In the present volume, a brief outline of events in Filipinas during
the period 1801-40 serves as a background and setting for the following
surveys of political, social, and economic conditions in the islands
during that period. Of these, one is made by an English naval officer
who had visited the islands, another by a Spanish official of long
experience, and a third (presented in synopsis) by a merchant familiar
with the commerce of the Orient and the Americas. These different
accounts (written at nearly the same time) furnish most valuable
knowledge of the Philippines and their people, and their needs and
possibilities; and at the same time they reflect the more enlightened
and liberal ideas of policy and administration which had gained a
foothold in Spain, and which the recent loss of her other colonies
had made her more willing to put in practice in Filipinas.
The leading events in Philippine history during the first four decades
of the nineteenth century are briefly epitomized from Montero y Vidal's
Historia de Filipinas. Governor Aguilar opposes the appointment of
native secular priests to the curacies, regarding them as unfit for
these posts. During his term, he introduces public street-lighting,
paved sidewalks, and vaccination in Manila, and various other
beneficial measures; he attempts, but with little success, to check
the piracies of the Moros, and is compelled to desist therefrom by
news of the war between England and Spain, and the consequent danger
to Manila. At his death (August 8, 1806) an officer named Folgueras
becomes governor ad interim; he strengthens the fortifications of
Manila, and quells a revolt in Ilocos. He is succeeded (March 4,
1810) by the new proprietary governor, González Aguilar, who promotes
cattle-raising in the provinces, quells another insurrection in Ilocos,
publishes the first newspaper in Filipinas, and proclaims the Spanish
constitution of 1812. In 1813 arrives his successor, José de Gardoqui,
whose rule is by no means easy; for he is opposed by corrupt royal
officials, and has to encounter revolts among the Indians caused by
the publication of the new Spanish constitution--disturbances which
are aggravated by the despotic acts of Fernando VII on regaining his
crown (1814). Gardoqui prohibits the introduction and use of opium
in the islands, strengthens the fortifications of Cavite, puts down
banditti and smugglers, and in many other ways benefits the colony;
he dies in December, 1816, and is succeeded by Folgueras. The latter
revives the Economic Society, and founds a nautical academy. In 1820
occurs the first epidemic of cholera morbus, which is unfortunately
accompanied by a massacre of the foreigners in Manila, executed by
the credulous Indians who have been persuaded by malicious persons
that the pest was caused by the foreigners having poisoned the
waters. Martínez, who becomes governor on October 30, 1822, brings
over a number of Spanish officers for the Filipinas regiments; this
creates jealousy among the officers who had come from America, which
results in a mutiny among them and part of the troops in Manila (June,
1823); this is put down, and the leaders are shot. An expedition is
sent against the Moros (1824), which lays waste their shores.
On October 14, 1825, Martínez is replaced by Mariano Ricafort as
governor; the latter is also made chief of the treasury. The parish
curacies are, by a royal decree in 1826, restored to the regular
orders. In 1827 the naval bureau is reëstablished at Manila, under
Pascual Enrile, who succeeds Ricafort as governor in 1830. (Both these
men were among the most illustrious rulers of Filipinas, on account of
their ability, uprightness, and zeal for the public welfare.) In 1828
the insurgent mountaineers of Bohol are finally subdued, and reduced
to villages. Various royal decrees are obtained for the promotion
of agriculture, manufactures, and other industries; and for obliging
the Chinese to live in villages, like the Indians. Several important
reforms in the administration and the social conditions of the colony
are instituted by these two governors, and Enrile is especially active
in building highways and providing other means of communication to
bring the inland and the maritime provinces into communication with
each other.
In 1836, Governor Salazar has to enforce the laws forbidding the
sale of firearms and powder to the enemies of Spain; he also makes
a treaty of commerce with the Joloans, which does not, however,
restrain them from piracy. In 1837, he urgently requests the
Spanish government to send more Spanish friars to the islands as
parish priests. The political disturbances in Spain at this time are
reflected in Filipinas, and a strong Carlist faction oppose Governor
Camba (who assumes that office in August, 1837), and finally procure
his recall to Spain, little more than a year afterward. Under his
successor, Lardizábal, the status of the Chinese in the islands is
determined, provision is made for the official censorship of books
brought to Filipinas, a school of commerce is established at Manila
and various important changes are made in financial and municipal
administration. In February, 1841, Lardizábal is succeeded by Marcelino
de Oráa.
