sandal and turmeric. A certain quantity of paddy (unhusked rice) and
beans of Phaseolus Mungo are given to the Brahman woman, a portion of
which is set apart as sacred, some of the paddy being added to that
which is stored in the granary. The remainder of the paddy is husked
in a corner of the pandal, and the beans are ground in a mill. On
the marriage morning, the bride's party, accompanied by musicians,
carry to the house of the bridegroom a number of baskets containing
cocoanuts, plantains, betel, and a turban. The bridegroom goes with
a purohit (priest), and men and women of his caste, to a well, close
to which are placed some milk and the nose-screw of a woman closely
related to him. All the women sprinkle some of the milk over his head,
and some of them draw water from the well. The bridegroom bathes,
and dresses up. Just before their departure from the well, rice
which has been dipped therein is distributed among the women. At the
bridegroom's house the milk-post, usually made from a branch of the
vekkali (Anogeissus latifolia) tree, is tied to a pillar supporting
the roof of the marriage dais. To the top of the milk-post a cross-bar
is fixed, to one arm of which a cloth bundle containing a cocoanut,
betel and turmeric, is tied. The post is surmounted by leafy mango
twigs. Just before the milk-post is set up, cocoanuts are offered to
it, and a pearl and piece of coral are placed in a hole scooped out
at its lower end. The bundle becomes the perquisite of the carpenter
who has made the post. Only Brahmans, Razus and the barber musicians
are allowed to sit on the dais. After the distribution of betel, the
bridegroom and his party proceed to the house of the bride, where, in
like manner, the milk-post is set up. They then return to his house,
and the bridegroom has his face and head shaved, and nails pared by
a barber, who receives as his fee two annas and the clothes which
the bridegroom is wearing. After a bath, the bridegroom is conducted
to the chavadi, where a gaudy turban is put on his head, and he is
decorated with jewels and garlands. In the course of the morning,
the purohit, holding the right little finger of the bridegroom,
conducts him to the dais, close to which rice, rice stained yellow,
rice husk, jaggery (crude sugar), wheat bran, and cotton seed are
placed. The Brahmanical rites of punyahavaachanam (purification),
jatakarma (birth ceremony), namakaranam (name ceremony), chaulam
(tonsure), and upanayanam (thread ceremony) are performed. But, instead
of Vedic chants, the purohit recites slokas specially prepared for
non-Brahman castes. At the conclusion of these rites, the bridegroom
goes into the house, and eats a small portion of sweet cakes and
other articles, of which the remainder is finished off by boys and
girls. This ceremony is called pubanthi. The Kasiyatra (mock flight
to Benares) or Snathakavritham is then performed. Towards evening
the bridegroom, seated in a palanquin, goes to the bride's house,
taking with him a tray containing an expensive woman's cloth, the
tali tied to gold thread, and a pair of gold bracelets. When they
reach the house, the women who have accompanied the bridegroom throw
paddy over those who have collected at the entrance thereto, by whom
the compliment is returned. The bridegroom takes his seat on the dais,
and the bride is conducted thither by her brothers. A wide-meshed green
curtain is thrown over her shoulders, and her hands are pressed over
her eyes, and held there by one of her brothers, so that she cannot
see. Generally two brothers sit by her side, and, when one is tired,
the other relieves him. The purohit invests the bridegroom with a
second thread as a sign of marriage. Damp rice is scattered from a
basket all round the contracting couple, and the tali, after it has
been blessed by Brahmans, is tied round the neck of the bride by the
bridegroom and her brothers. At the moment when the tali is tied,
the bride's hands are removed from her face, and she is permitted
to see her husband. The pair then go round the dais, and the bride
places her right foot thrice on a grindstone. Their little fingers
are linked, and their cloths tied together. Thus united, they are
conducted to a room, in which fifty pots, painted white and with
various designs on them, are arranged in rows. In front of them,
two pots, filled with water, are placed, and, in front of the two
pots, seven lamps. Round the necks of these pots, bits of turmeric
are tied. They are called avareti kundalu or avireni kundalu, and are
