Macedonia gained its independence peacefully from
Yugoslavia in 1991. Greece's objection to the new state's use of
what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols delayed international
recognition, which occurred under the provisional designation of
"the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia." In 1995, Greece lifted
a 20-month trade embargo and the two countries agreed to normalize
relations. The United States began referring to Macedonia by its
constitutional name, Republic of Macedonia, in 2004 and negotiations
continue between Greece and Macedonia to resolve the name issue.
Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economic
inequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won the
support of the majority of Macedonia's Albanian population and led
to the internationally-brokered Ohrid Framework Agreement, which
ended the fighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing the
rights of minorities. Fully implementing the Framework Agreement and
stimulating economic growth and development continue to be
challenges for Macedonia, although progress has been made on both
fronts over the past several years.
Madagascar
Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a
French colony in 1896 but regained independence in 1960. During
1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were held
ending 17 years of single-party rule. In 1997, in the second
presidential race, Didier RATSIRAKA, the leader during the 1970s and
1980s, was returned to the presidency. The 2001 presidential
election was contested between the followers of Didier RATSIRAKA and
Marc RAVALOMANANA, nearly causing secession of half of the country.
In April 2002, the High Constitutional Court announced RAVALOMANANA
the winner. RAVALOMANANA achieved a second term following a
landslide victory in the generally free and fair presidential
elections of 2006. In early 2009, protests over increasing
restrictions on opposition press and activities resulted in
RAVALOMANANA stepping down and the presidency was conferred to the
mayor of Antananarivo, Andry RAJOELINA. Following negotiations in
July and August of 2009, a power-sharing agreement with a 15-month
transitional period was established, but has not yet been
implemented.
Malawi
Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland
became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades
of one-party rule under President Hastings Kamuzu BANDA the country
held multiparty elections in 1994, under a provisional constitution
that came into full effect the following year. Current President
Bingu wa MUTHARIKA, elected in May 2004 after a failed attempt by
the previous president to amend the constitution to permit another
term, struggled to assert his authority against his predecessor and
subsequently started his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party
(DPP) in 2005. As president, MUTHARIKA has overseen economic
improvement but because of political deadlock in the legislature,
his minority party has been unable to pass significant legislation,
and anti-corruption measures have stalled. Population growth,
increasing pressure on agricultural lands, corruption, and the
spread of HIV/AIDS pose major problems for Malawi. MUTHARIKA was
reelected to a second term in May 2009.
Malaysia
During the late 18th and 19th centuries, Great Britain
established colonies and protectorates in the area of current
Malaysia; these were occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. In 1948,
the British-ruled territories on the Malay Peninsula formed the
Federation of Malaya, which became independent in 1957. Malaysia was
formed in 1963 when the former British colonies of Singapore and the
East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak on the northern coast of
Borneo joined the Federation. The first several years of the
country's history were marred by a Communist insurgency, Indonesian
confrontation with Malaysia, Philippine claims to Sabah, and
Singapore's secession from the Federation in 1965. During the
22-year term of Prime Minister MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (1981-2003),
Malaysia was successful in diversifying its economy from dependence
on exports of raw materials to expansion in manufacturing, services,
and tourism.
Maldives
The Maldives was long a sultanate, first under Dutch and
then under British protection. It became a republic in 1968, three
years after independence. President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM dominated
the islands' political scene for 30 years, elected to six successive
terms by single-party referendums. Following riots in the capital
Male in August 2004, the president and his government pledged to
embark upon democratic reforms including a more representative
political system and expanded political freedoms. Progress was
sluggish, however, and many promised reforms were slow to be
realized. Nonetheless, political parties were legalized in 2005. In
June 2008, a constituent assembly - termed the "Special Majlis" -
finalized a new constitution, which was ratified by the president in
August. The first-ever presidential elections under a
multi-candidate, multi-party system were held in October 2008.
GAYOOM was defeated in a runoff poll by Mohamed NASHEED, a political
activist who had been jailed several years earlier by the former
regime. Challenges facing the new president include strengthening
democracy and combating poverty and drug abuse. Maldives officials
have been prominent participants in international climate change
talks due to the islands' low elevation and the threat from
sea-level rise.
