(1869), that "the Monegar has the assistance of one of the islanders
as a Karany, to take down depositions, and to read them, for the
character used is the Arabic. In addition to these duties, the Karany
has those of the Shanbogue. He keeps the accounts of the trees, and
the coir (cocoanut fibre) in the islands, and makes out and delivers
the accounts of coir brought to the coast."
Shikari.--Shikari, meaning a sportsman or hunter, occurs as a synonym
of Irula, and a sub-division of Korava. The name shikari is also
applied to a Native who "accompanies European sportsmen as a guide
and aid, and to the European sportsman himself." [176]
Sholaga.--In his account of the Sholagas or Solagas, early in the
last century, Buchanan [177] writes that they "speak a bad or old
dialect of the Karnata language, have scarcely any clothing, and sleep
round a fire, lying on a few plantain leaves, and covering themselves
with others. They live chiefly on the summits of mountains, where
the tigers do not frequent, but where their naked bodies are exposed
to a disagreeable cold. Their huts are most wretched, and consist of
bamboos with both ends stuck into the ground, so as to form an arch,
which is covered with plantain leaves." The up-to-date Sholaga, who
inhabits the jungles of Coimbatore between Dimbhum and Kollegal near
the Mysore frontier, is clad in a cotton loin-cloth, supplemented
by a coat of English pattern with regimental buttons, and smears
himself freely on special occasions, such as a visit to the Government
anthropologist, with sacred ashes in mimicry of the Lingayats.
I gather from a correspondent that the following tradition concerning
their origin is current. In days of yore there lived two brothers in
the Geddesala hills, by name Karayan and Billaya or Madheswara. The
Uralis and Sholagas are descended from Karayan, and the Sivacharis
(Lingayats) from Madheswara. The two brothers fell into the hands
of a terrible Rakshasha (demon), by name Savanan, who made Karayan
a shepherd, but imprisoned Madheswara for not paying him sufficient
respect, and extracted all kinds of menial work from him. Last of all
he ordered him to make a pair of shoes, whereupon Madheswara asked
for his liberty for a few days, to enable him to have the shoes well
made. His request being granted, Madheswara betook himself to the
god Krishnamurti, and asked him for his help in his troubles. The
god was only too happy to assist, and suggested that the shoes
should be made of wax. Helped by Krishnamurti, Madheswara made a very
beautiful-looking pair of shoes. Krishnamurti then ordered him to pile
up and light a huge bonfire on a bare rocky hill east of Geddesala,
so as to make it nearly red-hot. The ashes were then cleared away, so
as to leave no trace of their plot. Madheswara then took the shoes,
and presented them to Savanan, who was much pleased with them, and
willingly acceded to Madheswara's request that he would put them on,
and walk along the rock. But, as soon as he stepped upon it, the
shoes melted, and Savanan fell heavily on the rock, clutching hold
of Madheswara as he fell, and trying to strangle him. Krishnamurti
had assembled all the gods to witness the carrying out of the plot,
and, telling each of them to pile a stone on Savanan's head, himself
rescued Madheswara from his clutches, and all jumped upon the Rakshasha
till no trace of him was left. While this was going on, Karayan was
tending Savanan's herds in the forest, and, when he came to hear
about it, was angry with his brother for not consulting him before
destroying Savanan. Flying from Karayan, who was armed with a knife,
Madheswara implored Krishnamurti's help, by which he was able to leap
from Kotriboli to the hill called Urugamalai, a distance of some ten
miles. The force of the leap caused the hill to bend--hence its name
meaning the bending hill. Finding that the hill was bending, and being
still hotly pursued by his brother, knife in hand, Madheswara again
appealed to Krishnamurti, and was enabled to make another leap of about
five miles to a hill called Eggaraimalai, which immediately began to
subside. Hence its name, meaning the subsiding hill. Thence he fled
to Munikanal, and concealed himself under a rock, closely followed
by Karayan, who slashed the rock with his knife, and left marks which
are visible to this day. From Munikanal he fled to the hill now known
as Madheswaranamalai, and hid in a rat hole. Karayan, not being able
to unearth him, sent for a lot of shepherds, and made them pen their
sheep and cattle over the hole. The effluvium became too strong for
the fugitive, so he surrendered himself to his brother, who pardoned
him on the understanding that, on deification, Karayan should have
prior claim to all votive offerings. To this Madheswara agreed, and
to this day Sivacharis, when doing puja, first make their offerings to
Karayan and afterwards to Madheswara. In connection with this legend,
any one proceeding to the top of Kotriboli hill at the present day is
expected to place a stone upon the rock, with the result that there
are many piles of stones there. Even Europeans are asked to do this.