made to represent minor deities. The pots are worshipped by the bridal
couple, and betel is distributed among the Brahmans and Razus, of whom
members of the Pusapati and Gottimukkala septs take precedence over the
others. On the following day, the purohit teaches the sandyavandhanam
(morning and evening ablutions), which is, however, quite different
from the Brahmanical rite. On the morning of the third or nagavali
day, a quantity of castor-oil seed is sent by the bride's people to
the bridegroom's house, and returned. The bride and bridegroom go,
in a closed and open palanquin, respectively, to the house of the
former. They take their seats on the dais, and the bride is once
more blindfolded. In front of them, five pots filled with water
are arranged in the form of a quincunx. Lighted lamps are placed by
the side of each of the corner pots. On the lids of the pots five
cocoanuts, plantains, pieces of turmeric, and betel are arranged, and
yellow thread is wound seven times round the corner pots. The pots
are then worshipped, and the bridegroom places on the neck of the
bride a black bead necklace, which is tied by the Brahman woman. In
front of the bridegroom some salt, and in front of the bride some
paddy is heaped up. An altercation arises between the bridegroom and
the brother of the bride as to the relative values of the two heaps,
and it is finally decided that they are of equal value. The bridal
pair then enter the room, in which the avireni pots are kept, and
throw their rings into one of the pots which is full of water. The
bridegroom has to pick out therefrom, at three dips, his own ring,
and his brother-in-law that of the bride. The purohit sprinkles water
over the heads of the pair, and their wrist-threads (kankanam) are
removed. They then sit in a swing on the pandal for a short time,
and the ceremonies conclude with the customary waving of coloured
water (arati) and distribution of betel. During the marriage ceremony,
Razu women are not allowed to sit in the pandal. The wives of the more
well-to-do members of the community remain gosha within their houses,
and, strictly speaking, a woman should not see her husband during the
daytime. Many of the women, however, go freely about the town during
the day, and go to the wells to fetch water for domestic purposes.
The Razus of Rajapalaiyam have Razu as the agnomen, and, like other
Telugu classes, take the gotra for the first name, e.g., Yaraguntala
Mudduswami Razu, Gottimukkala Krishna Razu. The women adhere with
tenacity to the old forms of Telugu jewelry. The Razus, in some
villages, seem to object to the construction of a pial in front of
their houses. The pial, or raised platform, is the lounging place
by day, where visitors are received. The Razus, as has been already
stated, claim to be Kshatriyas, so other castes should not sit in their
presence. If pials were constructed, such people might sit thereon,
and so commit a breach of etiquette.
In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Rajamakan is given as a Tamil
synonym for Razu, and Razu is returned as a title of the Bagata
fishermen of Vizagapatam. Razu is, further, a general name of the
Bhatrazus.
Reddi.--See Kapu.
Reddi Bhumi (Reddi earth).--A sub-division of Mala, Mangala, and
Tsakala.
Rela (fig. Ficus, sp.).--A gotra of Medara.
Relli.--See Haddi.
Rendeddu.--A sub-division of Ganigas or Gandlas, who use two bullocks
for their oil-pressing mill.
Rokkam (ready money).--An exogamous sept of Komati.
Rolan.--Rolan, or Roli Cheruman, is a sub-division of Cheruman.
Rona.--The Ronas are a class of Oriya-speaking hill cultivators, who
are said [127] to "hold a position superior in the social scale to the
Parjas (Porojas), from whom, by compulsion and cajolery, they have
gotten unto themselves estates. They are not of very long standing
(in Jeypore). Every Parja village head is still able to point out
the fields that have been taken from him to form the Rona hamlet;
and, if he is in antagonism with a neighbouring Parja village on the
subject of boundaries, he will include the fields occupied by the Rona
as belonging de jure to his demesne." In the Madras Census Report,
1891, it is noted that "the Ronas are supposed to be the descendants
of Ranjit, the great warrior of Orissa. In social status they are
said to be a little inferior to the so-called Kshatriyas. Some of
them serve as armed retainers and soldiers of the native chiefs,
and some are engaged in trade and cultivation."