In 1828 was published at Calcutta an interesting book entitled, Remarks
on the Phillippine Islands, 1819 to 1822, "by an Englishman"--as
he states therein, a naval officer; this is here presented, with
additional annotations from various sources. It throws much light
on conditions in Manila at that time, and is of especial value as
coming from an enlightened foreigner, rather than a Spaniard. He
praises the natural resources and advantages of the islands, and makes
various comments on their climate (which "is remarkably temperate and
salubrious"), diseases, and population; he then classifies this last,
describing in succession the various races, white, colored, and mixed,
who inhabit the islands. He defends the natives from accusations which
have been made against them, and considers their defects as the natural
result of the oppression and injustice which they have suffered,
and the general insecurity of property in the islands. Robbery and
piracy prevail there, outside of the new Spanish towns; and even in
Manila there are numerous acts of pillage committed by the lawless
soldiery. Justice is neglected or corrupted; and the Church exacts
so many holidays, pilgrimages, etc., that the natives are obliged
to neglect their fields, and tend to become idle and dissipated;
they also are burdened by many church taxes and impositions. Our
writer proceeds to describe the government of the islands, general,
municipal, and provincial, and the abuses prevalent in the last-named;
then the ecclesiastical administration, the character of the clergy,
and their influence over the natives. The sources of the colonial
revenue are enumerated, with the chief branches of expense, the
main part of this being for the military and naval forces, both of
which are mismanaged, ill-disciplined, poorly paid, and of course
very inefficient. Agriculture is "yet in its infancy," as a result
partly of the oppression of the natives, partly of the expulsion of
the Jesuits--who did more than any others to civilize the Indians--and
partly of the restrictions on commerce, which now are less oppressive;
yet the country is almost incredibly fertile. The implements used
in tillage are described, with the methods of cultivating the
chief products, and that of refining the sugar produced there;
and the reasons are given why Europeans have been unable to engage
in agriculture with success. The mineral products of the islands
are enumerated. Commerce is, like agriculture, still undeveloped;
our author attributes this to the Acapulco trade, to the prohibitory
system pursued by Spain and to the monopoly allowed to the Philippine
Company, and criticises Spain's policy toward her colonies. He then
describes the condition of Philippine commerce, with statistics of
1818; and the difficulties under which it labors--especially the
insecurity of property and contracts, the fraudulent dealings of the
Chinese merchants; and the neglect of government to prevent smuggling
or to make suitable provision for reëxportation of goods--which have
prevented Manila from being one of the great centers of Oriental trade.
The second part of these "Remarks" is devoted to Manila; a description
of the city, its fortifications (which our writer considers very
inefficient on the side next to Pasig River), streets, public
buildings, mode of constructing houses, and the public cemetery; and
social conditions there, which are unfavorable to morality and the
development of character. The author criticises the colonial policy
of Spain, and regards her tenure of rule over Filipinas as precarious,
especially as discontent and ideas of political freedom are spreading
among the Indians.
Of unusual interest and value is a memorial written (April 26, 1827) by
Manuel Bernaldez Pizarro, on the "causes which antagonize the security
and progress of the Filipinas Islands," and which bring about their
backward condition, with the measures which he judges desirable for
their correction. As a high official in Filipinas during seventeen
years, his opinions are of much importance, especially as he was
evidently a clear-sighted and upright statesman, a keen observer,
and a logical thinker--albeit he was, like the majority of government
officials, still much under the sway of autocratic and regalistic
notions--and was fertile in ideas and projects for improving the
condition of Filipinas. The memorial is methodically arranged in
sections relating to military affairs, Moro piracies, land-titles,
Spanish vs. native clerics, the residence of foreigners in the islands,
character of government officials, administration of justice, taxes
and revenue, commerce, agriculture, manufactures, etc.
