In 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, the
majority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.
Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, and
some 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. The
children of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, along
with several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnic
tensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly
800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated the
Hutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2
million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled to
neighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire. Since then, most
of the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but several thousand
remained in the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC;
the former Zaire) and formed an extremist insurgency bent on
retaking Rwanda, much as the RPF tried in 1990. Rwanda held its
first local elections in 1999 and its first post-genocide
presidential and legislative elections in 2003. Rwanda in 2009
staged a joint military operation with the Congolese Army in DRC to
rout out the Hutu extremist insurgency there and Kigali and Kinshasa
restored diplomatic relations. Rwanda also joined the Commonwealth
in late 2009.
Saint Barthelemy
Discovered in 1493 by Christopher COLUMBUS who
named it for his brother Bartolomeo, Saint Barthelemy was first
settled by the French in 1648. In 1784, the French sold the island
to Sweden, who renamed the largest town Gustavia, after the Swedish
King GUSTAV III, and made it a free port; the island prospered as a
trade and supply center during the colonial wars of the 18th
century. France repurchased the island in 1878 and placed it under
the administration of Guadeloupe. Saint Barthelemy retained its free
port status along with various Swedish appellations such as Swedish
street and town names, and the three-crown symbol on the coat of
arms. In 2003, the populace of the island voted to secede from
Guadeloupe and in 2007, the island became a French overseas
collectivity.
Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha
Saint Helena is a
British Overseas Territory consisting of Saint Helena and Ascension
Islands, and the island group of Tristan da Cunha.
Saint Helena: Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in
1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17th
century. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE's exile
from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as a port of
call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. During
the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, several thousand Boer prisoners
were confined on the island between 1900 and 1903.
Ascension Island: This barren and uninhabited island was discovered
and named by the Portuguese in 1503. The British garrisoned the
island in 1815 to prevent a rescue of Napoleon from Saint Helena. It
served as a provisioning station for the Royal Navy's West Africa
Squadron on anti-slavery patrol. The island remained under Admiralty
control until 1922, when it became a dependency of Saint Helena.
During World War II, the UK permitted the US to construct an
airfield on Ascension in support of trans-Atlantic flights to Africa
and anti-submarine operations in the South Atlantic. In the 1960s
the island became an important space tracking station for the US. In
1982, Ascension was an essential staging area for British forces
during the Falklands War. It remains a critical refueling point in
the air-bridge from the UK to the South Atlantic.
Tristan da Cunha: The island group consists of the islands of
Tristan da Cunha, Nightingale, Inaccessible, and Gough. Tristan da
Cunha is named after its Portuguese discoverer (1506); it was
garrisoned by the British in 1816 to prevent any attempt to rescue
Napoleon from Saint Helena. Gough and Inaccessible Islands have been
designated World Heritage Sites. South Africa leases a site for a
meteorological station on Gough Island.
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Carib Indians occupied the islands for
hundreds of years before the British began settlement in 1623. The
islands became an associated state of the UK with full internal
autonomy in 1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to
secede in 1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983.
In 1998, a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint
Kitts fell short of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis continues
in its efforts to separate from Saint Kitts.
Saint Lucia
The island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,
was contested between England and France throughout the 17th and
early 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finally
ceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on its
plantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island,
dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government was
granted in 1967 and independence in 1979.
Saint Martin
Although sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 and
claimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631
and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook the
island in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. The
Spanish finally relinquished Saint Martin to the French and Dutch,
who divided it amongst themselves in 1648. Friction between the two
sides caused the border to frequently fluctuate over the next two
centuries, with the French eventually holding the greater portion of
the island (about 57%). The cultivation of sugar cane introduced
slavery to the island in the late 18th century; the practice was not
abolished until 1848. The island became a free port in 1939; the
tourism industry was dramatically expanded during the 1970s and
1980s. In 2003, the populace of Saint Martin voted to secede from
Guadeloupe and in 2007, the northern portion of the island became a
French overseas collectivity.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
First settled by the French in the early
17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige of
France's once vast North American possessions.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Resistance by native Caribs
prevented colonization on Saint Vincent until 1719. Disputed between
France and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, the
island was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of the
Federation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 and
independence in 1979.
Samoa
New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa
at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer
the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,
when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablish
independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"
from its name in 1997.
San Marino
The third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy See
and Monaco), San Marino also claims to be the world's oldest
republic. According to tradition, it was founded by a Christian
stonemason named Marinus in A.D. 301. San Marino's foreign policy is
aligned with that of Italy; social and political trends in the
republic also track closely with those of its larger neighbor.
