who are said to ask alms only from Kamsalas. The word panasa means
constant repetition of words, and, in its application to the Panasa,
probably indicates that they, like the Bhatrazu bards and panegyrists,
make up verses eulogising those from whom they beg. It is stated in the
Kurnool Manual (1886) that "they take alms from the Beri Komatis and
goldsmiths (Kamsalas), and no others. The story goes that, in Golkonda,
a tribe of Komatis named Bacheluvaru were imprisoned for non-payment
of arrears of revenue. Finding certain men of the artificer class who
passed by in the street spit betel nut, they got it into their mouths,
and begged the artificers to get them released. The artificers,
pitying them, paid the arrears, and procured their release. It was
then that the Kamsalis fixed a vartana or annual house-fee for the
maintenance of the Panasa class, on condition that they should not
beg alms from the other castes." The Panasas appear every year in
the Kurnool district to collect their dues.
Pancha.--Pancha, meaning five, is recorded as a sub-division of the
Linga Balijas, and Panchachara or Panchamsale as a sub-division of
Lingayats. In all these, pancha has reference to the five acharas
or ceremonial observances of the Lingayats, which seem to vary
according to locality. Wearing the lingam, worshipping it before
meals, and paying reverence to the Jangam priests, are included among
the observances.
Panchala.--A synonym for Canarese Kammalans, among whom five (panch)
classes of workers are included, viz., gold and silver, brass and
copper, iron, and stone.
Panchalinga (five lingams).--An exogamous sept of Boya. The lingam
is the symbol of Siva.
Panchama.--The Panchamas are, in the Madras Census Report, 1871, summed
up as being "that great division of the people, spoken of by themselves
as the fifth caste, and described by Buchanan and other writers as
the Pancham Bandam." According to Buchanan, [31] the Pancham Bandum
"consist of four tribes, the Parriar, the Baluan, the Shekliar, and
the Toti." Buchanan further makes mention of Panchama Banijigaru and
Panchama Cumbharu (potters). The Panchamas were, in the Department
of Public Instruction, called "Paraiyas and kindred classes" till
1893. This classification was replaced, for convenience of reference,
by Panchama, which included Chacchadis, Godaris, Pulayas, Holeyas,
Madigas, Malas, Pallans, Paraiyans, Totis, and Valluvans. "It is,"
the Director of Public Instruction wrote in 1902, "for Government
to consider whether the various classes concerned should, for the
sake of brevity, be described by one simple name. The terms Paraiya,
low caste, outcaste, carry with them a derogatory meaning, and are
unsuitable. The expression Pancham Banda, or more briefly Panchama,
seems more appropriate." The Government ruled that there is no
objection to the proposal that Paraiyas and kindred classes should
be designated Panchama Bandham or Panchama in future, but it would
be simpler to style them the fifth class.
The following educational privileges according to the various classes
classified as Panchama may be noted:--
(1) They are admitted into schools at half the standard rates of fees.
(2) Under the result grant system (recently abolished), grants were
passed for Panchama pupils at rates 50 per cent. higher than in
ordinary cases, and 15 per cent. higher in backward localities.
(3) Panchama schools were exempted from the attendance restriction,
i.e., grants were given to them, however small the attendance. Ordinary
schools had to have an attendance of ten at least to earn grants.
(4) Panchama students under training as teachers get stipends at
rates nearly double of those for ordinary Hindus.
An interesting account of the system of education at the Olcott
Panchama Free Schools has been written by Mrs. Courtright. [32]
Panchama is returned, in the Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as a
sub-division of Balija and Banajiga.
Pancharamkatti.--A sub-division of Idaiyan, which derives its name
from the neck ornament (pancharam) worn by the women.
Pandamuttu.--A sub-division of Palli. The name is made by Winslow to
mean a number of torches arranged so as to represent an elephant. The
Pallis, however, explain it as referring to the pile of pots, which
reaches to the top of the marriage pandal (pandal, booth, mutti,
touching). The lowest pot is decorated with figures of elephants
and horses.