On each of these subjects he presents a concise statement of present
conditions and tendencies, followed by his recommendations for change,
reform, or suppression. In the army, the principal difficulty lies in
the corps of officers, partly Peninsular and partly native or American,
with Indian subalterns; these classes have almost nothing in common,
and the latter are dangerously near to the Indians, or are spoiled by
the tendencies of the country. Provision should be made, therefore, for
sending officers from Spain to fill all posts of command. Instead of
enlarging the military force, a central location (afterward indicated
as Cavite) should be selected, and rendered impregnable to assault,
in which the government and the Spanish population of Manila might
be safe in any revolution or other dangerous emergency; Manila is
not sufficiently fortified for such a purpose. The piracies of the
Moros are ruining the islands; the only way to check them is to
conquer Joló and Mindanao with a powerful expedition, and colonize
them from the Visayas. The Indian villages are often much too large
to be properly directed in either spiritual or civil matters, and
should be made smaller, with stricter police patrol. Measures should
be taken to authenticate and confirm the titles to landed property,
which at present are confused and unreliable. Much harm is caused by
the ignorance, unfitness, and immorality of the Indian and mestizo
clerics; they not only neglect their priestly duties, but have
dangerous tendencies to revolution; as soon as this is practicable,
all such should be replaced by European friars. Bernaldez descants
upon their virtues and their ability to rule the Indians well, and
advises the government "to maintain as many religious as possible
in the islands, and give them as much political authority as is
consistent with their ministry." Foreigners are undesirable as
residents in Filipinas, especially exiles, idlers, and stowaways;
and even Spaniards from the Peninsula should be compelled to return
thither after a certain period. Strict residencias should be required
from the alcaldes-mayor, as many of them are unfit to hold that
office, and commit crimes which render them dangerous to the peace
of the provinces. Greater care should be exercised in the selection
of all government officials, in order to correct the laxity which
everywhere characterizes the administration of the islands. There
is pressing necessity for better means of communication with the
mother-country, which can best be promoted by encouraging her commerce
with Filipinas. The governors and intendants should be obliged to
furnish the reports and information about the country which the laws
require; and there should be more coöperation between the governor
and the Audiencia. Private persons of means should be encouraged and
aided to undertake the enterprises which the country needs. Various
specified abuses in the administration of justice should be corrected;
and the trading alcaldes-mayor should be replaced by corregidors, who
should be able and experienced lawyers. The tributes ought to be paid
in money, and not in kind; and this involves the need of a colonial
money for Filipinas. The revenue taxes, especially those on tobacco and
wine, should receive more attention, and these two should be extended
to all the provinces; and the manufacture and sale of brandy in the
islands should be restricted. The Chinese in the islands should be
carefully classified, more strictly supervised by the government,
and more heavily taxed. The rebate of duties granted on all foreign
imports at Manila is ruining the Filipinas manufacturers, whose
"infant industries" should be protected; and Bernaldez proposes a new
schedule, carefully classified. The inter-island trade is exclusively
in the hands of the alcaldes-mayor and the rich Chinese and mestizos,
who should therefore pay a moderate tax on that lucrative commerce. A
colonial currency is urgently needed. An account of the management
of the obras pías should be demanded by the government, and those
funds should be employed in promoting agriculture and industry in the
islands. The shipbuilding and mining carried on by the government ought
to be furnished by private persons under contract. Agriculture is the
most important industry of Filipinas, and a feeder to its commerce;
its backward condition should be remedied. He recommends direct
and unlimited commerce between Spain and the islands, government
encouragement to large agricultural enterprises, instruction of the
Indians in better methods of agriculture and the preparation of its
products, and rewards for industry and application on their part. The
production of opium for the Chinese market ought to be allowed in
Filipinas, and heavy duties collected on its exportation. Enormous sums
of money are yearly carried to India and China for fine cotton goods,
which could as well be manufactured by the Filipinos if they knew how
to dye these properly and had machinery for spinning the cotton thread;
the government should take active and prompt measures to secure this
desirable end. Closer relations should be established with Spain,
whose government and merchants are urged to work together in behalf
of this. Bernaldez concludes by showing "the necessity of forming a
special code of laws for Filipinas," and of "a periodical visitation
of that colony by officials from the Peninsula." As appendix to
his memorial, we present a summary of a similar document, written
at nearly the same time by a merchant of long and varied commercial
experience in the Orient and the Americas. Less official and formal,
but more shrewd, alert, and liberal, this writer presents his views,
with much clearness and force, on the decadence of the islands and
the means of making them more prosperous and wealthy; and a comparison
of these with the opinions of Bernaldez might well be helpful to the
present administration of Filipinas.
In an appendix to this volume we present a brief account of the
three Spanish Cortes in which the Philippines had representation; all
these sessions occurred in the early part of the nineteenth century,
one of the most disturbed and critical periods of Spain's national
existence. The most important measures of these Cortes concerning the
Philippines were, the suppression of the Acapulco-Manila galleon and
the abolition of the privileges formerly granted to the Compañia de
Filipinas. In each of these assemblies efficient representation of the
islands was barred by their distance from Spain and the difficulty
of communication with that country, while, in general, political
development was very backward. The final ruling, in the Constitution
of 1837, by which special laws were devised for the government of
Ultramar, appears to have been the only possible solution of the
difficulty (at least for the Philippines). Finally, we furnish a list
of the archbishops of Manila during the Spanish régime.
The Editors.
May, 1907.