Sao Tome and Principe
Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late
15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee
and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slave
labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. While
independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not
instituted until the late 1980s. The country held its first free
elections in 1991, but frequent internal wrangling between the
various political parties precipitated repeated changes in
leadership and two failed coup attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent
discovery of oil in the Gulf of Guinea promises to attract increased
attention to the small island nation.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home to
Islam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The king's official
title is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudi
state was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman Al SAUD
(Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the Arabian
Peninsula. A male descendent of Ibn Saud, his son ABDALLAH bin Abd
al-Aziz, rules the country today as required by the country's 1992
Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia
accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while
allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the
liberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuing presence of
foreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation of Kuwait became a
source of tension between the royal family and the public until all
operational US troops left the country in 2003. Major terrorist
attacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strong on-going campaign
against domestic terrorism and extremism. King ABDALLAH has
continued the cautious reform program begun when he was crown
prince. To promote increased political participation, the government
held elections nationwide from February through April 2005 for half
the members of 179 municipal councils. In December 2005, King
ABDALLAH completed the process by appointing the remaining members
of the advisory municipal councils. The king instituted an
Inter-Faith Dialogue initiative in 2008 to encourage religious
tolerance on a global level; in February 2009, he reshuffled the
cabinet, which led to more moderates holding ministerial and
judicial positions, and appointed the first female to the cabinet.
The country remains a leading producer of oil and natural gas and
holds more than 20% of the world's proven oil reserves. The
government continues to pursue economic reform and diversification,
particularly since Saudi Arabia's accession to the WTO in December
2005, and promotes foreign investment in the kingdom. A burgeoning
population, aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent on
petroleum output and prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.
Senegal
The French colonies of Senegal and the French Sudan were
merged in 1959 and granted their independence as the Mali Federation
in 1960. The union broke up after only a few months. Senegal joined
with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in
1982. The envisaged integration of the two countries was never
carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. The Movement of
Democratic Forces in the Casamance (MFDC) has led a low-level
separatist insurgency in southern Senegal since the 1980s, and
several peace deals have failed to resolve the conflict.
Nevertheless, Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies in
Africa. Senegal was ruled by a Socialist Party for 40 years until
current President Abdoulaye WADE was elected in 2000. He was
reelected in February 2007 and has amended Senegal's constitution
over a dozen times to increase executive power and to weaken the
opposition, part of the President's increasingly autocratic
governing style. Senegal has a long history of participating in
international peacekeeping and regional mediation.
Serbia
The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in
1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Various
paramilitary bands resisted Nazi Germany's occupation and division
of Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945, but fought each other and ethnic
opponents as much as the invaders. The military and political
movement headed by Josip "TITO" Broz (Partisans) took full control
of Yugoslavia when German and Croatian separatist forces were
defeated in 1945. Although Communist, TITO's new government and his
successors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path between
the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half
decades. In 1989, Slobodan MILOSEVIC became president of the
Republic of Serbia and his ultranationalist calls for Serbian
domination led to the violent breakup of Yugoslavia along ethnic
lines. In 1991, Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared
independence, followed by Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of
Serbia and Montenegro declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(FRY) in April 1992 and under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia led
various military campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring
republics into a "Greater Serbia." These actions led to Yugoslavia
being ousted from the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its -
ultimately unsuccessful - campaign until signing the Dayton Peace
Accords in 1995. MILOSEVIC kept tight control over Serbia and
eventually became president of the FRY in 1997. In 1998, an ethnic
Albanian insurgency in the formerly autonomous Serbian province of
Kosovo provoked a Serbian counterinsurgency campaign that resulted
in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in
Kosovo. The MILOSEVIC government's rejection of a proposed
international settlement led to NATO's bombing of Serbia in the
spring of 1999, to the withdrawal of Serbian military and police
forces from Kosovo in June 1999, and to the stationing of a NATO-led
force in Kosovo to provide a safe and secure environment for the
region's ethnic communities. FRY elections in late 2000 led to the
ouster of MILOSEVIC and the installation of democratic government.
MILOSEVIC was arrested in 2001 and sent to be tried in The Hague for
crimes against humanity; he died in March 2006 before the completion
of his trial. In 2001, the country's suspension from the UN was
lifted. In 2003, the FRY became Serbia and Montenegro, a loose
federation of the two republics with a federal level parliament.
Widespread violence predominantly targeting ethnic Serbs in Kosovo
in March 2004 caused the international community to open
negotiations on the future status of Kosovo in January 2006. In May
2006, Montenegro invoked its right to secede from the federation and
- following a successful referendum - it declared itself an
independent nation on 3 June 2006. Two days later, Serbia declared
that it was the successor state to the union of Serbia and
Montenegro. A new Serbian constitution was approved in October 2006
and adopted the following month. In February 2008, after nearly two
years of inconclusive negotiations, the UN-administered province of
Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia - an action Serbia
refuses to recognize. At Serbia's request, the UN General Assembly
(UNGA) in October 2008 sought an advisory opinion from the
International Court of Justice (ICJ) on whether Kosovo's unilateral
declaration of independence was in accordance with international
law. In a ruling considered unfavorable to Serbia, the ICJ issued an
advisory opinion in July 2010 stating that international law did not
prohibit declarations of independence. In late 2010, Serbia agreed
to an EU-drafted UNGA Resolution acknowledging the ICJ's decision
and calling for a new round of talks between Serbia and Kosovo.
