HIGH LICENCE.
High licence in its present form is comparatively a new development of
American drink legislation. During the early part of the latter half of
this century reformers would hear of nothing but the most uncompromising
prohibition. Then came a reaction, and even the stoutest opponents of the
liquor traffic were forced to admit that in towns of any size prohibition
has never yet been a success. As a leading reformer put it: "Prohibition
has not yet touched the question where it presents the gravest
difficulties, except to fail. After an existence of more than fifty years
it has yet to grapple with this problem in any great centre of population.
A law unenforced in its essential particulars debauches the public
conscience." The question at last had to be faced--how, as men will have
drink, the traffic in it can be conducted so as to do the least harm to
the community. This led to high licence, a policy which includes the
limiting the number of saloons, placing them under strict regulations, and
fixing the licence fee at such a high rate as will keep all but
responsible men out of the business. This plan would, it was hoped, meet
the legitimate demand for drink, exterminate low saloons, and at the same
time bring in a very considerable revenue, thus applying Emerson's maxim,
and "making the backs of our vices bear the burden of our taxes".
As a general rule the high licence movement has been supported by the
Church and the Roman Catholic temperance societies, but has received
bitter opposition from more extreme abstainers. "High licence is a fraud
and a failure," said Neal Dow not long since; "and the greatest hindrance
to the temperance movement in America is the Church Temperance Society,
which supports it." Liquor-sellers look on it with mingled feelings. Where
there is a likelihood of prohibition becoming law they openly support high
licence. Thus the Maine Hotel Keepers' Association recently passed a
resolution that "local option and high licence is the best means of
dealing with the liquor question". But, where temperance sentiment is
weak, the saloon-keepers not unnaturally do their best to maintain the old
lax low-licence regulations.
The new method first came to the front at Nebraska in 1881, by the passing
there of the "Slocumb law," which fixed the State licensing fees at 500
dollars for saloons in small towns, and double that amount where the
population exceeded 10,000. From Nebraska the idea spread rapidly, and was
soon adopted by many other States. The most conspicuous instance of its
working is to be found in Pennsylvania, where the Brooks Licensing Act
passed through the Legislature in 1887, and came into force on 1st June,
1888. The leading provisions of the Brooks Act are, that the granting of
licences shall be left in the hands of the Courts of Quarter Sessions,
which shall issue whatever number they deem necessary, with full power to
revoke any or all at the end of each twelve months; that each licensee
shall pay a fee of from 1000 dollars downwards, according to the size of
the town or city in which he carries on his trade; and, furthermore,
besides his giving a personal bond for 2000 dollars, two owners of real
estate living in the immediate neighbourhood shall also become bondsmen to
the same amount each, as sureties for his strictly keeping the law. To
these clauses are added the prohibitions, usual in most of the States,
against selling on Sundays or election days, or to minors or intoxicated
persons. As an immediate result of the passing of the Act, the number of
licensed houses in Philadelphia was reduced from 6000 to about 1300, and
in other parts of the State even greater reductions were made. The judges
used their discretionary powers to a considerable extent, and for every
successful applicant for a licence there were two others willing to find
sureties and to pay the fees, but whose applications were refused. Yet,
notwithstanding the reduced number of saloons, the revenue showed a most
decided increase. Before the passing of the Act the licensing fees in
Philadelphia came to 300,000 dollars; now, with less than a quarter of the
former number of houses, they amounted to 680,000 dollars, and the whole
State derived an annual drink revenue of close on 2,000,000 dollars. It is
worth noting in this connection that the total amount of criminal and
charitable expenses in Philadelphia alone caused through excessive
drinking comes to over 2,000,000 dollars annually.
The law had an immediate and most remarkable effect on crime. The number
of committals to Philadelphia county prison for the twelve months before
the passing of the Act was 27,867; for the twelve months afterwards it was
only 18,218. The number of Sunday arrests and committals for intoxication
during the same two periods was--before, 1263; after, 381; showing a
reduction of about 70 per cent. The number of women arrested sank to less
than one-third, from 138 to 41.
These good results cannot, however, be solely attributed to the fact that
the licence fees are heavy. "The real virtue of an Act such as we have in
this State," said a local journal in 1890, "lies not in the high fee, but
in the restrictions put upon the issuance of licences.... The fee is the
least important feature of the Brooks Act." In Philadelphia there is a
strong public opinion to back up the Act; and the police are, on the
whole, active in searching for evasions. The great obstacles in the way of
the total suppression of unlicensed houses lie in the two facts that
juries are not always willing to convict, and that the courts have a way
of letting the cases run on for an unconscionable time, until it is almost
impossible to bring witnesses to secure proof of the offences. For
instance, it was reported by the Police Department in November, 1891, that
since June in that year there had been 325 arrests for unlawful sale,
etc.; 242 of these were returned to court; in 204 cases were true bills
found, only 99 cases had been fully tried (out of which 76 convictions
were secured), and there were no less than 103 cases awaiting trial, and
28 more awaiting the action of the grand jury.
Since the first year, the licensing judges in Philadelphia have gone in
for increasing the number of saloons, and proportionately with the
increase of liquor shops the total of arrests for intoxication has risen.
There were 32,974 persons taken up by the police for intoxication and
disorderly conduct the year before the passing of the Act, while for the
year afterwards there were only 19,887. For the twelve months from June 1,
1890, the number of saloons was increased to about 2000, and the
committals at once rose to over 25,000.
In the next licensing year the number of houses was again reduced, and
once more the number of arrests showed a reduction, though not
proportionately large. Last year the judges decided to increase the
number; and it is to be feared that if they do not stop this course the
amount of drunkenness will soon be as great as it was before the passing
of the Act. Thoughtful citizens are widely awake to the evils of this
course, and great pressure has been brought to bear on the judges to
abandon their present policy. In September, 1893, the local Law and Order
League sent a letter round to many of the leading inhabitants on this
matter; and through the courtesy of its secretary I am able to reproduce
parts of it here. "Persistent efforts have been and are still being
made," the Committee stated, "to induce the court to increase the number
of liquor licences.... We have reason to believe that a large number of
applications have been and will be made in the interests of a few
individuals who manage to evade the law, which does not allow an applicant
to be interested in more than one licensed place--thus you will see that
the greatest vigilance has to be exercised in dealing with this subject.
"There were 224 more licences granted from 1st June, 1893, than for the
previous year; and the number of arrests for intoxication in the last
three months, ending 1st September, as compared with the same period of
time in the previous year, shows the following result:--
Year. No. of licences. No. of arrests.
1892 June to September 1928 7056
1893 " " 2181 7375
--an increase of 319 over the previous year."
In some cities, the Brooks law has, for a time at least, apparently led to
an increase of the very evils it was framed to check. Thus, in Pittsburg
the number of saloons was cut down from 1500 to 244, and finally to less
than 100, yet the arrests for intoxication went up by 10 per cent.
But further investigation shows that this result has been brought about by
the open, unchecked setting the Act at defiance. "Speak-easies" (that is,
unlicensed saloons) have been allowed to spring up in such numbers that
five years ago there were probably seven to each licensed house. These
places were permitted to exist because of the political power of their
owners, and the police did not dare proceed against them. The agent of the
local Law and Order League opened prosecutions against about 150 such
houses in a couple of years; but in nearly every instance the juries
refused to convict. It has been openly stated time after time that both
the police and juries are under the control of the liquor ring, though
just now there is admittedly a great improvement in this respect. At
ordinary times the "speak-easies" are conducted with at least a show of
secrecy, getting their liquor in at night, and thinly disguising
themselves as cigar shops, drug stores, or eating houses; but during
elections they sometimes throw off even the appearance of concealment,
knowing that no one will venture to attack them. At the election of
January, 1890, the local _Commercial Gazette_ reported: "On Sunday not a
few of the select seven hundred were running wide open. They were not
'speak-easies,' but 'yell-louds,' as they disturbed their neighbourhoods
with their hideous conduct. What inducements have regularly-licensed
saloons to observe the law and renew their licences in the spring if
saloons that pay no licence are permitted to sell not only throughout the
week but on Sundays, when of all days they should be kept shut? The
'speak-easies' have, or imagine they have, a 'pull' on the political
parties, that they thus dare to impudently disregard the law." A partial
failure of the Act has been caused in other places besides Pittsburg by
the presence of such houses; and even where the police do their utmost it
is no easy matter to exterminate them. The Chief of Police in Lancaster
county reported in 1889 that there was a considerable amount of
drunkenness among women and young people; and that the drink was obtained,
not in licensed houses, "but in hell-holes known as beer-clubs, or in
houses where beer is delivered in quantities". From other parts come
similar reports.
Unquestionably, high licence, when properly enforced, is a check to
intemperance; with an unbiassed executive, an uncorrupted police and a
law-abiding community, it does much to rob the liquor traffic of many of
its evils. But, unfortunately, these conditions are not to be found in
many American cities. All who have studied the working of the law admit
that the mere fact that a licence fee is high is not enough in itself;
this must go along, as it does in most places, with a large measure of
local control and with wise restrictive legislation. The great fault of
the high-licence plan is that it leaves the saloon almost as great a power
in politics as ever. But how this is to be prevented, short of sweeping
the drink-sellers away altogether, does not appear.