The Sholagas are said to call themselves men of five kulams,
or exogamous septs, among which are Chalikiri, Teneru, Belleri,
Surya (the sun), and Aleru. By members of the twelve kulam class,
everything is done by twelves. For example, on the twelfth day after a
birth, twelve elders are invited to the house to bless the child. At
a marriage, twelve of the bridegroom's relations go and fetch the
bride, and the wedding pandal (booth) has twelve posts. The parents
of the bridegroom pay twelve rupees to the bride's father, and a tali
(marriage badge) worth twelve annas is tied round the bride's neck. In
case of death, the body is borne on a stretcher made of twelve bamboos,
and mourning lasts for twelve days.
Tribal disputes, e.g., quarrelling and adultery, are decided by
the Yejamana, assisted by a Pattagara and a few leading men of the
community. Under the orders of the two former is the Chalavathi or
village servant. The Yejamana, Pattagara, and Chalavathi must belong
respectively to the Chalikiri, Teneri, and Surya septs.
When a girl reaches puberty, she occupies a separate hut for five days,
and then returns home after a bath. The maternal uncle should present
her with a new cloth, betel leaves and areca nuts, and plantain
fruits. In the formal marriage ceremony, the tali is tied by the
bridegroom inside a booth; the maternal uncle, if he can afford it,
presents a new cloth to the bride, and a feast is held. Sometimes
even this simple rite is dispensed with, and the couple, without any
formality, live together as man and wife, on the understanding that, at
some time, a feast must be given to a few of the community. I am told
that the Sholagas of the Burghur hills have a very extraordinary way
of treating expectant mothers. A few days before the event is expected
to take place, the husband takes his wife right away into the jungle,
and leaves her there alone with three days' supply of food. There
she has to stay, and do the best she can for herself. If she does not
come back at the end of the three days, the husband goes out and takes
her more food. But she may not return to her village till the baby is
born. When one of these unfortunate creatures comes back safely, there
is a great celebration in her honour, with beating of tom-tom, etc.
The dead are buried with the body lying on its left side, and the
head to the south. On their return home from a funeral, those who
have been present thereat salute a lighted lamp. On the spot where
the dead person breathed his last, a little ragi (Eleusine Coracana)
paste and water are placed, and here, on the fourth day, a goat is
sacrificed, and offered up to the soul of the departed. After this
the son proceeds to the burial ground, carrying a stone, and followed
by men selected from each of the exogamous septs. Arrived near the
grave, they sit down, while the son places the stone on the ground,
and they then lift it in succession. The last man to do so is said
to fall into a trance. On his recovery, leaves (plantain, teak,
etc.) corresponding in number to the exogamous septs, are arranged
round the stone, and, on each leaf, different kinds of food are
placed. The men partake of the food, each from the leaf allotted to
his sept. The meal concluded, the son holds the stone in his hands,
while his companions pour ragi and water over it, and then carries it
away to the gopamane (burial-ground) of his sept, and sets it up there.
On the occasion of a death in a Mala Vellala village, the Sholagas
come in crowds, with clarionets and drums, and bells on their legs,
and dance in front of the house. And the corpse is borne, in musical
procession, to the burning-ground.
The staple food of the Sholagas is ragi paste and yams (Dioscorea),
which, like the Uralis, they supplement by sundry jungle animals
and birds. Paroquets they will not eat, as they regard them as their
children.
Their main occupation is to collect minor forest produce, myrabolams,
vembadam bark (Ventilago madraspatana), avaram bark (Cassia
auriculata), deers' horns, tamarinds, gum, honey, soap-nuts, sheekoy
(Acacia Concinna),etc. The forests have been divided into blocks,
and a certain place within each block has been selected for the
forest depôt. To this place the collecting agents, mostly Sholagas
and Uralis, bring the produce, and there it is sorted and paid for
by special supervisors appointed for the work.