For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The word
rona means battle. According to a tradition current among the Ronas,
their ancestors, who were seven brothers, came many generations ago
to Nundapur, the former capital of the Rajas of Jeypore, and made
their first settlement in Borra.
The caste is divided into four endogamous divisions, viz.:--
(1) Rona Paiko.
(2) Odiya Paiko, said to rank a little higher than the preceding.
(3) Kottiya Paiko, the descendants of Rona Paikos and women of
hill tribes.
(4) Pattiya Paik, the descendants of Kottiya Paikos and women of
hill tribes.
As examples of septs among the Ronas, the following may be cited:--Kora
(sun), Bhag (tiger), Nag (cobra), Khinbudi (bear), and Matsya (fish).
When a girl reaches puberty, she is placed apart in a portion of
the house where she cannot be seen by males, even of the household,
and sits in a space enclosed by seven arrows connected together by
a thread. On the seventh day she bathes, and is presented with a
new cloth. It is customary for a man to marry his paternal uncle's
daughter. At the time of marriage, the bridegroom's party repair to
the house of the bride with a sheep, goat, rice, and a female cloth
with a rupee placed on it, and four quarter-anna bits inserted within
its fold. The cloth and money are taken by the bride's mother, and
the animals and rice are used for a feast. On the following day, the
bride goes to the house of the bridegroom, in front of which a pandal
(booth), made out of nine poles of the neredu tree (Eugenia Jambolana)
has been set up. At the auspicious hour, which has been fixed by the
Desari who officiates, in the absence of a Brahman, at the marriage
rites, the bride and bridegroom take their seats in the pandal with a
curtain between them. The Desari joins their hands together, and ties
to the ends of their cloths a new cloth to which a quarter-anna piece
is attached, betel leaves and nuts, and seven grains of rice. The
curtain is then removed, and the pair enter the house. The knotted
new cloth is removed, and kept in the house during the next two days,
being untied and re-tied every morning. On the third day, the couple
again come within the pandal, and the new cloth is again tied to
them. They are bathed together in turmeric water, and the cloth is
then untied for the last time. The rice is examined to see if it
is in a good state of preservation, and its condition is regarded
as an omen for good or evil. The remarriage of widows is permitted,
and a younger brother usually marries the widow of his elder brother.
There is for all the Ronas a headman of their caste, called Bhatho
Nayako, at Nundapur, who decides offences, such as eating in the house
of a man of inferior caste, and performs the ceremonial cleansing of
a man who has been beaten with a shoe. Divorce and civil suits are
settled by a caste council.
The Ronas worship the deity Takurani. They wear the sacred thread,
and are said to have bought the right to do so from a former Raja
of Jeypore. They also wear a necklace of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)
beads. The necklace is first tied on by Oriya Brahmans from Orissa,
or Vaishnava Brahmans from Srikurmam in Ganjam, who pay periodic visits
to the community, and receive presents of money and food. Rona Paikos
will eat at the hands of Brahmans only, whereas Puttiya Paikos will
eat in the houses of Koronos, Malis, Kummaras, and Gaudos. All eat
animal food, beef and pork excepted.
Some Ronas are still the armed retainers of the Jeypore Rajas, and
their forefathers were versed in the use of the matchlock. Some Ronas
at the present day use bows and arrows. The caste title is Nayako.
Ronguni.--The Rongunis are Oriya dyers and weavers. The caste name is
derived from rangu, dye. A noticeable fact is that they do not eat
flesh of any kind, but are vegetarians, pure and simple. They have
various titles, e.g., Behara, Daso, Prushti, and Sahu, of which some
practically constitute exogamous septs.
Rottala (bread).--An exogamous sept of Boya.
Rowthan.--See Ravutan.
Rudra.--One of the various names of Siva. A sub-division of Palli.