PART II.
GREATER BRITAIN.
CHAPTER I.
PROHIBITION AND LOCAL OPTION IN CANADA.
While Great Britain has been content, for many years, to do little more
than talk about proposed temperance legislation, Greater Britain has been
active in framing laws, testing them by actual practice, and revising,
strengthening or abandoning them as the results have shown to be
advisable. Our colonial cousins, free from the prejudices and cast-iron
traditions of English political life, have displayed far more willingness
to adopt strong remedies for a grave disease than have we ourselves at
home. In Canada the drink question has been, for over a quarter of a
century, one of the most pressing problems in Dominion politics; and the
results of efforts made to solve it there should prove of real value to
law-makers on both sides of the Atlantic. Compared with England, Canada is
decidedly a sober country. In some parts total abstinence is the rule
rather than the exception; the average consumption of liquor is
comparatively small; and the liquor traffic has been for years under
strict regulation. Though the licensing laws differ in the various
provinces, they are everywhere much in advance of our own. Sunday closing
is universal, no drink can be sold on election days, and in most districts
the taverns have to be shut up on Saturdays at six or seven in the
evening. High licence prevails in many of the cities, the penalties for
serving minors or drunken persons are very heavy, and a limited form of
local option gives communities power to sweep away almost all of the drink
shops in their borders. The result of these measures may be seen in the
fact that while in England the annual consumption of drink is thirty-four
gallons per head, in Canada it is only four.
Early in the seventies, the temperance party started an agitation to
obtain out-and-out prohibition. Petitions poured in on Parliament, and
such pressure was brought to bear on individual members that the Dominion
Government finally decided to introduce an Act which would give the people
in every city and county the right to interdict the traffic there. The
framing of the measure was left in the hands of the Hon. Robert Scott, a
well-known lawyer and a member of the Government, and he drew up a Bill
which seemed at the time as stringent and as workable as possible. The
"Scott Act," as it was at once universally called, provided that on
one-quarter of the electors of any city or town petitioning the
Governor-General, he should cause a direct vote to be taken as to whether
the place was to come under the Act or not. A bare majority would decide
either way; and once the election was held, the question could not be
re-opened for three years. At the end of three years, the defeated party
might demand another poll. If the people decided to come under the Act,
all licences in their district would lapse at the end of the year, without
any compensation being paid to the licence holders, and then the ordinary
manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage would be
absolutely prohibited. The penalties provided for attempting to evade the
law were--50 dollars for the first offence, 100 dollars for the second,
and not more than two months' imprisonment for each subsequent conviction.
Everything was done to make the recovery of the penalties as simple as
possible; there was no power of appeal, and, while it was the special duty
of the collectors of Inland Revenue to see that the law was enforced, any
private individual had the power to institute a prosecution.
The Scott Act was received with almost universal approbation; Macdonald
and Mackenzie, the two leading Canadian statesmen, supported it; and in
May, 1878, it was read for a second time in the Dominion House of Commons
without a division. It received the Royal Assent the same month, and
became law. Within the next seven years it was submitted to seventy-seven
electoral districts, and was accepted by sixty-one. The majorities for it
were usually overwhelmingly large. In York, 1215 electors voted for the
Act, and only 69 against; in Prince the figures stood, 2062 for, 271
against; and in many other places the proportion was about the same. But
the hot enthusiasm for prohibition did not last very long. Communities
that had voted to go under the Act became first lukewarm and then hostile;
and soon a repeal movement set in, almost as strong as the demand for
prohibition that had preceded it. The revenue returns showed, it is true,
a most decided diminution in the consumption of liquor. Comparing the
statistics for the ten years ending 1888 with those for the ten ending in
1878, the _per capita_ reduction was 39 per cent. in spirits, 8 per cent.
in beer, and 49 per cent. in wine. But this apparent reduction was almost
altogether neutralised by the great increase in smuggling. The coast line
of the seaboard provinces is so extensive that even the utmost vigilance
of the revenue authorities cannot altogether put this down. The extent to
which it prevailed may be shown by the estimate of Lieutenant-Colonel
Forsythe, chief of the police at Quebec, that in a single year 5000
barrels of liquor were landed by smugglers at one place, St. Pierre
Miquelon.[5]
What was the cause of this change of sentiment? Perhaps the principal
reason was an unfortunate dispute which arose between the Dominion and the
provincial authorities as to whether the right to pass laws dealing with
the drink traffic lay with the former or the latter. The provincial
authorities declared that the Central Parliament was exceeding its powers
in passing such a measure, and the point was fought out before the courts.
After various decisions by the lower courts, the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council declared, in June, 1882, that the Scott Act was
constitutional. Then the provincial and local authorities practically
refused to take steps to ensure the active enforcement of the Act. They
said that as it was a Dominion, and not a provincial measure, the Dominion
Parliament must see to it. Political issues became mixed up with the
question of enforcement, and in many parts law-breakers well understood
that the local authorities would take no active steps to bring them to
justice, if they could avoid doing so.
Senator Scott, the framer of the law, himself admits that this is the true
explanation. In a recent interview he said: "The provisions for enforcing
the law were full and complete. But there is no Act in the statute books
that was more bitterly opposed; some of the judges in the maritime
provinces even refused to give effect to it. The law was fought out in
every court in the land; and until the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council sustained it, the attempt at enforcement was hopeless. Neither
Governments nor courts regarded it with favour. The onus of enforcing the
law was cast upon the Federal Government, yet that Government could not be
charged with showing any disposition to enforce the law.... The
temperance element in very many localities either condemned the omission
of the executive to put the law into operation, or became indifferent on
the subject. Wherever there was a strong temperance sentiment, as in many
counties in the maritime provinces, the law was enforced by the people,
and it has borne good fruit."[6]
The case of Ontario, which has excited special interest in England, may be
taken as in many respects a typical one. The temperance party is very
strong here, and the Act was adopted in 1884 and 1885 by about two-thirds
of the province. A vigorous attempt was made to enforce it, and at first
with some show of success. The consumption of liquor was for a time
diminished, the saloons put up their shutters or sold only temperance
drinks, and illegal traders were quickly brought to book. Mr. W. J.
Thomas, a Toronto brewer, has given the following as the experience of his
firm with the Scott Act: "I found my output to decrease during the Scott
Act years, and to change in character. It was sneaked into Scott Act towns
by night, and in all sorts of boxes, barrels, and other packages. There
was also a large increase in the bottle trade, as well as more bought for
private families."
But soon trouble came. Legal authorities raised difficulties in the way of
maintaining the law, and convictions were often quashed on appeal on the
slightest grounds. The pro-liquor party showed fight, and persons who
attempted to give evidence against drink-sellers would have their windows
broken, would suffer personal violence, and would be publicly denounced as
"sneaks" and "spies". A system of intimidation was organised, magistrates
who convicted were openly insulted and threatened, notable temperance
workers had their houses blown up or their ricks fired, and informers went
in danger of their lives. After a time, moreover, the commitments for
drunkenness showed a considerable increase; in 1876, they were 3868: in
1887, when the Act was in force, they had mounted to 4130; and in 1892,
after the repeal of the Act, they were only 2736. This increase of
drunkenness under prohibition was probably due to the fact that people
became addicted to whisky, owing to its being portable, rather than beer,
which they could not so easily smuggle or hide.
The story of a publican, given before the Royal Commission, is of
interest, as showing how drink-sellers evaded the law. "I had two years'
experience of the Scott Act at Port Huron, a town of 2000 inhabitants,"
said Mr. J. C. Miller. "I complied with the Scott Act at my hotel there
for three months, but the receipts would not justify perpetuity. On the
12th July I made a drink called 'conundrum drink,' composed of water,
lemons and whisky. This was supplemented by lager, called for the day
'blue ribbon beer'. The temperance men sent up two detectives from
Kincardine, who were low characters, and would swear to anything. When
they came to give evidence, I gave them forty dollars to clear me, and
they did so.
"Dr. McLeod (a Commissioner).--You paid them the money to perjure
themselves?
"Mr. Miller.--Well, I gave them forty dollars, and do not know whether
they got liquor in my place or not. They were prepared to swear that they
did, and they swore that they didn't. I then tried the experiment of
keeping the liquor to give away, and it was entirely successful. Then I
sold cider, and gave the liquor away. That was also successful; and after
the temperance men sought several times to secure a conviction without
success, they let me alone, and I sold freely until the Act was repealed."
It must not be supposed that the temperance people were passive spectators
of these attempts to defy the law. On the contrary, they were active in
prosecuting. The number of prosecutions for breaches of the law in the six
months ending in July, 1886, was 1005; for the six months ending in
October, 1887, the number of prosecutions was 2845. The number of
convictions in the first period was 541, and in the second period 1771.
The electors of Ontario had enough of the law, and at the earliest
possible opportunity the Act was repealed in every county in the province.
Mr. F. S. Spence, the secretary of the Dominion Alliance, gave the
following as the reasons why (in the opinion of prohibitionists) the law
was repealed:--
"(1) Because the people were disappointed in finding that it did not give
them a fuller measure of prohibition.