In the Coimbatore district the Sholagas are said to collect honey
from rocky crevices. The combs are much larger than those found on
trees, and are supposed to contain twice as much wax in proportion
to the honey. On the Nilgiri hills honey-combs are collected by Jen
Kurumbas and Sholagas. The supply of honey varies according to the
nature of the season, and is especially plentiful and of good quality
when Strobilanthes Wightianus, S. Kunthiana, and other species are
in flower.
It has been said that even wild beasts will scent a Sholaga, and flee
before the aroma.
The Sholagas, who were examined by Dr. Rivers and myself, came to the
conclusion that the object of our enquiry was to settle them in a
certain place near London, and that the wools of different colours
(used for testing colour vision) given to them for selection,
were for tying them captive with. Others said that they could not
understand why the different organs of their bodies were measured;
perhaps to reduce or increase the size of their body to suit the
different works, which they were expected to do near London. It has
been pointed out to me, as an interesting fact, that a similarity
of idea concerning the modification of different organs to suit men
for the doing of special work has been arrived at by the jungle folk,
and by Mr. Wells in his book, 'The first men in the moon,' where the
lunar inhabitants are described as carrying on the practice.
Of the experiences of a Sholaga when out with a European on a shooting
expedition, the following account has recently been given. [178]
"My husband was after a bear, and tracked Bruin to his cave. He had
torches made, and these he ordered to be thrust into the cave in the
hope of smoking the bear out, but, as nothing happened, he went into
the cave, accompanied by a Sholigar carrying a torch. As soon as they
got used to the light, they saw a small aperture leading into an inner
cave, and the Sholigar was told to put the torch in there. Hardly was
this done, when out rushed a large bear, knocking over the Sholigar,
and extinguishing the torch. My husband could not get his gun up in
time to fire, as the bear rushed through the cave into the jungle. Just
as the Sholigar was picking himself up, out rushed another bear. This
time my husband was ready, and fired. To the Sholigar's horror, Bruin
sank down wounded at the entrance to the outer cave, thus blocking the
exit, and keeping both tracker and my husband prisoners. The Sholigar
began whimpering, saying he was the father of a large family, and
did not wish to leave the children fatherless. Soon the bear, though
very badly wounded, managed to get to its feet, and crawl away into
the jungle, so liberating the prisoners."
Concerning the Sholagas of the Mysore Province, [179] I gather
that they "inhabit the depths of the forests clothing the foot and
slopes of the Biligirirangam hills. They cultivate with the hoe small
patches of jungle clearings. Their chief god is Biligiri Rangasvami,
but they also worship Karaiyya, their tribal tutelary deity. Their
principal food is the ragi, which they grow, supplemented by wild
forest produce. They are partial to the flesh of deer, antelope,
pigs, sheep and goats. A few of them have, in recent years, come to
own lands. Like the Jenu Kurumbas, they are perfect trackers of wild
animals. Three kinds of marriage prevail among them. The first is
affected by the more well-to-do, who perform the ceremony with much
éclat under a shed with twelve pillars (bamboo posts), accompanied
by music and festivities, which continue for three days. The second
is more common, and seems to be a modified form of concubinage. The
poorer members resort to the third kind, which consists in the couple
eloping to a distant jungle, and returning home only after the bride
has become a mother. They speak a patois, allied to old Canarese or
Hale Kannada." [180]
Shola Naiker.--A synonym of Jen Kurumbas in the Wynad.
Sibbi Dhompti (brass vessel offering).--A subdivision of Madigas,
who, at marriages, offer food to the god in brass vessels.
Siddaru.--A synonym of Jogi mendicants.
Sika (kudumi or hair-knot).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Sikili (broom).--An exogamous sept of Madiga.
Sikligar.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, eleven individuals
are returned as belonging to an Upper India caste of knife-grinders
(Sikligar). In the Madura Manual, Sikilkarars are described as
knife-grinders, who wander about in quest of work from village
to village.
Sila (stone).--An exogamous sept of Omanaito.
Silam (good conduct).--An exogamous sept of Mala.
Silavant.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Silavant is recorded
as meaning the virtuous, and as being a sub-sect of Lingayats. In
the Mysore Census Report, Silavanta is given as a name for Lingayat
Nayindas. For the following note on the Silavantalu or Silevantalu
of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.