Mali
The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France
in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a
few months, what formerly made up the Sudanese Republic was renamed
Mali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 by a
military coup - led by the current president Amadou TOURE - enabling
Mali's emergence as one of the strongest democracies on the
continent. President Alpha KONARE won Mali's first democratic
presidential election in 1992 and was reelected in 1997. In keeping
with Mali's two-term constitutional limit, KONARE stepped down in
2002 and was succeeded by Amadou TOURE, who was subsequently elected
to a second term in 2007. The elections were widely judged to be
free and fair.
Malta
Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814.
The island staunchly supported the UK through both world wars and
remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. A
decade later Malta became a republic. Since about the mid-1980s, the
island has transformed itself into a freight transshipment point, a
financial center, and a tourist destination. Malta became an EU
member in May 2004 and began using the euro as currency in 2008.
Marshall Islands
After almost four decades under US administration
as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a
Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a
result of US nuclear testing on some of the atolls between 1947 and
1962. The Marshall Islands hosts the US Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA)
Reagan Missile Test Site, a key installation in the US missile
defense network.
Mauritania
Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed the
southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in
1976 but relinquished it after three years of raids by the Polisario
guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory. Maaouya Ould
Sid Ahmed TAYA seized power in a coup in 1984 and ruled Mauritania
with a heavy hand for more than two decades. A series of
presidential elections that he held were widely seen as flawed. A
bloodless coup in August 2005 deposed President TAYA and ushered in
a military council that oversaw a transition to democratic rule.
Independent candidate Sidi Ould Cheikh ABDALLAHI was inaugurated in
April 2007 as Mauritania's first freely and fairly elected
president. His term ended prematurely in August 2008 when a military
junta led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel AZIZ deposed him and ushered
in a military council government. AZIZ was subsequently elected
president in July 2009. The country continues to experience ethnic
tensions among its black population (Afro-Mauritanians) and white
and black Moor (Arab-Berber) communities, and is having to confront
a growing terrorism threat by al-Qa'ida in the Islamic Maghreb
(AQIM).
Mauritius
Although known to Arab and Malay sailors as early as the
10th century, Mauritius was first explored by the Portuguese in the
16th century and subsequently settled by the Dutch - who named it in
honor of Prince Maurits van NASSAU - in the 17th century. The French
assumed control in 1715, developing the island into an important
naval base overseeing Indian Ocean trade, and establishing a
plantation economy of sugar cane. The British captured the island in
1810, during the Napoleonic Wars. Mauritius remained a strategically
important British naval base, and later an air station, playing an
important role during World War II for anti-submarine and convoy
operations, as well as the collection of signals intelligence.
Independence from the UK was attained in 1968. A stable democracy
with regular free elections and a positive human rights record, the
country has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned
one of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent poor weather,
declining sugar prices, and declining textile and apparel
production, have slowed economic growth, leading to some protests
over standards of living in the Creole community.
Mayotte
Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other islands of
the Comoros group in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelago
that voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and forego
independence. In March 2009, Mayotte voted overwhelmingly to become
France's 101st department - and fifth overseas department - a change
scheduled to become official in 2011.
Mexico
The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came
under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence
early in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994
threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession
in over half a century. The global financial crisis beginning in
late 2008 caused another massive economic downturn the following
year. As the economy recovers, ongoing economic and social concerns
include low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of the
population, inequitable income distribution, and few advancement
opportunities for the largely Amerindian population in the
impoverished southern states. The elections held in 2000 marked the
first time since the 1910 Mexican Revolution that an opposition
candidate - Vicente FOX of the National Action Party (PAN) -
defeated the party in government, the Institutional Revolutionary
Party (PRI). He was succeeded in 2006 by another PAN candidate
Felipe CALDERON. In January 2009, Mexico assumed a nonpermanent seat
on the UN Security Council for the 2009-10 term.
Micronesia, Federated States of
In 1979 the Federated States of
Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a
constitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of
Free Association with the US, which was amended and renewed in 2004.
Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and
overdependence on US aid.
Moldova
Part of Romania during the interwar period, Moldova was
incorporated into the Soviet Union at the close of World War II.
Although the country has been independent from the USSR since 1991,
Russian forces have remained on Moldovan territory east of the
Dniester River supporting the Slavic majority population, mostly
Ukrainians and Russians, who have proclaimed a "Transnistria"
republic. One of the poorest nations in Europe, Moldova became the
first former Soviet state to elect a Communist, Vladimir VORONIN, as
its president in 2001. VORONIN served as Moldova's president until
he resigned in September 2009, following the opposition's gain of a
narrow majority in July parliamentary elections and the Communist
Party's (PCRM) subsequent inability to attract the three-fifths of
parliamentary votes required to elect a president. Moldova's four
opposition parties formed a new coalition, the Alliance for European
Integration (AEI), which acted as Moldova's governing coalition
until parliamentary elections were held in November 2010 and a new
governing coalition could be formed. Moldova experienced significant
political uncertainty in 2009 and 2010, holding three general
elections (in April 2009, July 2009, and November 2010) and four
presidential ballots in parliament, all of which failed to secure a
president.