Pandaram.--Pandaram is described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [33] as being
"the name rather of an occupation than a caste, and used to denote
any non-Brahmanical priest. The Pandarams seem to receive numerous
recruits from the Saivite Sudra castes, who choose to make a profession
of piety, and wander about begging. They are in reality very lax
in their modes of life, often drinking liquor and eating animal
food furnished by any respectable Sudra. They often serve in Siva
temples, where they make garlands of flowers to decorate the lingam,
and blow brazen trumpets when offerings are made, or processions take
place. Tirutanni is one of the chief places, in which they congregate."
It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly district, that
"the water for the god's bath at Ratnagiri is brought by a caste of
non-Brahmans known as Tirumanjana Pandarams, who fetch it every day
from the Cauvery. They say that they are descended from an Aryan king,
who came to the god with the hope of getting rubies from him. The god,
in the guise of a Brahman, tested his devotion by making him fill a
magic vessel with Cauvery water. The vessel would not fill, and the
Aryan stranger in a fit of anger cut off the Brahman's head. The dead
body at once turned into a lingam, and the Aryan was ordered to carry
water for the temple till eternity."
Pandaram is used both as the name of a caste, and of a class composed
of recruits from various castes (e.g., Vellala and Palli). The
Pandaram caste is composed of respectable people who have settled
down as land-holders, and of Sanyasis and priests of certain matams
(religious institutions), and managers of richly endowed temples, such
as those at Tiruvadudurai in Tanjore and Mailam in South Arcot. The
common name for these managers is Tambiran. The caste Pandarams are
staunch Saivites and strict vegetarians. Those who lead a celibate
life wear the lingam. They are said to have been originally Sozhia
Vellalas, with whom intermarriage still takes place. They are initiated
into the Saivite religion by a rite called Dhikshai, which is divided
into five stages, viz., Samaya, Nirvana, Visesha, Kalasothanai, and
Acharya Abhishekam. Some are temple servants, and supply flowers for
the god, while others sing devaram (hymns to the god) during the temple
service. On this account, they are known as Meikaval (body-guard of
the god), and Oduvar (reader). The caste Pandarams have two divisions,
called Abhisheka and Desikar, and the latter name is often taken as
a title, e.g., Kandasami Desikar. An Abhisheka Pandaram is one who
is made to pass through some ceremonies connected with Saiva Agama.
The mendicant Pandarams, who are recruited from various classes,
wear the lingam, and do not abstain from eating flesh. Many villages
have a Pandaram as the priest of the shrine of the village deity,
who is frequently a Palli who has become a Pandaram by donning the
lingam. The females are said to live, in some cases, by prostitution.
The Lingayat Pandarams differ in many respects from the true
Lingayats. The latter respect their Jangam, and use the sacred
water, in which the feet of the Jangam are washed, for washing their
stone lingam. To the Pandarams, and Tamil Lingayats in general, this
proceeding would amount to sacrilege of the worst type. Canarese and
Telugu Lingayats regard a Jangam as superior to the stone lingam. In
the matter of pollution ceremonies the Tamil Lingayats are very
particular, whereas the orthodox Lingayats observe no pollution. The
investiture with the lingam does not take place so early among the
Tamil as among the Canarese Lingayats.
For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana
Rao. "Dr. H. H. Wilson [34] is of opinion that the word Pandaram is
'more properly Panduranga, pale complexioned, from their smearing
themselves with ashes. It is so used in Hemachandra's history
of Mahavira, when speaking of the Saiva Brahmans.' A more popular
derivation of the name is from Bandaram, a public treasury. A good many
well-to-do Pandarams are managers of Siva temples in Southern India,
and accordingly have the temple treasuries under their care. It is,
however, possible that the name has been acquired by the caste by
reason of their keeping a yellow powder, called pandaram, in a little
box, and giving it in return for the alms which they receive.