"(2) Because of the hard feeling engendered among neighbours by the
forcing of evidence.
"(3) Because of the annoyance caused by the hotel-keepers closing their
houses, and of the terrorism practised.
"(4) Because of the inefficiency of the machinery for the enforcing of the
Act.
"(5) Because the vote for repeal was often brought on prematurely during a
time of local irritation over the effects of the Act.
"(6) Because of antagonistic personal influence."
The temperance party did not take its defeat quietly. It maintained that
the failure was due, not to any mistake in the principle of prohibition,
but to erroneous legislation and weakness of administration; and a fresh
agitation was soon started for a more perfect measure. But for some time
action was delayed. The great stumbling-block in the way of the
authorities doing anything is the doubt whether the right to legislate
lies with the federal or the provincial authorities. The decision of the
Privy Council in 1882, while settling the legality of the Scott Act, by no
means made clear the exact line of demarcation between the powers of the
greater and lesser Legislatures on this matter. In order to settle this,
the Ontario Government has submitted to the Supreme Court a constitutional
case which will clear up the matter. As soon as this is decided there, it
will be taken on to the Privy Council, and it is expected that by early
next year the matter may be finally settled.
This doubt has given Dominion politicians a very good excuse for doing
nothing. "When we get a prohibition law in Ontario," said Sir Oliver
Mowatt, the Ontario Premier, in answer to a deputation (20th April, 1893),
"we will want one that is enforced. There is no use in a nominal
prohibition, no use in putting a prohibition law on the statute book,
unless we can, and do, enforce it. You all know that a prohibition law is
difficult of enforcement, as there are too many people interested in its
not being enforced. If a law is not enforced to any extent, it is a
thousand times worse than if there was no such law on the statute book.
Any prohibition law under the present condition of public sentiment is
difficult of enforcement; and if there were any reasonable doubt as to
whether that law is valid or not, it would be hopeless to attempt to
enforce it. We may be sorry for that, and unwilling to believe it; but if
we endeavour to enforce in this country a prohibition law, when there is
not a reasonable certainty of its being valid, it will be a hopeless
task."
Year by year, since their defeats in 1887 and 1888, the prohibitionists
have been gaining greater political power, and they now command so many
votes that neither party can afford to ignore them. In order to make a
show of satisfying their demand, and at the same time, perhaps, to shelve
the question for a year or two, the Dominion Government appointed, in
1892, a Royal Commission to inquire into the whole subject. Since then
the Commissioners have been moving from place to place, collecting a
considerable amount of useful, and a still larger quantity of irrelevant
and next to valueless information. The Commission has given a great many
no doubt worthy persons the opportunity of airing in public their
individual opinions on the folly or wisdom of total abstinence, on the
exact number of ounces of alcohol it is wise to consume in a day, and on
other equally absorbing themes. But if the Commissioners print _verbatim_
all the evidence that has been tendered before them, their report will
almost rival in bulk the holy books of the Buddhists, or the report of the
Sweating Commission.
In 1893 and 1894, in order to accurately ascertain the real opinion of the
people on the liquor question, the greater number of the Provincial
Governments took plebiscites on prohibition. The plan was adopted from the
well-known Swiss referendum; but with the great difference that, whereas
in Switzerland a sufficient majority obtained by the direct vote alters
the law, the plebiscites in Canada have no legislative effect whatever,
but are purely expressions of opinion, taken as test of the popular will.
At first the extreme left wing of the temperance party looked with some
disfavour on them, and declared that they were nothing but pretexts to
delay legislation.
A plebiscite was first taken in Manitoba, on the same day as the general
election, at the end of 1892. Two-thirds of this province are said to be
already under prohibition, by means of local option laws, and out of the
forty members of the Legislature twenty-two are reputed total abstainers.
The vote was taken on the single question: "Do you think the prohibition
of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquor desirable? Yes or No."
The number of votes recorded was fairly large, being only a little over
five per cent, less than that cast for the candidates for the Legislature.
The result was a complete victory for the prohibitionists. Even Winnipeg,
the largest city, which was reckoned a very doubtful place, gave a
majority of 1300 for prohibition. The result in the whole province was:--
Total votes for candidates, 28,204
Total votes on prohibition, 26,752
For prohibition, 19,637
Against prohibition, 7,115
Majority for prohibition, 12,522
The Provincial Assembly has since requested the Dominion Parliament to
give effect to the popular vote by legislative enactment.
In Prince Edward Island a plebiscite has shown a majority of 7000 in
favour of prohibition; and in Nova Scotia, where a poll has just been
taken, the result has been a majority of 31,701 for prohibition. But the
most surprising result of all has come from Ontario. It was generally
anticipated by those not on the spot that this province, with its former
unfortunate experience, would hardly again support a proposal for the
suppression of the drink traffic. A vote was taken on New Year's Day,
1894; and all persons having votes at municipal elections, and all
unmarried women and widows who exercise the franchise, were allowed to
take part. No elector had more than one vote. The question submitted was:
"Are you in favour of the immediate prohibition by law of the importation,
manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage?"
The temperance party made great preparations for the election. Innumerable
meetings were held, committees of ladies canvassed the voters, ministers
urged on their congregations the duty of rightly using their electoral
powers, and all that was possible to ensure success was done. The
teetotalers in Ontario undoubtedly anticipated a victory, but even the
most sanguine among them had hardly dared to anticipate such a majority
as was obtained. 192,487 voted for prohibition, 110,757 against, leaving a
majority in favour of 81,730 votes.
The most discouraging thing about the plebiscite is the fact that only
about 58 per cent. of the electors in the province took the trouble to
record their votes. The women constituted 35 per cent. of the total
electors, and while the ballot forms for the men were printed on yellow
paper, those for women were on blue, in order that it might be ascertained
how they voted. It was found that the women were six to one for
prohibition. So if the votes of the women had been taken away, the
majority in favour would have been reduced to a few thousands.
But after allowing for these things, the victory was unquestionably a
notable one. The chief strength of the liquor party lay, as usual, among
the foreign portion of the community, and those towns in which the Germans
predominated declared by large majorities against prohibition. In Toronto
the prohibitionists obtained a majority, but so many electors abstained
from voting as to make this apparent victory little better than a defeat.
But many places that had been confidently expected to declare for licence
decided the other way. Even several districts that a few years ago almost
unanimously repealed the Scott Act, had come round again in favour of
prohibition.
The temperance party in Ontario is now somewhat divided. There is a noisy,
if not very influential section, that is in favour of the Provincial
Legislature at once passing a provincial prohibitory law, taking for
granted that the Privy Council will decide in favour of the State right to
do so. Happily, this section is in a minority, for no course could be more
harmful to the temperance cause. If a provincial prohibitory law were
passed now, magistrates would fear to enforce it fully until they knew
whether it was really legal or not; cases of conviction would be the
subject of unceasing appeals from court to court; and every cause that
made the Scott Act a failure would, in an accentuated degree, prevent the
efficient carrying out of the new law.
Many members of the temperance party recognise this, and have determined
to work for prohibition under the local option laws, and for the creation
of a still stronger public sentiment against drinking, until the decision
of the courts is known. Then, if it is found that the province has the
right to prohibit, a Prohibition Bill will be introduced.
The Government has adopted this latter plan, and the Premier, Sir Oliver
Mowatt, has given the following pledge for himself and his colleagues: "If
the decision of the Privy Council should be that the province has the
jurisdiction to pass a prohibitory liquor law as to sale, I will introduce
such a Bill in the following Session, if I am then at the head of the
Government. If the decision of the Privy Council is that the province has
jurisdiction only to pass a partial prohibitory liquor law, I will
introduce such a prohibitory Bill as the decision will warrant, unless the
partial prohibitory power is so limited as to be ineffective from a
temperance standpoint."
Prohibitionists in Ontario will only do themselves harm if they imagine
that the battle for the suppression of the liquor traffic there is already
won, or will be won on the passing of a suitable Act. On the contrary, it
is certain that any prohibitory Bill, when passed, will meet with the
greatest opposition from a considerable portion of the community.
Innumerable efforts will be put forth to make it a dead letter, or to
break it down in any way whatever. There is a large and controlling
section of electors on whom the continuance of the law depends. It is now
willing to give prohibition a trial, and if it is anything like a success
it will maintain it. But, if it should prove unworkable or unsuccessful,
then the great body of the people will soon send it on the same road as
the Scott Act.
So far as plebiscites have been taken throughout the Dominion, they have
been in every province in favour of prohibition. There are three provinces
in which there has been no voting,--New Brunswick, British Columbia, and
Quebec. The last named is admitted to be, on account of the large
proportion of settlers of French descent in its borders, the province
least friendly to the suppression of the traffic; but the other two are
generally regarded as strongholds of temperance. The opinion of New
Brunswick may be seen by the following resolution passed by its
Legislative Assembly on the 7th April, 1893: "Whereas, in the opinion of
this Legislative Assembly, the enactment of a prohibitory liquor law would
conduce to the general benefit of the people of the province, and meet
with the approval of a majority of the electorate; and whereas legislative
power in respect of the enactment of such law rests in the Parliament of
Canada; therefore, resolved that this Assembly hereby expresses its desire
that the Parliament of Canada shall, with all convenient speed, enact a
law prohibiting the importation, manufacture, and sale of intoxicating
liquors as a beverage, into or from the Dominion of Canada."