Monaco
The Genoese built a fortress on the site of present day
Monaco in 1215. The current ruling Grimaldi family first seized
temporary control in 1297, and again in 1331, but were not able to
permanently secure their holding until 1419. Economic development
was spurred in the late 19th century with a railroad linkup to
France and the opening of a casino. Since then, the principality's
mild climate, splendid scenery, and gambling facilities have made
Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreation center.
Mongolia
The Mongols gained fame in the 13th century when under
Chinggis KHAAN they established a huge Eurasian empire through
conquest. After his death the empire was divided into several
powerful Mongol states, but these broke apart in the 14th century.
The Mongols eventually retired to their original steppe homelands
and in the late 17th century came under Chinese rule. Mongolia won
its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing and a Communist regime
was installed in 1924. The modern country of Mongolia, however,
represents only part of the Mongols' historical homeland; more
ethnic Mongolians live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in
the People's Republic of China than in Mongolia. Following a
peaceful democratic revolution, the ex-Communist Mongolian People's
Revolutionary Party (MPRP) won elections in 1990 and 1992, but was
defeated by the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) in the 1996
parliamentary election. The MPRP won an overwhelming majority in the
2000 parliamentary election, but the party lost seats in the 2004
election and shared power with democratic coalition parties from
2004-08. The MPRP regained a solid majority in the 2008
parliamentary elections but nevertheless formed a coalition
government with the Democratic Party. In 2010 the MPRP voted to
retake the name of the Mongolian People's Party (MPP), a name it
used in the early 1920s. The prime minister and most cabinet members
are MPP members.
Montenegro
The use of the name Montenegro began in the 15th century
when the Crnojevic dynasty began to rule the Serbian principality of
Zeta; over subsequent centuries Montenegro was able to maintain its
independence from the Ottoman Empire. From the 16th to 19th
centuries, Montenegro became a theocracy ruled by a series of bishop
princes; in 1852, it was transformed into a secular principality.
After World War I, Montenegro was absorbed by the Kingdom of Serbs,
Croats, and Slovenes, which became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in
1929; at the conclusion of World War II, it became a constituent
republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. When the
latter dissolved in 1992, Montenegro federated with Serbia, first as
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and, after 2003, in a looser
union of Serbia and Montenegro. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its
right under the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro to
hold a referendum on independence from the state union. The vote for
severing ties with Serbia exceeded 55% - the threshold set by the EU
- allowing Montenegro to formally declare its independence on 3 June
2006.
Montserrat
English and Irish colonists from St. Kitts first settled
on Montserrat in 1632; the first African slaves arrived three
decades later. The British and French fought for possession of the
island for most of the 18th century, but it finally was confirmed as
a British possession in 1783. The island's sugar plantation economy
was converted to small farm landholdings in the mid 19th century.
Much of this island was devastated and two-thirds of the population
fled abroad because of the eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcano
that began on 18 July 1995. Montserrat has endured volcanic activity
since, with the last eruption occurring in July 2003.
Morocco
In 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of North
Africa, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. In
the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad
AL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a
golden age. The Alaouite dynasty, to which the current Moroccan
royal family belongs, established a sultanate in Morocco beginning
in the 17th century. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and
ushered in a half century of trade rivalry among European powers
that saw Morocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French
imposed a protectorate over the country. A protracted independence
struggle with France ended successfully in 1956. The
internationalized city of Tangier and most Spanish possessions were
turned over to the new country that same year. Sultan MOHAMMED V,
the current monarch's grandfather, organized the new state as a
constitutional monarchy and in 1957 assumed the title of King.
Morocco annexed Western Sahara during the late 1970s, but final
resolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved.
Gradual political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment
of a bicameral legislature, which first met in 1997. Under King
MOHAMMED VI - who in 1999 succeeded his father to the throne - human
rights have improved. Morocco enjoys a moderately free press, but
the government occasionally takes action against journalists who
report on three broad subjects considered to be taboo: the monarchy,
Islam, and the status of Western Sahara. Despite the continuing
reforms, ultimate authority remains in the hands of the monarch.