Rudrakshala (the drupe of Elæocarpus Ganitrus).--An exogamous sept of
Karna Sales. The drupes are polished, and worn as a rosary or necklet
by Saivite Brahmans, Pandarams, Nattukottai Chettis, and others. They
are supposed to be the tears of ecstasy which Siva (Rudra) once shed,
and are consequently sacred to him. They have a number of lobes
(or faces), varying from one to six, divided externally by deep
furrows. Those with five lobes are the most common, but those with
one (eka mukha) or six (shan mukha) are very rare, and have been
known to be sold for a thousand rupees. One form of the drupe is
called Gauri shanka, and is worn in a golden receptacle by Dikshitar
Brahmans at Chidambaram, and by some Pandarams who are managers
of matams (religious institutions). The plate represents a Telugu
Saivite Vaidiki Brahman clad in a coat of rudraksha beads, wearing
a head-dress of the same, and holding in his hand wooden castanets,
which are played as an accompaniment to his songs. Until he became too
old to bear the weight, he wore also a loin-cloth made of these beads.
Runzu.--Runzu, Runza, or Runja is the name of a class of Telugu
mendicants, who beat a drum called runjalu, and beg only from Kamsalas
(q.v.).
S
Sachchari.--A synonym of Relli. Another form of the word Chachchadi.
Sadaru.--A sub-division of Lingayats, found mainly in the
Bellary and Anantapur districts, where they are largely engaged in
cultivation. Some Bedars or Boyas, who live amidst these Lingayats,
call themselves Sadaru. It is noted in the Mysore Census Reports that
the Sadas are "cultivators and traders in grain. A section of these
Sadas has embraced Lingayatism, while the others are still within
the pale of Hinduism."
Saddikudu (cold rice or food).--An exogamous sept of Golla.
Sadhana Surulu.--Sadhanasura is recorded, in the Madras Census
Report, 1901, as a synonym of Samayamuvadu. In a note on this class
of itinerant mendicants, Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao states that, unlike
the Samayamuvaru, they are attached only to the Padma Sale section
of the Sale caste. "They say," he writes, "that their name is an
abbreviated form of Renuka Sakthini Sadhinchinavaru, i.e., those who
conquered Renuka Sakthi. According to tradition, Renuka was the mother
of Parasurama, one of the avatars of Vishnu, and is identified with
the goddess Yellamma, whom the Padma Sales revere. The Sadhana Surulu
are her votaries. Ages ago, it is said, they prayed to her on behalf
of the Padma Sales, and made her grant boons to them. Since that
time they have been treated with marked respect by the Padma Sales,
who pay them annually four annas, and see to their marriages."
Sadhu (meek or quiet).--A sub-division or exogamous sept of Ganiga
and Padma Sale. The equivalent Sadhumatam has been recorded, at
times of census, by Janappans. The name Sadhu is applied to ascetics
or Bairagis.
Sagarakula.--A synonym of the Upparas, who claim descent from a king
Sagara Chakravarthi of the Mahabharata.
Sahavasi.--The Sahavasis are described, in the Mysore Census Report,
1891, as "immigrants like the Chitpavanas. Sahavasi means co-tenant or
associate, and the name is said to have been earned by the community
in the following manner. In remote times a certain Brahman came upon
hidden treasure, but, to his amazement, the contents appeared in
his eye to be all live scorpions. Out of curiosity, he hung one of
them outside his house. A little while after, a woman of inferior
caste, who was passing by the house, noticed it to be gold, and,
upon her questioning him about it, the Brahman espoused her, and by
her means was able to enjoy the treasure. He gave a feast in honour
of his acquisition of wealth. He was subsequently outcasted for his
mésalliance with the low caste female, while those that ate with him
were put under a ban, and thus acquired the nickname."
Sahu.--A title of Bolasis, Godiyas, and other Oriya castes.
Saindla (belonging to the death-house).--A sub-division of Mala.