They are a sect of Lingayats, who, though they do not admit it, appear
to be an offshoot of Pattu Sales, who became converts to the Lingayat
religion. They are engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths for males
and females. The religious observances which secured them their name,
meaning those who practice or possess particular religious customs,
have been thus described. In the seventh month of pregnancy, at the
time of quickening, a small stone linga is enclosed in black lac,
wrapped in a piece of silk cloth, and tied to the thread of the linga
which is on the woman's neck. The child is thus invested with the
linga while still in utero. When it is about a year old, and weaned,
the linga is taken off the mother's neck, and replaced by a silver
locket. The linga is tied on the neck of the child. At the beginning
of the twelfth year in the case of boys, and just before the marriage
of girls, this linga is taken off, and a fresh one suspended round
the neck by a guru.
The Silavantalu are divided into exogamous septs, or intiperulu. The
custom of menarikam, whereby a man marries his maternal uncle's
daughter, is the rule. But, if the maternal uncle has no daughter,
he must find a suitable bride for his nephew. Girls are married before
puberty, and a Jangam, known as Mahesvara, officiates at weddings.
The dead are buried in a sitting posture, facing north. The linga is
suspended round the neck of the corpse, and buried with it. Six small
copper plates are made, each containing a syllable of the invocation
Om na ma Si va ya. Two of these are placed on the thighs of the corpse,
one on the head, one on the navel, and two on the shoulders, and stuck
on with guggilam paste. The corpse is then tied up in a sack. The
relatives offer flowers to it, and burn camphor before it. The grave
is dug several feet deep, and a cavity or cell is made on the southern
side of it, and lined with bamboo matting. The corpse is placed within
the cell, and salt thrown into the grave before it is filled in. A
Jangam officiates at the funeral. Monthly and annual death ceremonies
are performed. A samathi or monument is erected over the grave. Such
a monument may be either in the form of a square mound (brindavan)
with niches for lights and a hole in the top, in which a tulsi (Ocimum
sanctum) is planted, or in the form of a small chamber. Relations go
occasionally to the grave, whereon they deposit flowers, and place
lights in the niches or chamber.
The Silavantalu are strict vegetarians and total abstainers. Their
titles are Ayya and Lingam.
Silpa (artisan).--A sub-division of the Kammalans, Panchalas or
Kamsalas, whose hereditary occupation is that of stone-masons. In the
Silpa Sastra, the measurements necessary in sculpture, the duties
of a Silpi, etc., are laid down. I am informed that the carver of
a stone idol has to select a male or female stone, according as the
idol is to be a god or goddess, and that the sex of a stone can be
determined by its ring when struck.
Sindhu.--The Sindhuvallu (drummers) are Madigas, who go about
acting scenes from the Ramayana or Mahabharatha, and the story of
Ankamma. Sindhu also occurs as a gotra of Kurni. The beating of
the drum called sindhu is, I gather, sometimes a nuisance, for a
missionary writes to the paper enquiring whether there is any order
of Government against it, as the practice "causes much crime, and
creates extra work for police and magistrates. Village officials
believe they have no authority to suppress it, but there are some
who assert that it is nominally forbidden."
Singamu-varu.--Singam is described, in the Madras Census Report,
1901, as a class of beggars, who beg only from Sales. They are,
however, described by Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao as a class of itinerant
mendicants attached to the Devangas. "The name," he writes, "is
a variant of Simhamu-varu, or lion-men, i.e., as valourous as a
lion. They are paid a small sum annually by each Devanga village
for various services which they render, such as carrying fire before
a Devanga corpse to the burial-ground, acting as caste messengers,
and cleaning the weaving instruments."
Sinnata (gold).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
Siolo.--A small class of Oriya toddy-drawers, whose touch conveys
pollution. The Sondis, who are an Oriya caste of toddy-sellers,
purchase their liquor from the Siolos.
Sipiti.--The Sipitis are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901,
as "Oriya temple priests and drummers; a sub-caste of Ravulo." In
an account of them as given to me, they are stated to be Smartas,
and temple priests of village deities, who wear the sacred thread,
but do not employ Brahmans as purohits, and are regarded as somewhat
lower in the social scale than the Ravulos. Some of their females are
said to have been unrecognised prostitutes, but the custom is dying
out. The caste title is Muni. (See Ravulo.)
Sir.--A sub-division of Kanakkan.
Sirpadam.--A sub-division of Kaikolan.
Sirukudi.--A nadu or territorial division of Kallan.
Siru Tali.--The name, indicating those who wear a small tali (marriage
badge), of a sub-division of Kaikolan and Maravan.