Many demands have been made that the Dominion Parliament, under the powers
it was declared to possess by the Privy Council decision of 1882, shall
immediately enact a Dominion prohibitory law. This, however, it refuses
to do; and Sir John Thompson, the Dominion Premier, recently stated he can
do nothing this Session, owing to the tariff reductions; and he does not
think it would be a proper course to announce a policy until after the
report of the Royal Commission on the question has been presented.
CHAPTER II.
LOCAL CONTROL IN NEW ZEALAND.
In no British colony is the temperance sentiment stronger, or is there
more likelihood of the agitation for prohibition being brought to a
successful issue, than in New Zealand. Its statesmen have shown during the
last few years great political venturesomeness; the parliamentary suffrage
has been given to women; social, it may be said socialistic, legislation
of a most pronounced character has been encouraged, and the dreams of
English Radicals have turned to blossom and fruit under the Southern
Cross. The danger at present seems to be, not that the changes will be too
slow, but that politicians, eager to anticipate the public wishes, may
adopt and carry advanced legislation for which the colony is not prepared.
This danger has been greatly increased since the passing of female
suffrage. Whatever merits women may have as politicians, moderation is not
one of them; and in the last election they plainly showed that they intend
to select for power the men of most outspoken views and extreme policy.
New Zealand is a country of to-day, and knows but little of the social
difficulties that are taxing all the energies of politicians in lands with
a longer history. The rougher and poorer emigrants have mostly chosen the
other Australian colonies in preference to it, and it is peopled to-day by
a picked body of prosperous Englishmen and Scotchmen. As regards the
consumption of liquor, it takes almost the lowest place among those lands
that fly the Union Jack. The average expenditure per head comes to only a
little over three pounds a year, and the amount of proof spirits consumed
per head in the same time is a little over two gallons, or only about half
of the quantity drunk in England. The prohibitionist party is very strong
in the colony, and is led by Sir Robert Stout, the Liberal ex-Premier. The
prohibitionists do not attempt just now to secure a measure forbidding the
sale of liquor throughout the colony, for they regard that as at present
impracticable. Their demands for the time are local option of prohibition
by a simple majority, and no compensation. This latter point they have
secured; and the question of pecuniary compensation to dispossessed
publicans is no longer within the range of practical politics in New
Zealand. In 1892 a Licensed Victuallers' Compensation Bill was brought
before the House of Representatives; but it aroused such general
opposition that its proposers did not venture to ask for a division on it.
The tendency of legislation has been for some years steadily in the
direction of giving increased direct power of control to the people. For
some time the supervision of the drink trade was left in the hands of the
various Provincial Councils, but in 1873 Sir William Fox, then Premier,
carried a measure through Parliament which granted to two-thirds of the
adult residents in any neighbourhood the right of preventing the issue of
new licences there, on notifying their desire in that respect by signing a
petition. Eight years later, a new Act repealed this veto law, and
provided a more complicated machinery for dealing with the question.
According to this, a Licensing Board was chosen annually by the electors
in each district, and once in every three years the ratepayers voted on
the question whether any licences should be issued in their neighbourhood.
If they decided in the negative, the Board had to abide by their decision;
but should they wish for an increase, the matter was then brought before
the Board, though this body was by no means obliged to grant new licences,
even when the popular vote had given it power to do so.
In many ways this Act proved a practicable, workable measure. The Inland
Revenue returns showed each year, from the passing of the Act up to 1889,
a steady diminution in the consumption of drink, amounting altogether in
the seven years to twenty-five per cent.; and though this reduction has
not been quite maintained during subsequent years, the trade is still
considerably less than it formerly was. The Act stopped the increase of
public-houses, though very few of the old hotels were deprived of their
licences under it. Out of 1500 licensed houses in the colony, only
twenty-five were closed under the Act during the first seven years. Since
that time the advanced temperance party showed considerably more activity
in this direction, and succeeded in obtaining a withdrawal of most of the
licences in more than one district. But a doubtful legal point cropped up,
as to how far Local Boards have the power to take away old licences, that
prevented very much being done. In a certain licensing district the
temperance party aroused itself and succeeded in electing a Board pledged
to close the hotels. The Board kept its promise, and thereupon the
liquor-sellers brought a case before the courts, on the grounds that the
members of the Board had publicly pledged themselves as to their line of
action before election, and therefore they were biassed and did not deal
with the licences in a judicial manner. The court upheld the publicans and
declared that the deprival of the licences was illegal. This decision, of
course, practically took from the electors the greater part of their local
control. Another point in which the system proved unsatisfactory was in
the supervision of licensed houses. There seems to be a general opinion
among moderate men that the Boards were not nearly strict enough in
bringing offending licence-holders to book.
The Act of 1883 was not sufficiently drastic to satisfy the temperance
party; and last year Mr. Seddon, the Liberal Premier, brought before the
Legislature and carried a liquor law which he said would meet with the
approval of all parties. The measure is called "An Act to give the people
greater control over the granting and refusing of licences". The licensing
authority is still left in the hands of locally elected bodies: though no
member of any such body can be disqualified from sitting or acting
because he has at any time expressed his views or given any pledge as to
the liquor traffic. The whole of the colony is now divided into sixty
districts, and each of these has its own Board, consisting of the resident
magistrate, and eight other residents in the district. Any elector living
in a district shall be qualified to become a candidate for election to the
Board there, unless he is a paid colonial or local official, or is
directly or indirectly pecuniarily interested in the liquor traffic. When,
once in three years, the licensing committee is elected, each voter has
submitted to him at the same time three alternatives: and he must scratch
out two of these, thus voting for the one he leaves untouched, or his
paper will be void. The three choices are:--
(1) I vote that the number of publicans' licences continue as at present.
(2) I vote that the number of publicans' licences be reduced.
(3) I vote that no publicans' licences be granted.
No vote for a committee-man will be counted unless the elector also
chooses one of these things at the same time as he votes for the members
of the committee.
On the result of the direct vote the committee must act. No election is
valid unless at least one-half of the voters on the register take part in
it. An absolute majority of the votes recorded in any district carries
either of the first two propositions, for no alteration or for reduction;
but the proposal for no licences at all can only be carried on a majority
of three-fifths of those voting deciding in favour of it. If the votes for
no licence are under three-fifths, they are added to those for reduction,
and counted as part of such. Where the proposal for reduction is
successful, the committee shall carry out such reduction as it may think
fit, provided that it does not exceed one-quarter of the total number of
public-houses. Such licences as have been endorsed for breaches of the law
since the passing of the Act are first to be taken away, and then those
held in respect of premises which provide little or no accommodation for
travellers beyond the bar.
The temperance party is seriously dissatisfied with this measure. "This
Bill, I believe," said Sir Robert Stout in the House of Representatives,
"is a Bill more in favour of the liquor traffic than if I had met the
Licensed Victuallers' Association, and asked them to come to some
compromise. I believe the association would have given a more reasonable
Bill to the temperance party than this measure. That is my opinion, and I
believe I am speaking what is correct, from what I have heard." The chief
objections of the local optionists are to the clauses that provide for a
three-fifths majority for prohibition, and for a 50 per cent. poll before
an election is valid; they also say that the licensing areas are too
large, and that the Act practically gives the publicans three years'
licences. At the parliamentary elections that took place since the measure
was passed, the question of a bare majority sufficing to carry the
proposal for no licences has been made a test one everywhere; and the
teetotalers, aided by the women's vote, have carried their point in so
many places that there seems every prospect of the law being altered in
this respect almost immediately.
The first licensing election under the new Act took place at the end of
March, 1894. A fresh and somewhat disturbing factor was introduced in it
by the voting power of the newly enfranchised women. The women were (as
they had been in the parliamentary elections) by an overwhelming majority
in favour of either no licences or reduction, usually the former.
Sometimes they allowed their zeal to slightly outrun the bounds of
womanliness. Thus, at one meeting at Christchurch, called by the leading
clergy for the consideration of the question, they took possession of the
hall, voted down the proposals for reduction, and refused to listen to the
speakers. The chairman would not allow them to put their amendment for no
licence, so they would not let the meeting continue. They were as rowdy
(if reports in various local papers can be trusted) as an excited meeting
at a fiercely contested election in England. Finally they determined to
there and then convert one of their leading opponents. "Pastor Birch,"
reports the _Christchurch Weekly Press_, "says that when he came out of a
meeting the ladies were hatching a conspiracy against him. They intended,
when he left the meeting, to surround him in the middle of the road. A
compact ring of female enthusiasts was to be formed round him, and, when
they had him fairly wedged in, they intended to kneel down and pray for
him. The worthy pastor, it appears, declined this delicate attention, but
was at a loss how to escape. Ultimately, I believe, he hit on the device
of leaving the hall supported on one side by his lordship the bishop, and
on the other by Father Bell. This saved him, the women found it impossible
to surround Pastor Birch without including his companions, and so let him
escape."