Mozambique
Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a
close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration, economic
dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a prolonged civil
war hindered the country's development until the mid 1990's. The
ruling Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) party
formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the
following year provided for multiparty elections and a free market
economy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement between FRELIMO and rebel
Mozambique National Resistance (RENAMO) forces ended the fighting in
1992. In December 2004, Mozambique underwent a delicate transition
as Joaquim CHISSANO stepped down after 18 years in office. His
elected successor, Armando Emilio GUEBUZA, promised to continue the
sound economic policies that have encouraged foreign investment.
Namibia
South Africa occupied the German colony of South-West Africa
during World War I and administered it as a mandate until after
World War II, when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the Marxist
South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group
launched a war of independence for the area that became Namibia, but
it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end its
administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire
region. Namibia has been governed by SWAPO since the country won
independence in 1990. Hifikepunye POHAMBA was elected president in
November 2004 in a landslide victory replacing Sam NUJOMA who led
the country during its first 14 years of self rule. POHAMBA was
reelected in November 2009.
Nauru
The exact origins of the Nauruans are unclear since their
language does not resemble any other in the Pacific. The island was
annexed by Germany in 1888. Its phosphate deposits began to be mined
early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium. Nauru was
occupied by Australian forces in World War I and subsequently became
a League of Nations mandate. After the Second World War - and a
brutal occupation by Japan - Nauru became a UN trust territory. It
achieved independence in 1968 and joined the UN in 1999 as the
world's smallest independent republic.
Navassa Island
This uninhabited island was claimed by the US in 1857
for its guano. Mining took place between 1865 and 1898. The
lighthouse, built in 1917, was shut down in 1996 and administration
of Navassa Island transferred from the Coast Guard to the Department
of the Interior. A 1998 scientific expedition to the island
described it as a unique preserve of Caribbean biodiversity; the
following year it became a National Wildlife Refuge and annual
scientific expeditions have continued.
Nepal
In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system of
rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of
government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy
within the framework of a constitutional monarchy. An insurgency led
by Maoist extremists broke out in 1996. The ensuing ten-year civil
war between insurgents and government forces witnessed the
dissolution of the cabinet and parliament and assumption of absolute
power by the king. Several weeks of mass protests in April 2006 were
followed by several months of peace negotiations between the Maoists
and government officials, and culminated in a November 2006 peace
accord and the promulgation of an interim constitution. Following a
nation-wide election in April 2008, the newly formed Constituent
Assembly declared Nepal a federal democratic republic and abolished
the monarchy at its first meeting the following month. The
Constituent Assembly elected the country's first president in July.
The Maoists, who received a plurality of votes in the Constituent
Assembly election, formed a coalition government in August 2008, but
resigned in May 2009 after the president overruled a decision to
fire the chief of the army staff. The Communist Party of
Nepal-United Marxist-Leninist and the Nepali Congress party then
formed a new coalition government with several smaller parties. In
June 2010, the prime minister resigned but, as of December 2010,
continued to lead a caretaker government while the parties debate
who should lead the next government. Disagreements among the
political parties over issues such as the future of former Maoist
combatants has hindered the drafting of a new constitution -- due in
May 2011 -- and the formal conclusion of the peace process.
Netherlands
The Dutch United Provinces declared their independence
from Spain in 1579; during the 17th century, they became a leading
seafaring and commercial power, with settlements and colonies around
the world. After a 20-year French occupation, a Kingdom of the
Netherlands was formed in 1815. In 1830 Belgium seceded and formed a
separate kingdom. The Netherlands remained neutral in World War I,
but suffered invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II. A
modern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a large
exporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding member
of NATO and the EEC (now the EU), and participated in the
introduction of the euro in 1999. In October 2010, the former
Netherlands Antilles was dissolved and the three smallest islands -
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba - became special municipalities in
the Netherlands administrative structure. The larger islands of Sint
Maarten and Curacao joined the Netherlands and Aruba as constituent
countries forming the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
New Caledonia
Settled by both Britain and France during the first
half of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in
1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864.
Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s ended in
the 1998 Noumea Accord, which over a period of 15 to 20 years will
transfer an increasing amount of governing responsibility from
France to New Caledonia. The agreement also commits France to
conduct a referendum between 2014 and 2019 to decide whether New
Caledonia should assume full sovereignty and independence.