encircle the town.
The ruins of the cathedral are very interesting, and show it to have
been a very fine building. The material is an ironstone conglomerate,
while the lime was burnt from rock in the neighbourhood.
Amid the strong rich grass that covers the plateau exist ruins of some
twenty-six buildings, which are said to have been churches, while
straight lines of _mingomena_ bushes mark the sites of suburban villas
and hamlets. The story runs that the old kings kept up the population
of the Mbanza (chief town) by raids into the country. The natives of a
town forty miles away would wake up in the morning to find themselves
surrounded. As they came out of their houses they would be killed,
until there was no further show of resistance; then those who remained
would be deported to the capital and be compelled to build there, while
many would be sold to the slave-traders on the coast. These days are
for ever past. Men-of-war have so closely watched the coast that the
slave trade has languished and died, except in Angola, where it exists
under a finer name, the slave being considered a ‘Colonial,’ while
Portuguese ingenuity and corruption arrange for ‘emigration’ to the
islands San Thomé, Principe, and even to the Bissagos.
While these slave raids in Congo are things of the past, a mild
domestic slavery exists among the natives. In most cases the slaves
are more like feudal retainers or serfs. A man of means invests his
money in slaves, and thereby becomes more independent, for his slave
retainers can support him in difficulties with his neighbours. It
frequently happens that he builds a stockade at a little distance from
the town in which he has been brought up, and this becomes the nucleus
of a new town. In the latter end of the rainy season and the beginning
of the ‘dries,’ they will cut _nianga_ grass, the long six-foot blades
of which spring up out of the ground, and have no stem or nodes. This
grass is dried and used for the covering of the huts. Stems of palm
fronds are also trimmed and split. Papyrus is brought from the marshes,
and strips of its green skin twisted into string, with which they tie
together securely the posts and rafters, so that they may stand the
strain of the fierce tornadoes which sweep the country.
[Illustration: MANNER OF DRESSING THE HAIR.]