Opinions are divided as to whether the Pandarams are Lingayats or
not. The opinion held by F. W. Ellis, the well-known Tamil scholar and
translator of the Kural of Tiruvalluvar, is thus summarised by Colonel
Wilks. [35] "Mr. Ellis considers the Jangam of the upper countries, and
the Pandaram of the lower, to be of the same sect, and both deny in the
most unequivocal terms the doctrine of the metempsychosis. A manuscript
in the Mackenzie collection ascribes the origin of the Pandarams as
a sacerdotal order of the servile caste to the religious disputes,
which terminated in the suppression of the Jain religion in the Pandian
(Madura) kingdom, and the influence which they attained by the aid
which they rendered to the Brahmans in that controversy, but this
origin seems to require confirmation. In a large portion, perhaps in
the whole of the Brahmanical temples dedicated to Siva in the provinces
of Arcot, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura and Tinnevelly, the Pandaram
is the highest of the temple, and has the entire direction of the
revenues, but allows the Brahmans to officiate in the ceremonial part
according to their own good pleasure, as a concern altogether below
his note. He has generally the reputation of an irreproachable life,
and is treated by the Brahmans of the temple with great reverence,
while on his part he looks with compassion at the absurd trifles
which occupy their attention. These facts seem to point to some former
revolution, in which a Jangam government obtained a superiority over
the Brahmanical establishments, and adopted this mode of superseding
the substantial part of their authority. It is a curious instance
of the Sooder (Sudra) being the spiritual lord of the Brahman, and
is worthy of further historical investigation." Dr. Wilson [36] also
thinks that the Pandarams are Lingayats. Mr. H. A. Stuart [37] says
that they are a class of priests who serve the non-Brahman castes. They
have returned 115 sub-divisions, of which only two are sufficiently
large to require mention, Andi of Tinnevelly and Malabar, and Lingadari
of Chingleput and Tinnevelly. Andi is a quasi-caste of beggars
recruited from all castes, and the Lingadari Pandarams are the same as
Jangams. Pandaram is, in fact, a class name rather than the name of a
caste, and it consists of priests and beggars. Mr. C. P. Brown [38]
thinks that the Pandarams are not Lingayats. 'The Saiva worshippers
among the Tamils are called Pandarams: these are not Vira Saivas,
nor do they wear the linga or adore Basava. I name them here chiefly
because they are often mentioned as being Vira Saivas, whereas in
truth they are (like the Smartas) Purva Saivas, and worship the image
of Siva in their houses.' It must be remarked that Mr. Brown appears
to have had a confused idea of Pandarams. Pandarams wear the linga
on their bodies in one of the usual modes, are priests to others
professing the Lingayat religion, and are fed by them on funeral and
other ceremonial occasions. At the same time, it must be added that
they are--more especially the begging sections--very lax as regards
their food and drink. This characteristic distinguishes them from the
more orthodox Lingayats. Moreover, Lingayats remarry their widows,
whereas the Pandarams, as a caste, will not.
"Pandarams speak Tamil. They are of two classes, the married and
celibate. The former are far more numerous than the latter, and dress
in the usual Hindu manner. They have the hind-lock of hair known as the
kudumi, put on sacred ashes, and paint the point between the eyebrows
with a sandal paste dot. The celibates wear orange-tawny cloths,
and daub sacred ashes all over their bodies. They allow the hair
of the head to become matted. They wear sandals with iron spikes,
and carry in their hands an iron trisulam (the emblem of Siva),
and a wooden baton called dandayudha (another emblem of Siva). When
they go about the streets, they sing popular Tamil hymns, and beat
against their begging bowl an iron chain tied by a hole to one of
its sides. Married men also beg, but only use a bell-metal gong
and a wooden mallet. Most of these help pilgrims going to the more
famous Siva temples in the Madras Presidency, e.g., Tirutani, Palni,
Tiruvannamalai, or Tirupparankunram. Among both sections, the dead are
buried in the sitting posture, as among other Lingayats. A samadhi
is erected over the spot where they are buried. This consists of a
linga and bull in miniature, which are worshipped as often as may be
found convenient.
"The managers of temples and mutts (religious institutions), known
as Pandara Sannadhis, belong to the celibate class. They are usually
learned in the Agamas and Puranas. A good many of them are Tamil
scholars, and well versed in Saiva Siddhanta philosophy. They call
themselves Tambirans--a title which is often usurped by the uneducated
beggars."
In the Census Report, 1901, Vairavi is returned as a sub-caste of
Pandaram, and said to be found only in the Tinnevelly district, where
they are measurers of grains and pujaris in village temples. Vairavi
is further used as a name for members of the Melakkaran caste, who
officiate as servants at the temples of the Nattukottai Chettis.