Sajjana (good men).--A synonym of Lingayat Ganigas.
Sajje (millet: Setaria italica).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Sakala.--See Tsakala.
Sakkereya.--Some Upparas style themselves Mel (western)
Sakkereya-varu. Their explanation is that they used to work in salt,
which is more essential than sugar, and that Mel Sakkare means
superior sugar.
Sakuna Pakshi.--For the following note on the Sakuna Pakshi
(prophetic bird) mendicant caste of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to
Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The name of the caste is due to the fact that
the members of the caste wear on their heads a plume composed of
the feathers of a bird called palagumma, which is probably Coracias
indica, the Indian roller, or "blue jay" of Europeans. This is one of
the birds called sakuna pakshi, because they are supposed to possess
the power of foretelling events, and on their movements many omens
depend. Concerning the roller, Jerdon writes [128] that "it is sacred
to Siva, who assumed its form, and, at the feast of the Dasserah at
Nagpore, one or more used to be liberated by the Rajah, amidst the
firing of cannon and musketry, at a grand parade attended by all the
officers of the station. Buchanan Hamilton also states that, before
the Durga Puja, the Hindus of Calcutta purchase one of these birds,
and, at the time when they throw the image of Durga into the river,
set it at liberty. It is considered propitious to see it on this day,
and those who cannot afford to buy one discharge their matchlocks to
put it on the wing."
According to their own account, the Sakuna Pakshis are Telagas who
emigrated to Vizagapatam from Peddapuram in the Godavari district.
A member of the caste, before proceeding on a begging expedition,
rises early, and has a cold meal. He then puts the Tengalai Vaishnava
namam mark on his forehead, slings on his left shoulder a deer-skin
pouch for the reception of the rice and other grain which will be
given him as alms, and takes up his little drum (gilaka or damaraka)
made of frog's skin. It is essential for a successful day's begging
that he should first visit a Mala house or two, after which he begs
from other castes, going from house to house.
The members combine with begging the professions of devil-dancer,
sorcerer, and quack doctor. Their remedy for scorpion sting
is well-known. It is the root of a plant called thella visari
(scorpion antidote), which the Sakuna Pakshis carry about with
them on their rounds. The root should be collected on a new-moon
day which falls on a Sunday. On that day, the Sakuna Pakshi bathes,
cuts off his loin-string, and goes stark naked to a selected spot,
where he gathers the roots. If a supply thereof is required, and the
necessary combination of moon and day is not forthcoming, the roots
should be collected on a Sunday or Wednesday.
Salangukaran.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Salangaikaran is
returned as a synonym of Karaiyan or Sembadavan fishermen. The word
salangu or slangu is used for pearl fisheries, and Salangukaran is,
I imagine, a name applied to pearl divers.
Salapu.--The Salapus are a small caste of Telugu weavers in
Vizagapatam, for the following note on whom I am indebted to
Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. The name Salapu seems to be a corruption
of Saluppan, a caste which formerly engaged in the manufacture
of gunny-bags and coarse cloths. The Salapus at the present day
make such cloths, commonly called gamanchalu. Like some other
weaving castes, they claim descent from Markandeya rishi, who was
remarkable for his austerities and great age, and is also known as
Dirghayus. The Salapus will not eat, or intermarry with Sales. The
caste is governed by a headman called Senapati. He decides disputes,
and, on occasions of marriage, receives the first share of betel and
sandal, and is the first to touch the sathamanam (marriage badge)
when it is passed round to be blessed by those assembled. He is,
at marriages, further presented with a rupee. At caste feasts, it is
his privilege to partake of food first.
Like other Telugu castes, the Salapus have intiperulu, or exogamous
septs. Girls are generally married before puberty. The custom of
menarikam, by which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter,
is in force. The turmeric ceremony takes place some months before
marriage. Some male and female relations of the future bridegroom
repair to the house of the girl, taking with them a few rupees as the
bride-price (voli). The girl bathes, and daubs herself with turmeric
paste. A solid silver bangle is then put on her right wrist. The
remarriage of widows and divorce are permitted.