Seychelles
A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain for
the islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.
Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a close
with a new constitution and free elections in 1993. President
France-Albert RENE, who had served since 1977, was re-elected in
2001, but stepped down in 2004. Vice President James MICHEL took
over the presidency and in July 2006 was elected to a new five-year
term.
Sierra Leone
Democracy is slowly being reestablished after the civil
war from 1991 to 2002 that resulted in tens of thousands of deaths
and the displacement of more than 2 million people (about one-third
of the population). The military, which took over full
responsibility for security following the departure of UN
peacekeepers at the end of 2005, is increasingly developing as a
guarantor of the country's stability. The armed forces remained on
the sideline during the 2007 presidential election, but still look
to the UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) - a civilian
UN mission - to support efforts to consolidate peace. The new
government's priorities include furthering development, creating
jobs, and stamping out endemic corruption.
Singapore
Singapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.
It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two years
later and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one of
the world's most prosperous countries with strong international
trading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms of
tonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of the
leading nations of Western Europe.
Sint Maarten
Although sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 and
claimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631
and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook the
island in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. The
Spanish finally relinquished the island of Saint Martin to the
French and Dutch, who divided it amongst themselves in 1648. The
establishment of cotton, tobacco, and sugar plantations dramatically
expanded slavery on the island in the 18th and 19th centuries; the
practice was not abolished in the Dutch half until 1863. The
island's economy declined until 1939 when it became a free port; the
tourism industry was dramatically expanded beginning in the 1950s.
In 1954, Sint Maarten and several other Dutch Caribbean possessions
became part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands as the Netherlands
Antilles. In a 2000 referendum, the citizens of Sint Maarten voted
to become a self-governing country within the Kingdom of the
Netherlands. The change in status became effective in October of
2010 with the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles.
Slovakia
The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the close
of World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely related
Czechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,
Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-dominated
Eastern Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and
Czechoslovakia once more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs
agreed to separate peacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joined
both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004 and the euro area on 1
January 2009.
Slovenia
The Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
until the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,
the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a new
multinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After World
War II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, which
though Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfied
with the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenes
succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short
10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and
a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to a
modern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the spring
of 2004; it joined the eurozone in 2007.
Solomon Islands
The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon
Islands in the 1890s. Some of the most bitter fighting of World War
II occurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in
1976 and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, government
malfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civil
society. In June 2003, then Prime Minister Sir Allan KEMAKEZA sought
the assistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; the
following month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived to
restore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional Assistance
Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effective
in restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.
Somalia
Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allow
its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new
nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre
ushered in an authoritarian socialist rule characterized by the
persecution, jailing and torture of political opponents and
dissidents. After the regime's collapse early in 1991, Somalia
descended into turmoil, factional fighting, and anarchy. In May
1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland
that now includes the administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi
Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by any
government, this entity has maintained a stable existence and
continues efforts to establish a constitutional democracy, including
holding municipal, parliamentary, and presidential elections. The
regions of Bari, Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring
semi-autonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing
since 1998 but does not aim at independence; it has also made
strides toward reconstructing a legitimate, representative
government but has suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its
border with Somaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool
and Sanaag. Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort
(primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions,
but when the UN withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant
casualties, order still had not been restored. In 2000, the Somalia
National Peace Conference (SNPC) held in Djibouti resulted in the
formation of an interim government, known as the Transitional
National Government (TNG). When the TNG failed to establish adequate
security or governing institutions, the Government of Kenya, under
the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development
(IGAD), led a subsequent peace process that concluded in October
2004 with the election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of a
second interim government, known as the Transitional Federal
Government (TFG) of the Somali Republic. The TFG included a
275-member parliamentary body, known as the Transitional Federal
Parliament (TFP). President YUSUF resigned late in 2008 while United
Nations-sponsored talks between the TFG and the opposition Alliance
for the Re-Liberation of Somalia (ARS) were underway in Djibouti. In
January 2009, following the creation of a TFG-ARS unity government,
Ethiopian military forces, which had entered Somalia in December
2006 to support the TFG in the face of advances by the opposition
Islamic Courts Union (ICU), withdrew from the country. The TFP was
increased to 550 seats with the addition of 200 ARS and 75 civil
society members of parliament. The expanded parliament elected
Sheikh SHARIF Sheikh Ahmed, the former CIC and ARS chairman as
president on 31 January 2009, in Djibouti. Subsequently, President
SHARIF appointed Omar Abdirashid ali SHARMARKE, son of a former
president of Somalia, as prime minister on 13 February 2009.
SHARMARKE resigned in September 2010 and was replaced by Mohamed
Abdullahi MOHAMED, aka Farmajo, a dual US-Somali citizen that lived
in the United Stated from 1985 until his return to Somalia in
October 2010. The creation of the TFG was based on the Transitional
Federal Charter (TFC), which outlines a five-year mandate leading to
the establishment of a new Somali constitution and a transition to a
representative government following national elections. However, in
January 2009 the TFP amended the TFC to extend TFG's mandate until
2011.