Pandaram is a title of the Panisavans and Valluvan priests of the
Paraiyans.
A class of people called hill Pandarams are described [39] by the
Rev. S. Mateer as "miserable beings without clothing, implements,
or huts of any kind, living in holes, rocks, or trees. They bring
wax, ivory (tusks), and other produce to the Arayans, and get salt
from them. They dig roots, snare the ibex (wild goat, Hemitragus
hylocrius) of the hills, and jungle fowls, eat rats and snakes, and
even crocodiles found in the pools among the hill streams. They were
perfectly naked and filthy, and very timid. They spoke Malayalam in a
curious tone, and said that twenty-two of their party had been devoured
by tigers within two monsoons." Concerning these hill Pandarams,
Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes that they live on the banks of streams
in crevices of rocks, caves, and hollows of trees. They are known to
the dwellers on the plains as Kattumanushyar, or forest men. They clad
themselves in the bark of trees, and, in the rainy and cold seasons,
protect their bodies with plantain leaves. They speak a corrupt form of
Tamil. They fear the sight of other men, and try to avoid approaching
them. A former European magistrate of the Cardamom Hills took some
of them to his residence, but, during their three days' stay there,
they refused to eat or talk. There is a chieftain for every four hills,
but his authority is little more than nominal. When women are married,
the earth and hills are invoked as witnesses. They have Hindu names,
such as Raman, Kittan (Krishna), and Govindan.
In a lecture delivered some years ago at Trivandrum, Mr. O. H. Bensley
described the hill Pandarams as being "skilful in catching fish,
their mode of cooking which is to place the fish on roots on a rock,
and cover them with fire. They keep dogs, and, by their aid, replenish
their larder with rats, mungooses, iguanas (lizard, Varanus), and
other delicacies. I was told that the authority recognised by these
people is the head Arayan, to whom they give a yearly offering of
jungle produce, receiving in exchange the scanty clothing required
by them. We had an opportunity of examining their stock-in-trade,
which consisted of a bill-hook similar to those used by other hillmen,
a few earthen cooking-pots, and a good stock of white flour, which
was, they said, obtained from the bark of a tree, the name of which
sounded like ahlum. They were all small in stature, with the exception
of one young woman, and, both in appearance and intelligence, compared
favourably with the Uralis."
Pandariyar.--Pandariyar or Pandarattar, denoting custodians of
the treasury, has been returned as a title of Nattaman, Malaiman,
and Sudarman.
Pandava-kulam.--A title, indicative "of the caste of the Pandava
kings," assumed by Jatapus and Konda Doras, who worship the
Pandavas. The Pandava kings were the heroes of the Mahabharata, who
fought a great battle with the Kauravas, and are said to have belonged
to the lunar race of Kshatriyas. The Pandavas had a single wife named
Draupadi, whom the Pallis or Vanniyans worship, and celebrate annually
in her honour a fire-walking festival. The Pallis claim to belong to
the fire race of Kshatriyas, and style themselves Agnikula Kshatriyas,
or Vannikula Kshatriyas.
Pandi (pig).--Recorded as an exogamous sept of Asili, Boya, and
Gamalla. Pandipattu (pig catchers) and Pandikottu (pig killers)
occur as exogamous septs of Odde.
Pandito.--Pandit or Pundit (pandita, a learned man) has been defined
[40] as "properly a man learned in Sanskrit lore. The Pundit of the
Supreme Court was a Hindu law-officer, whose duty it was to advise
the English Judges when needful on questions of Hindu law. The office
became extinct on the constitution of the High Court (in 1862). In the
Mahratta and Telugu countries, the word Pandit is usually pronounced
Pant (in English colloquial Punt)." In the countries noted, Pant
occurs widely as a title of Brahmans, who are also referred to
as Pantulu varu. The titles Sanskrit Pundit, Telugu Pundit, etc.,
are still officially recognised at several colleges in the Madras
Presidency. Pandit sometimes occurs as an honorific prefix, e.g.,
Pandit S. M. Natesa Sastri, and Panditan is a name given to Tamil
barbers (Ambattan). In some parts of the Tamil country, Panditar is
used as a name for Madhva Brahmans, because, it is said, many of them
were formerly engaged as pandits at the Law Courts.