The Salapus are divided into Lingavantas and Vaishnavas, who
intermarry. The former bury their dead in a sitting posture, and the
latter practice cremation. Jangams officiate for the Lingavantas,
and Satanis for Vaishnavas. Both sections observe the chinna (little)
and pedda rozu (big day) death ceremonies.
The caste title is generally Ayya.
Salapu.--A form of Sarapu, an occupational term for those who deal
in coins, jewelry, coral, etc.
Sale.--The Sales are the great weaver class among the Telugus, for
the following note on whom I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.
The name is derived from Sanskrit, Salika, a weaver. The Sales call
themselves Senapati (commander-in-chief), and this is further the
title of the caste headman. They are divided into two main endogamous
sections, Padma or lotus, and Pattu or silk. Between them there are
three well-marked points of difference, viz., (1) the Pattu Sales wear
the sacred thread, whereas the Padma Sales do not; (2) the Pattu Sales
do not take food or water at the hands of any except Brahmans, whereas
the Padma Sales will eat in Kapu, Golla, Telaga, Gavara, etc., houses;
(3) the Pattu Sales weave superfine cloths, and, in some places, work
in silk, whereas Padma Sales weave only coarse cloths. Each section
is divided into a number of exogamous septs or intiperulu. Both speak
Telugu, and are divided into Vaishnavites and Saivites. These religious
distinctions are no bar to intermarriage and interdining.
It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district (1907),
that "on the plains, cotton cloths are woven in hundreds of villages
by Sales, Padma Sales, Pattu Sales, Devangas, and Salapus. The ryots
often spin their own cotton into thread, and then hand it over to the
weavers to be made into cloths, but large quantities of machine-made
yarn are used. In the south, the chief weaving centres are Nakkapalli
and Payakaraopeta in Sarvasiddhi taluk, the Pattu Sales in the latter
of which turn out fabrics of fine thread, enriched with much gold and
silver 'lace,' which are in great demand in the Godavari and Ganjam
districts. At Razam, coloured cloths for women are the chief product,
and in the country round this place the white garments so universal
everywhere give place to coloured dress. The cloths are sold locally,
and also sent in large quantities to Berhampur, Cuttack, and even
Calcutta. Most of the weaving is in the hands of Devangas, but the
dyeing of the thread is done with imported aniline and alizarine
colours by the Balijas of Sigadam in Chipurupalle taluk and Balijapeta
in Bobbili. In Siripuram and Ponduru, the Pattu Sales make delicate
fabrics from especially fine thread, called Pattu Sale nulu, or
silk-weaver's thread, which the women of their caste spin for them, and
which is as fine as imported 1508. These are much valued by well-to-do
natives for their softness and durability. The weaving industry is
on the decline throughout the district, except perhaps in Razam,
and the weaver castes are taking to other means of livelihood. Round
Chipurupalle, for example, the Pattu Sales have become experts in
tobacco-curing, and have made such profits that they are able to
monopolise much of the trade and money-lending of the locality."
Concerning the origin of the Sale caste, it is stated, in the
Andhrapada Parijatamu, that it is the result of an union between
a Kamsala man and a potter woman. According to a current legend,
the celestials (devatas), being desirous of securing clothing
for themselves and their dependents, asked Markandeya Rishi to
supply them with it. He went to Vishnu, and prayed to him. The god
directed him to make a sacrificial offering to Indra, the celestial
king. Markandeya accordingly performed a great sacrifice, and from the
fire issued Bhavana Rishi, with a ball of thread in his hands, which
he had manufactured, under Vishnu's direction, from the fibre of the
lotus which sprang from the god's navel. With this ball of thread he
proceeded to make cloths for the celestials. He subsequently married
Bhadravathi, the daughter of Surya (the sun), who bore him a hundred
and one sons, of whom a hundred became the ancestors of the Padma
Sales, while the remaining man was the ancestor of the Pattu Sales.