Sitikan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as an
occupational sub-division of Maran.
Sitra.--See Pano.
Siva Brahmana.--Recorded as a synonym of Stanika.
Sivachara.--It is noted, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901,
that the Lingayats call themselves "Vira Saivas, Sivabhaktas, or
Sivachars. The Virasaiva religion consists of numerous castes. It
is a religion consisting of representatives from almost every caste
in Hindu society. People of all castes, from the highest to the
lowest, have embraced the religion. There are Sivachar Brahmins,
Sivachar Kshatriyas, Sivachar Vaisyas, Sivachar carpenters, Sivachar
weavers, Sivachar goldsmiths, Sivachar potters, Sivachar washermen,
and Sivachar barbers, and other low castes who have all followed the
popular religion in large numbers."
Sivadvija.--The name, denoting Saivite Brahman, by which Mussads like
to be called. Also recorded as a synonym of Stanika.
Sivaratri.--An exogamous sept of Odde, named after the annual
Mahasivaratri festival in honour of Siva. Holy ashes, sacred to Siva,
prepared by Smartas on this day, are considered to be very pure.
Sivarchaka.--The word means those who do puja (worship) to
Siva. Priests at the temple of village deities are ordinarily known
as Pujari, Pusali, Occhan, etc., but nowadays prefer the title of
Umarchaka or Sivarchaka. The name Sivala occurs in the Madras Census
Report, 1901.
Siviyar.--Siviyar means literally a palanquin-bearer, and is an
occupational name applied to those employed in that capacity. For this
reason a sub-division of the Idaiyans is called Siviyar. The Siviyars
of Coimbatore say that they have no connection with either Idaiyans or
Toreyas, but are Besthas who emigrated from Mysore during the troublous
times of the Muhammadan usurpation. The name Siviyar is stated to have
been given to them by the Tamils, as they were palanquin-bearers to
officers on circuit and others in the pre-railway days. They claim
origin, on the authority of a book called Parvatharaja Charithum,
from Parvatharaja. Their main occupations at the present day are tank
and river fishing, but some are petty traders, physicians, peons,
etc. Their language is Canarese, and their title Naickan. They have
eighteen marriage divisions or gotras, named after persons from whom
the various gotras are said to have been descended. On occasions
of marriage, when betel leaf is distributed, it must be given to
members of the different gotras in their order of precedence. In
cases of adultery, the guilty parties are tied to a post, and beaten
with tamarind switches. When a grown-up but unmarried person dies,
the corpse is made to go through a mock marriage with a human figure
cut out of a palm leaf.
Sodabisiya.--A sub-division of Domb.
Soi.--A title of Doluva. It is a form of Sui or Swayi.
Solaga.--See Sholaga.
Soliyan.--Soliyan or Soliya is a territorial name, meaning an
inhabitant of the Chola country, recorded as a sub-division of Karnam,
Idaiyan, Pallan, and Vellala. The equivalent Solangal occurs as an
exogamous sept of Vallamban, and Soliya illam (Malayalam, house)
as an exogamous sept of Panikkans in the Tamil country. Some Pallis
style themselves Solakanar (descendants of Chola kings), or Solakula
Kshatriya. (See Sozhia.)
Somakshatri.--A name sometimes adopted by Canarese Ganigas in South
Canara.
Somara.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small
class of potters in the Vizagapatam hills.
Somari (idler).--A division of Yanadis, who do scavenging work, and eat
the refuse food thrown away by people from the leaf plate after a meal.
Soma Varada (Sunday).--The name of Kurubas who worship their god
on Sundays.
Sonagan.--See Jonagan.
Sonar.--The Sonars or Sonagaras of South Canara are described by
Mr. H. A. Stuart [181] as a goldsmith caste, who "speak Konkani, which
is a dialect of Marathi, and are believed to have come from Goa. The
community at each station has one or two Mukhtesars or headmen,
who enquire into, and settle the caste affairs. Serious offences are
reported to the swamy of Sode, who has authority to excommunicate, or
to inflict heavy fines. They wear the sacred thread. Marriages within
the same gotra are strictly prohibited. Most of them are Vaishnavites,
but a few follow Siva. The dead are burned, and the ashes are thrown
into a river. They eat fish, but not flesh. Their title is Setti." They
consider it derogatory to work in metals other than gold and silver.