Full reports of the results have not yet reached England, but sufficient
is known to make it certain that the temperance party has gained a great
victory. Had it not been for the three-fifths clause, the greater part of
the country would have gone under prohibition. At the time the last mail
left New Zealand, the results were known in twenty-six out of the sixty
licensing divisions; and the total votes there showed that 23,752 were for
prohibition, 9467 for reduction, and 16,862 for no alteration. At
Wellington, where the contest excited great interest, and was looked upon
as a fair test for the whole colony, the results were: for prohibition
3397, for reduction 1283, for no alteration 3581. In only one place was
the necessary majority obtained for no licences, and in another place the
people have decided for no bottle licences. There were quite a number of
districts where the prohibitionists were only a few dozen short of the
required majority.
The results have amply borne out the objection to its being necessary for
50 per cent. of the electors to vote before the election is valid. In
several places the publicans gave orders for their supporters to abstain
from voting, and thus prevented public opinion being tested. At Auckland
the temperance people made no attempt to prohibit or reduce, for they knew
that it would be hopeless to think of securing a sufficient poll by
themselves. The _New Zealand Herald_ (28th March, 1894) says: "We think it
will be found, when the whole of the returns come to hand, that in more
than half the districts the whole proceedings are void, because half the
names on the roll did not vote. The law may be defeated because one party
may, previous to the elections, place a crowd of names on the roll, either
merely bogus names, or the names of persons whom they know will not take
the trouble to go to the poll. And as the matter stands, the ballot is
practically defeated in many instances. Where there are no candidates to
be voted for those acting in the interest of the hotels know, when they
see a man going to the polling booth, that he is going to vote either for
reduction or prohibition, and they appeal to him: 'You are surely not
going to give a vote against us?'"
From what seems to be a mistaken policy, the advanced temperance party
refused to take any part in the choice of committee-men; consequently,
while nearly every place has chosen reduction, the amount of reduction
will now be decided by men elected largely by the liquor interest. It is
hard to see what benefits the prohibitionists hope to obtain from this
course, unless, as many aver, they want the public-houses made as
disreputable as possible, so that the people will be more eager to get rid
of them.
The opinion of various classes in the colony as to the outcome of the
election can, perhaps, be best seen by extracts from their own journals.
The _Lyttelton Times_ (anti-prohibitionist) says: "The first really
genuine local option poll has shown the people to be determined upon
further reducing the number of licensed houses. The polling, which was
everywhere conducted with the most perfect decorum and good feeling, has
served several useful purposes. It has demonstrated the strength, and
weakness, of the prohibition party; it has elicited a very decided
expression of public opinion that the existing number of licences is in
excess of public requirements; it has shown that the people can be safely
trusted with full executive and judicial powers in a manner affecting
their interests; and it has, we hope, settled the vexed licensing question
for three years to come."
The (Wellington) _New Zealand Times_ says: "The present interest centres
in the large prohibition vote. The weight of that vote is a surprise and a
warning. Few were prepared for it, but most people frankly confessed their
inability to gauge the new power. Now that this power has declared itself,
few will be prepared to deny that prohibition has come appreciably nearer
than a year ago any one thought it would come in this generation.... The
decided prohibitionist leaning of the body of electors is a warning that
nothing but strict regulation, worthy of the name, will serve to stem the
advancing tide."
On the other hand, the _Otago Witness_, although a strongly temperance
paper, is inclined to explain away the prohibitionist vote. "Numbers of
temperance people, properly so called, are working with prohibitionists,"
it says. "They say to themselves, 'Whatever results may be obtained from
this agitation of the prohibitionists, they are sure to fall so far short
of their aim that by helping them we can accomplish our own'.... We may
yet find the bulk of the people advocating prohibition, not because it
will prohibit, but because it will restrict."
The _Manawatu Daily Standard_ considers: "If the present state of the
public mind be any criterion, the day would seem to be dawning when
prohibition will come upon us; but the feelings of many would revolt
against such a revolutionary procedure being entered upon at the present
time".
The _Christchurch Press_ says: "The polling was nowhere so heavy as we
were led to suppose by a great many enthusiasts it would be.... A great
many abstentions may be accounted for by the fact that those whose desire
was for a reduction felt pretty confident that with the votes of the no
licence people it would be carried, and consequently they did not take the
trouble to vote.... The great lesson which we learn from these elections
as to the feeling of the public of New Zealand on this licensing question
is that a vast majority are not prepared to go to the extreme length of
closing all the houses, but that a great majority do desire that there
shall be a reduction of something like 25 per cent.; and that those which
remain must be made to understand that they retain their licences only on
condition that their houses are well conducted in all respects--that is to
say, that they only sell good liquor to sober people within legal hours."
CHAPTER III.
LICENSING IN AUSTRALIA.
A year or two ago Mr. David Christie Murray stirred up the wrath of the
Australians by charging them, in effect, with being the most drunken
people under the sun. This statement, like most other sweeping
denunciations, requires to be taken with a considerable amount of reserve;
but it certainly is true that our Antipodean cousins are, to judge from
the evidence afforded by their revenue returns, afflicted with a chronic
and incurable thirst. The average consumption of proof alcohol in several
of the colonies is almost as great as in England.
The liquor laws of Australia are now in much the same condition as many
are striving to make ours at home. Local option is in force over the
greater part of the continent. Sunday closing is generally compulsory, and
the licensed victualler is bound by many restrictions unknown to his
brother here. As each colony is entirely independent of the others, their
laws differ, and must be described separately. For the purposes of this
volume it will be sufficient to deal with Victoria, New South Wales and
Queensland, as the laws of the remaining Australian colonies present no
particular features which call for comment.
_Victoria._--In Victoria, in spite of the fact that the control of the
liquor traffic is almost wholly in the hands of the people themselves, the
annual consumption of drink costs nearly L6 per head. This, however, is a
mere trifle to what it once was, for during the gold rush in the fifties
the cost was nearly L30 a head yearly for every man, woman, and child in
the colony. It is misleading, however, to compare the expenditure in
England and Victoria, and judge the amount consumed by it; for in the
Antipodes things generally are much dearer, and money is cheaper than at
home. The Victorians consume about 12 per cent. more spirits, between four
and five times as much wine, and not much more than half the beer, per
head of population, than we do.
From the time when Victoria separated from New South Wales down to 1876, a
decidedly retrograde policy was adopted; licence fees were reduced,
grocers' licences introduced, and beer shops legalised. But in the
last-named year the liquor laws were amended by a measure giving limited
local control over the traffic; and in 1882 a further Act was passed by
which the local powers were considerably increased. Under the present law
one-fifth of the electorate in any district can petition the Governor in
Council to hold an election to settle the number of public-houses to be
permitted there, and he is then obliged to cause a popular vote to be
taken on the question. Each elector states on a ballot paper how many
hotels he wishes to be licensed, and the number named by him must be the
number then existing, the statutory number, or some number between. The
statutory number has been fixed at one for every 250 inhabitants up to the
first thousand, and one for every full 500 beyond. Where the number is
greater than this it can be reduced by a poll to that limit; where it is
less, it can be raised in a similar way up to it. But in no case can the
number be reduced below or increased above the statutory limit.
In arriving at the decision of the electors, if a majority vote for any
particular number then that number is carried. Where, however, the votes
are so scattered that no particular number commands a majority over all
the others the following plan is adopted. "Suppose a district with 48
hotels, and 12 as the statutory number. Suppose, further, that 600 votes
be recorded, of which 250 are for 48, 200 for 12, 20 for 13, 20 for 14, 20
for 15, 20 for 16, and 21 for 17. The votes given for the higher numbers
would be added to those given for 12 until they made a majority of votes
recorded. In this case by the time the number 17 is reached, there would
be a total of 301 votes, making a majority of the 600, and the
determination would be that the hotels be reduced to 17."[7]
Where the electors decide in favour of a reduction, a licensing court sits
and decides what houses are to be closed. The licensing inspector has to
summon all the hotel-keepers before the court, and the court selects the
houses which are worst conducted, or which provide least accommodation, as
the ones to lose their licences. The houses which are thus closed are
given a monetary compensation on account of the annual value of the
premises being lowered: the exact amount of the compensation is fixed by
two arbitrators, appointed one by the owner and another by the minister.
In case these cannot agree a county court judge or police magistrate is
nominated by them as umpire. The whole of the compensation money is raised
from the "trade" itself, by means of increased licensing fees and
penalties for breaches of the liquor law. If these amounts are not
sufficient, a special tax is imposed on liquor in order to meet the
deficiency.
The amounts awarded as compensation have been, in the opinion of many,
absurdly high. Thus at Ballarat East, where forty hotels were closed, the
compensation awarded was, to owners, L26,126 0s. 9d.; to licensees,
L13,855 18s. 4d. At Ballarat West, where twenty-six hotels were closed,
the compensation came to, for owners, L12,280; for licensees, L8973. At
Broadford the total cost of closing four places was L1220. The fact that
compensation is paid makes many voters far less keen than they otherwise
would be for reduction, even though the money so paid does not in any way
cost them anything.
In many parts considerable use has been made of the powers of reduction.
Thus in fourteen local option polls that took place in twelve months the
people decided either for reduction or against increase, according as the
purpose for which the poll was taken. The Victorian licensing laws have
certainly prevented any considerable increase of hotels, though they have
had but little effect in reducing the drink traffic itself.