Pandito is further the name of "an Oriya caste of astrologers and
physicians. They wear the sacred thread, and accept drinking water
only from Brahmans and Gaudos. Infant marriage is practiced, and widow
marriage is prohibited." [41] I am informed that these Panditos engage
Brahmans for their ceremonials, do not drink liquor, and eat fish and
mutton, but not fowls or beef. The females wear glass bangles. They
are known by the name of Khodikaro, from khodi, a kind of stone,
with which they write figures on the floor, when making astrological
calculations. The stone is said to be something like soapstone.
Pandita occurs as an exogamous sept of Stanikas.
Pandya.--The territorial name Pandya, Pandiya, Pandiyan, or Pandi
has been returned, at recent times of census, as a sub-division of
various Tamil classes, e.g., Ambattan, Kammalan, Occhan, Pallan,
Vannan, and Vellala. Pandiya is further a title of some Shanans. In
Travancore, Pandi has been returned by some Izhavans. The variant
Pandiangal occurs as an exogamous sept of the Tamil Vallambans,
and Pandu as a Tamil synonym for Kapu or Reddi.
Panikkar.--Panikkar, meaning teacher or worker, has been recorded,
in the Malayalam country, as a title of barbers, Kammalan, Maran,
Nayar, Panan, and Paraiyan. In former times, the name was applied,
in Malabar, to fencing-masters, as the following quotations show :--
1518. "And there are very skilful men who teach this art (fencing),
and they are called Panicars."--Barbosa.
1553. "And when the Naire comes to the age of 7 years, he is
obliged to go to the fencing-school, the master of which (whom
they call Panical) they regard as a father, on account of the
instruction he gives them."--Barros.
1583. "The maisters which teach them be graduates in the
weapons which they teach, and they be called in their language
Panycaes."--Castaneda.
A class of people called Panikkan are settled in the Madura and
Tinnevelly districts. Some of them are barbers to Shanans. Others have
taken to weaving as a profession, and will not intermarry with those
who are employed as barbers. "The Panikkans are," Mr. Francis writes,
[42] "weavers, agriculturists, and traders. They employ Brahmans as
priests, but these are apparently not received on terms of equality
by other Brahmans. The Panikkans now frequently call themselves Illam
Vellalas, and change their title in deeds and official papers from
Panikkan to Pillai. They are also taking to wearing the sacred thread
and giving up eating meat. The caste is divided into three vagais or
endogamous classes, namely, Mital, Pattanam, and Malayalam, and each
of these again has five partly exogamous septs or illams (families),
namely, Muttillam, Toranattillam, Pallikkillam, Manjanattillam, and
Soliya-illam. It is stated that the Mital and Pattanam sections will
eat together though they do not intermarry, but that the Malayalam
section can neither dine with nor marry into the other two. They are
reported to have an elaborate system of caste government, under which
eleven villages form a gadistalam (or stage), and send representatives
to its council to settle caste matters; and eleven gadistalams form
a nadu (or country), and send representatives to a chief council,
which decides questions which are beyond the competence of the
gadistalams." The occurrence of Malayam as the name of a sub-division,
and of the Malayalam word illam as that of the exogamous septs, would
seem to indicate that the Panikkans are immigrants from the westward
into the Tamil country.
Panimagan (work children).--A name for Mukkuvans who are employed as
barbers for members of their caste.
Panisavan.--Panisavan is defined in the Salem Manual as "a corruption
of paniseygiravan (panisaivon), literally meaning one who works (or
does service), and is the caste name of the class, whose business it
is to carry news of death to the relations of the deceased, and to
blow the tharai or long trumpet." According to Mr. H. A. Stuart, [43]
Panisavan appears to answer among the Tamilians to the Dasaris or Tadas
of the Telugus. It is a mendicant caste, worshipping Siva. Unlike the
Tadas, however, they often employ themselves in cultivation, and are,
on the whole, a more temperate and respectable class. Their priests
are Brahmans, and they eat flesh, and drink alcoholic liquor very
freely. The dead are generally burned.