The following communication from Mr. John Vale, secretary of the Victorian
Alliance, shows how temperance men regard the present law. "The local
option law of the colony," he writes, "first came into force in 1886; some
polls were then taken, but for the most part were rendered void by the
condition that one-third of the electors must record their votes in order
to constitute a poll. The publican party adopted the policy of not voting,
and letting it be known that all who were seen entering the polling booth
would be marked men, to be injured in every possible way. Thus, the
secrecy of the ballot was destroyed. Only the temperance stalwarts faced
the ordeal, and we were generally just a few short of the required number.
In 1887 this condition was repealed, in so far as it related to the
reduction of hotels. In the following year other polls were taken with
success; but then, with brewery money, a process was begun known as
'stonewalling' in the law courts. The publicans would appeal on some
technical point. Being defeated on that they raised another point; and so
on, until after a time they hit upon one which had something in it, or the
Government got tired of the process. As a result most of the victories of
1888 were made of non-effect. We then secured a provision doing away with
the power of appeal in connection with local option polls. Since then,
victories have been secured in a number of important centres, and the
condemned hotels have been or are now being closed. The Victorian
Alliance, however, has come to the determination to promote no more polls
under the present law. It is believed that polls for prohibition could be
carried with no more effort than is required to win victories for
reduction. The antagonism to compensation has grown with experience. And
in certain cases the licensing courts have used the power which they
possess to issue colonial wine licences for public-houses closed by the
popular vote, and in respect of which compensation had been paid. Wine
shops are generally the worst class of drink shops; so that the last state
of these houses has become worse than the first: for these, and other
reasons, the above-mentioned resolution has been adopted.
"In future we shall concentrate our efforts on securing the direct veto
without compensation. To this end we are about to secure the introduction
of a Bill in Parliament. It will provide for a vote in each electoral
district in conjunction with a general election, which takes place at
least every three years, on the simple issue of prohibition. Each
electoral district to decide the matter for itself. The prohibition would
apply to the manufacture as well as the sale of intoxicants. A distinctive
feature of the Bill is that it will provide for all women voting upon this
question equally with all men. It, of course, provides for the repeal of
compensation."
_Queensland._--Queensland has the most simple and thorough-going Local
Option Act of any of the southern colonies. By this Act, which was carried
in 1885, one-sixth of the electors in a place can cause a direct vote to
be taken on one or all of three propositions: (1) that the sale of
intoxicating liquors shall be prohibited; (2) that the number of licences
shall be reduced to a certain number, not being less than two-thirds of
the existing number; (3) that no new licences shall be granted. The Act
requires a two-thirds majority to carry the first proposition, but the
second and third are carried by a simple majority. In over eighty per
cent. of the elections held for the purpose of voting new licences, the
temperance party has won. Very few attempts have been made to secure
prohibition, and none of them have been successful: in a few cases,
however, the people have decided in favour of reduction. The experience of
Queensland seems to point to the conclusion that in a community where
prohibitionists are not very strong (as in England) a provision giving the
people power of preventing the issuance of new licences will do more good
than placing in their hands the option of prohibition which they will not
use.
In Queensland children under fourteen may not be served with liquor even
to take away, and persons under eighteen may not be served for consumption
on the premises.
_New South Wales._--The present liquor law of New South Wales was carried
by Sir Henry Parkes in 1881, and came into force at the beginning of 1882.
The power of granting licences is placed in the hands of stipendiary
magistrates specially appointed by the Government, and several
restrictions are placed around the trade. The people are given a limited
local option as to whether they will have new licensed houses or not.
Polls take place on this question once every three years, at the same time
as the municipal elections. The popular veto only applies to small houses
however, and hotels with over twenty rooms can be licensed whether the
people wish it or not.
There has been a strong movement throughout the colony for a more complete
measure of local option, and several times within the last few years it
has seemed as though this would be carried. The one difficulty in the way
is the question of compensation; and if the temperance party would only
consent to recompensing dispossessed publicans, local option could be
passed into law almost at once.
The temperance party itself in New South Wales has recently become
divided. One section, consisting principally of the Good Templars, has
wearied of seeking for local option, and declares that it will accept
nothing less than State prohibition. Many of these irreconcilables are
loud in their declarations that the great mass of teetotalers who are
content to work for local option are little better than enemies of the
cause. The only outcome of this split is likely to be the delay of
temperance legislation of any kind there.
PART III.
THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE.
CHAPTER I.
THE STATE AS DISTILLER.
Why should the trade in intoxicants be placed under special restraints? is
the question sometimes asked; and the querists are hardly satisfied with
the answer that it has continually been proved necessary, by the
experience of all civilised Governments, to place limits on every business
that is shown to be injurious to the well-being of the people. The drink
traffic is admittedly such; therefore it has to be dealt with in a way
quite different from the trades of the grocer or the baker. There are
those who would have us believe that these very restrictions promote
intemperance; and visionaries have more than once stated that the best way
to encourage sobriety and to restrain excess would be to make the traffic
absolutely free. The whole theory of Government is against such an idea.
It is an axiom of statesmanship that to check any trade by legislation is
to injure it; and that, within certain limits, the more severe the
restrictions imposed on it, the less likely is a trade to thrive. But for
answer to free-trade theorists we need not appeal to axioms of
Government. The universal experience of nations goes to show that to allow
the free manufacture and sale of intoxicants is to use the surest means of
promoting all manner of excess. The official returns of France, Belgium
and Germany within the last few years, all show that free trade in drink
in these countries has proved an utter failure; and that under it,
poverty, insanity and crime are increasing with terrible rapidity. Another
remarkable illustration of this is to be found in the recent experience of
Switzerland.
By article thirty-one of the Swiss Constitution of 1874 freedom of trade
is specially guaranteed. The same year as the new Constitution was
approved, the canton of Argovie wanted to know if this clause would
prevent it limiting the number of drink shops in its borders. The Federal
Council replied that "the limitation of the number of drink shops is no
longer possible, on account of the principle of liberty of commerce and of
industry imposed by article thirty-one of the Constitution".
The result was an immediate and considerable increase in the number of
cabarets in nearly every canton. From 1870 to 1880 the total of these
establishments was raised by 22 per cent., and in Geneva there was a wine
shop for every 70 people, the average for the whole country being one
drink shop for every 130 inhabitants. The effects of this on the condition
of the people were immediately apparent. The French have a saying "to
smoke and to drink like a Swiss, and to get tipsy like a Pole"; but now
the Swiss, never the most temperate nation, showed signs of rapid
deterioration through intemperance. At the recruitment of 1880 the Medical
Commission reported that the number of young men found fit for military
service was from 5 to 25 per cent. less than in 1873, and in some parts
the number of men fit for service was as low as 21.2 per cent. The
Principal Medical Officer declared that the physical degeneration of the
candidates was due to the evil effects of spirit drinking and drunkenness.
The director of the Central Bureau of Charity stated that 80 per cent. of
the applications of mothers and children for relief were brought about by
the tippling of the father of the family. Sociologists pointed out that
the nation was rapidly being destroyed by this one curse; and in order to
obtain fuller details the Federal Assembly requested the Federal Council
to make an inquiry into the matter. The report of the latter body, when
issued, more than bore out the gloomy prognostications of the alarmists.
From 1877 to 1881, 3285 patients were admitted to the public lunatic
asylums, and of these 923 were brought there by alcoholism. There were 254
deaths annually directly caused by excessive drinking. Out of 2560
prisoners in cantonal penitentiaries, 1030 were found to be drunkards; and
in eight reformatories 50 per cent. of the boys and 45 per cent. of the
girls were found to be the children of parents one or both of whom were
given to intoxication. In Switzerland there are a larger proportion of
suicides than in any other civilised country, and the Commission found
that this was caused mainly by alcoholism. The Federal Council attributed
the state of affairs to two reasons: (1) to the change in the economic
condition of Switzerland owing to the introduction of railways; (2) partly
to the fact that wine had become costly and inaccessible to the workmen,
while at the same time spirits had become cheaper. Brandy was not only
imported in great quantities from Germany, but was also manufactured on a
large scale in industrial and domestic distilleries in Switzerland. The
product of these small distilleries was specially dangerous, not only
because of the alcohol it contained, but because of the crude and
imperfect state of most of it. There was said to be between five and ten
thousand domestic distilleries in the canton of Berne alone. To these
causes, rather than to the increase of the shops for the sale of liquor,
the Council attributed the increased alcoholism; but the popular opinion
was against it on this point, and power was almost immediately afterwards
given to the cantons to limit the number of public-houses. The chief
recommendation of the Council was that steps should be taken to cheapen
the price of beer and wine and to make spirits dearer.
In order to accomplish this latter aim the Government caused a popular
vote to be taken on the question whether the Constitution should be so
altered as to permit the traffic in intoxicants to be subject to control.
There was a two-thirds majority in favour of control, and soon afterwards
a scheme was formulated for making the manufacture of spirits entirely a
State monopoly. This plan was started partly in the hope of checking
drunkenness and providing the people with pure drink; but undoubtedly a
cause that was very largely responsible for its initiation was the hope of
securing an abundant revenue.
Has the monopoly law been a success? Financially, yes; so far as ensuring
the purity of the spirits sold, also yes; but for checking the consumption
of strong drink it has been almost if not quite a failure. In saying this
I am well aware that I express an opinion different from that of nearly
every English writer on the subject, official and otherwise. Some at least
of the data on which English writers have founded favourable opinions is
partly unreliable and partly misleading. Thus in the (English) Foreign
Office Report on Switzerland (No. 939) it was stated that the consumption
of spirits in 1885, before the passing of the measure, amounted to 10.26
litres per head, and that this has been reduced by the monopoly to a
little over 6 litres. Now it is impossible to say exactly what was the
average consumption in 1885; but the monopoly itself, in its official
returns, places the amount drunk per head that year, not at 10.26 litres,
but at 7.25. The difference is enormous, and it must be remembered that it
is rather to the interest of the monopoly to overstate than to understate
the quantity drunk before it took over control. Moreover, from the figures
for 1885 a by no means negligable amount must be deducted for that which,
though reckoned in the Swiss drink bill, was not consumed there but was
smuggled to neighbouring countries.
For the first year there was a great decrease. The total spirit drinking,
including that illegally obtained, was officially estimated at 5.50 litres
per head, or less by one-quarter than in 1885. This was due principally to
the rise in price of brandy. But since that year the total spirit bill has
been steadily increasing. In 1890 it was 6.27 litres a head, in 1891, 6.32
litres, and in 1892 (the last year for which returns are available), 6.39
litres. These figures include only the amount sold through the monopoly.
To them must be added three unknown quantities,--first, the spirits made
by the people at their own homes from fruit; secondly, a proportion of the
amount sold by the monopoly for use in manufactures, etc., and mixed with
special preparations to render it undrinkable, which is admittedly often
so doctored by people of depraved tastes as to be made potable again; and,
thirdly, the amount smuggled. Formerly, as was said, Swiss spirits used to
be smuggled into neighbouring countries; but now, owing to the rise in
prices through the monopoly, drink from other countries is smuggled into
Switzerland.
Those who claim for the State distilleries that they are potent forces in
reducing the traffic in distilled liquors seem to mistake altogether their
methods of working. The check to drunkenness has been produced, not by the
State manufacturing drink, but by the prohibition of home manufacture and
the increase in the price of spirits. It is no longer possible now for
the peasant woman to manufacture her fiery draught from potatoes, and to
feed her little one on it in place of milk. The distilleries are not
managed so as to check drinking (for with that they have nothing to do),
but to supply the dealers with pure liquors. In fact, it is to be expected
that people who can afford it will now drink more spirits than they once
would. Before the monopoly, much of the brandy was crude, of bad quality,
and most injurious. Now it is purified and excellent; and, while I cannot
claim to be an authority on this point myself, I am informed by persons
who do drink that they can consume much more of properly prepared spirits
than they can of those that contain any quantity of fusel oil and other
harmful substances.
There were 1400 distilleries (besides the domestic stills) at the time the
new plan was started; but these were all closed, with the exception of
about three, compensation being paid to the owners. The establishments
permitted to continue business are compelled to sell all their raw spirit
to the Regie at a fixed rate; and in order to protect home trade the Regie
is obliged to buy at least one-fourth of its spirits from native
producers. No spirits can be imported by private individuals from foreign
countries, except under strict conditions, and after a special tax has
been paid on them. The monopoly minutely examines all liquor purchased by
it; its purity is carefully ascertained, and then it is resold to retail
dealers, either in the form of raw spirit or refined and prepared with a
bouquet to suit the public taste. The prices fixed by the Regie are by no
means high, but they are a decided increase on what were formerly charged.
With this system of regulating the supply of spirits another was adopted
at the same time of encouraging the consumption of beer and wine. The
taxes on these drinks were remitted, and their sale made as free as
possible from restriction. It was hoped that this would cause the people
to use lighter drinks more; and though it has made little difference to
the wine trade, it has greatly helped to increase the popularity of beer.
Turning to the financial side of the business, the figures are almost
enough to make any Chancellor of the Exchequer whose Budget shows a
balance on the wrong side, become his own distiller. From June, 1887 (when
the monopoly was started), till the end of 1888, the income was L492,944,
the expenditure L294,631, and the profit remaining L198,313. In 1890 the
income had reached L575,461, while the expenditure was L308,976, and the
profit L266,485. For 1892 there was a still further all-round increase.
The income was L591,470, the expenditure L360,321, and the profit
L271,149. A portion of the profits has to be put on one side each year to
repay the preliminary outlay of purchasing plant and compensating the old
distillers. This cost L236,000, and it will be all paid off by 1898. A
further sum has for a few years to be paid to several cantons in place of
former revenues stopped by the creation of the monopoly; and what remains
is used for public purposes. Although the Regie is entirely under the
control of the Federal Government, the latter does not take any of these
profits, but they are distributed among the cantons in proportion to their
population, and used by them as ordinary cantonal revenue.
One curious provision in the monopoly law is the stipulation that each
canton shall devote one-tenth of the alcohol revenue for the purpose of
promoting temperance. This vague provision has been interpreted by
different bodies in various ways. In some parts the money is used for the
relief of the poor, the maintenance of lunatic asylums, and the like; but
there is growing up a strong conviction that it ought to be expended in
more strictly temperance work, such as the financing of temperance
societies, the cure and care of drunkards, and the instruction of children
in the physiological effects of alcohol. By "temperance" the Swiss do not
mean teetotalism, for total abstinence societies are almost unknown among
them, the only one of any size being that of La Croix Bleue, which numbers
some 4107 members and 2683 adherents.
The monopoly is in many ways useful; and, if people must drink spirits,
there seems no reason why the State should not profit from their folly by
itself securing the immense gain that accrues to the manufacturer. But it
is a misnomer to call it a temperance agency; for it is no such thing. If
Switzerland is ever to shake off the curse of intemperance which is still
on it, its people must take some more active steps against it. Many of
them are already realising this; and total abstinence societies, such as
that of La Croix Bleue, are gradually spreading among its more thoughtful
people. Strange to say, the first advocates of total abstinence in
Switzerland were not so much the moral reformers who have adopted this as
their own in other lands, as scientific men, who were led by their
investigations to a firm conviction of the harmfulness and uselessness of
alcohol. Religious and social reformers are now taking it up; but they are
as yet a very small band, and they will need to do much before their cause
makes much progress in Helvetia.
CHAPTER II.
THE GOTHENBURG SYSTEM.
The Scandinavian licensing system has, during the last few years, received
considerable attention from reformers in many lands; and rightly so.
Whatever may be its faults, there is probably no other plan of liquor
legislation of which it can be said that it has, in a comparatively short
time, reduced the traffic in spirits by about three-quarters, without
seriously discommoding the moderate drinkers, and without creating any
illegal trade worth mentioning. There seems every likelihood that the
system will, in a few years, spread far beyond the land of its inception.
It satisfies the demand for increased State control, promises abundant
revenue, and yet discourages the sale of liquor. A small body of public
men in England are eager to have it adopted here; and acute observers in
America declare that (provided no clauses in the State Constitutions are
held to render it unlawful) it is almost certain to be tried there before
long. A Bill has already been brought before the Massachusetts Legislature
for the purpose of permitting such a trial, and has met with the approval
of a considerable section of the people.
Less than half a century ago, Sweden was the most drunken civilised
country in the world. Its laws permitted almost free trade in the
manufacture and sale of spirits, and even the poorest peasants could
obtain as much brandy as they wanted. All the horrors that ever follow
habitual intemperance were to be seen throughout the land. The poverty of
the people was great; social and moral degradation were prevalent;
insanity and crime were dangerously on the increase; and there was a
general air of hopeless desolation over the country. The average
consumption of spirits has been variously estimated at from a little under
six to ten gallons per head yearly; and the stuff, being
home-manufactured, was of the crudest and most injurious quality.
Patriotic Swedes soon began to look about for a remedy for the national
curse. Dr. Weiselgren commenced a crusade against spirit-drinking with
most remarkable results; and before long a hundred thousand persons had
enlisted themselves under his banner in a league voluntarily abstaining
from spirits. A still more general movement shortly afterwards took place,
when people from all parts of the country petitioned Parliament to take
some steps to check intemperance. In response, a law was passed in 1855
abolishing domestic and small stills, and giving rural localities the
control of the traffic, and the option of either having drink shops, or
sweeping them away altogether. Where it was decided to still permit the
sale of drink, the local authorities were authorised to limit the hours of
sale, and the number of public-houses.
The people at once made considerable use of their newly acquired powers.
There had been over 33,000 distilleries in 1853; the same year as the Act
passed they were reduced to between 3000 and 4000. The greater number of
country districts elected to go under complete prohibition; and whereas
formerly spirits could be bought in nearly every peasant's house, there
were now in the country districts less than 600 retail licences. The
wholesale trade was not dealt with by the law.
There were no two opinions as to the beneficial effects of the new measure
in the country; but it was found that the towns did not share equally in
these benefits. It had been considered inadvisable to extend the option of
prohibition to towns, and before long the great mass of public-houses
became centred in urban districts. In 1856, though the towns contained
only twelve per cent. of the people, three-quarters of the total
public-houses were to be found in them, and eight townsmen were convicted
of drunkenness to every one countryman.
The knowledge of these facts stirred the authorities up to see if nothing
more could be done. In 1865 the Municipal Council of Gothenburg appointed
a committee to inquire into the causes of pauperism. The committee
reported that, "The worst enemy of the morals and well-being of the
working classes in this community is brandy. Yet it is not the
intoxicating liquor only and its moderate consumption which cause
demoralisation and poverty; it is the disorder, evil example, temptations,
and opportunities for every kind of iniquity with which public-house life
abounds, that contribute mainly to this unhappy state of things. Neither
local enactments nor police surveillance can do much so long as
public-houses are in the hands of private individuals, who find their
profit in encouraging intemperance, without regard for age or youth, rich
or poor."[8] The committee recommended that the trade should be taken out
of the control of the publicans, and managed by a company for the good of
the community. A philanthropic company was formed, in consequence of this
report, by a score of the leading inhabitants of the place, for the
purpose of taking over the trade. It was specially stipulated that neither
shareholders nor managers should be pecuniarily interested in pushing the
sales, and the company was to receive no profits except 6 per cent. on the
paid-up capital, all receipts beyond this going to the town treasury. The
amount of paid-up capital required has been under L7000.
The company commenced its work on 1st October, 1865; and the way it has
since fulfilled its obligations is worthy of the highest praise. It has
shown an honest desire to carry out the sale of spirits in such a way as,
while meeting the legitimate wants of the moderate drinkers, shall
discourage excess in every possible way. It has consistently attempted to
restrict rather than to encourage the trade in liquor. The magistrates
have granted it sixty-one licences, but of these it only uses nineteen
(although the population of the place is considerably over a hundred
thousand) and allows the remainder to lie in abeyance. The law permits
public-houses to be open till 10 at night, but the company closes its
establishments at from 7:30 to 9 o'clock, according to the season of the
year. It has opened five coffee-houses and reading-rooms, where no spirits
are sold, and four eating-houses, where none are obtainable except the
customary dram at meals. Generally it has shown a wise and patriotic
disregard of that policy which would sacrifice everything for a favourable
balance sheet.
Each public-house is placed under the charge of a manager, who is
expressly ordered not to encourage drinking in any way, and is warned that
if he does so he will be dismissed. The company at first employed several
of the old licensed victuallers and barmen; but before long it had to get
rid of all of them, for they were so accustomed to encouraging tippling
among their customers that they could not understand a system which
forbade their doing it. The managers derive no direct or indirect profits
from the sale of spirits beyond their stated salaries; and they have
directions not to supply strong drink to young people, to those who show
any signs of intoxication, or to those who require several drams in
succession, or who pay repeated visits to the public-houses at short
intervals for the purpose of drinking. They are not allowed to give any
credit for liquor. Besides selling drink, each house has to keep a supply
of good hot and cold food, temperance drinks, cigars, and the like.
Inspectors are appointed whose sole duty is to see that the managers
conduct the trade properly.
The four eating-houses at which spirits are sold only with meals are
large, well conducted, and very popular. They cater almost exclusively for
working men, and sell food at rates which put to shame even our own
Lockharts and Pearces. A dinner of a large slice of pork, a sausage, four
potatoes and gravy, costs under twopence halfpenny. When these houses were
first opened nearly every customer took a dram with his meals, but now not
more than half of them do so. The eating-houses do not quite pay their
way, but are run at a loss of a little over L200 a year. The company
regards the money as well spent, for the places have a most beneficial
effect in promoting temperance. The five free reading-rooms maintained by
the company, in which no intoxicants (except small beer) are sold, cost
between L600 and L700 a year to maintain. They are well supplied with
papers and books, and visitors can obtain light refreshments of various
kinds.
In considering the effects of the Gothenburg system on the lives of the
people, these two things must be borne in mind: First, the system only
touches the trade in spirits, and has nothing to do with the sale of beer.
This latter is almost free, and has been rather encouraged by the
authorities than otherwise, under the mistaken notion that it would lessen
the demand for stronger drink. Of wine and beer shops, licensed for
consumption on the premises, there are 128, besides an unlimited number
for consumption off the premises, requiring no licences. A large amount of
the drunkenness in Gothenburg is caused by these beer shops. The police
there ascertain, when a person is arrested for drunkenness, where he
obtained his liquor; and from their returns it can be seen that the
intoxication produced by beer is steadily increasing. In 1875 the number
of persons arrested who drank last at beer saloons was 130; by 1885 the
number had increased to 483; and in 1889 the number was 753.
A second important consideration in estimating the results of the system
is the fact that even the whole trade in spirits is not in the hands of
the company. There are seventeen restaurants, licensed by permission of
the company, and managed by private individuals, which sell intoxicants.
There are also five public-houses whose owners have the ancient right of
carrying on the business, and with whom the company cannot interfere. Last
of all, there are twenty-three wine merchants, who take out expensive
licences from the company, for the sale of spirits off the premises.
Whatever deductions are drawn from the condition of the town as to the
results of the system, considerable allowance must be made for the fact
that the whole of the liquor traffic is not conducted by the company.
Perhaps the most outstanding evidence in favour of the system is this,
that, not only are the people of the place well satisfied with it, but
seventy-six other towns in Sweden have been led by it to adopt the same
plan, and only thirteen places still retain the old method of selling the
licences to private bidders. In Norway, too, the spirit trade is now
conducted in nearly every town in substantially a similar way.
In discussing the effects of any liquor law it is never an easy task to
decide how far social changes or effects are the cause of it, or how far
they are due to other and entirely different economic causes. Immediately
after the establishment of the company there was a great decrease in the
consumption of drink and its attendant evils in Gothenburg; but this was
due quite as much to the depression of trade as to anything else.
Afterwards there was an increase of drinking, for trade greatly improved.
It would be inaccurate either to wholly lay the cause of the decrease to
the credit of the company or to blame it for the increase.
The following returns show the amount of drunkenness in Gothenburg during
a few selected years:--
Arrests for Drunkenness.
Year. Population. Total. Percentage.
1855 44,804 3431 13.8
1865 45,750 2070 4.5
1875 59,986 2490 4.2
1885 84,450 2475 2.9
1891 104,215 4624 4.4
1892 106,356 4563 4.3
It is not possible to give any reliable returns as to the amount of
spirits consumed in Gothenburg. The sales of the company only represent
part of the total quantity sold in the place, and all that the company
sells is not consumed there. Much of it is bought by country people, who
take it back with them to their own homes. The returns of the company show
a fairly steady decrease. Thus in 1874-5 the total sales amounted to 29
quarts per head; in 1884-5, 19.1 quarts; and in 1891-2, only 14.3 quarts.
Financially, the company has from the first been a great success. It need
not have ever called up a penny of its capital, had not the law required
this to be done; and every year it has been able to hand over a very large
surplus to the town, to be used for public purposes. In 1892 (the last
year for which, at the time of writing, returns are available) the amounts
paid to the city treasury were: (1) fixed fee for bar trade and retail
licences, L15,632; (2) surplus profits, after paying all expenses,
L21,868, or a total of L37,500. This amounted to the equivalent of over
7s. a head for every man, woman and child in the place. Formerly the city
retained the whole of the surplus profits for its own benefit; but this
created considerable dissatisfaction, and at last an alteration was made
by which the municipality now only receives seven-tenths, the national
treasury appropriating two-tenths, and the remaining tenth going to the
country districts.
In Gothenburg the whole of the amount received by the municipality goes
for the relief of local taxation. This has been felt by many to embody a
dangerous principle, as giving the city authorities a direct interest in
the encouragement of drinking. To avoid this, the plan has been adopted in
Norway of devoting the surplus, not to relieving the rates, but to helping
charitable and philanthropic non-rate-aided enterprises.
The most notable example of the Norwegian plan is the town of Bergen. A
liquor company was formed here in 1876, at the suggestion of the local
magistracy, and it commenced business at the beginning of 1877. Not only
is the distribution of profits here different, but the management of the
houses varies too. In Gothenburg the aim has been to make the dram shops
comfortable and attractive; in Bergen, on the contrary, the aim has
apparently been to render them as uncomfortable and as repulsive as
possible. Each house consists solely of a bar for the sale of liquor;
nothing but liquor is sold, and when a person has consumed what he ordered
he must go. No seats are provided, and customers are forbidden to loiter
about the premises. This sternly repressive policy does not seem to have
had a remarkable effect on the consumption of spirits; for whereas in 1877
the average sales per head came to 7.1 quarts, they were only reduced to
6.1 quarts in 1891; and this notwithstanding the fact that the average
consumption for the whole of the country had been reduced in the same time
from 6.3 quarts to 3.3 quarts. The number of arrests for drunkenness in
Bergen in 1877 and 1891 was about the same; but a largely increased
population in the latter year makes this show that the proportionate
intoxication was really less. From the time of its commencement up to
1890, the Bergen company was able to distribute L69,731 among local
philanthropic societies, and the recipients of its bounty have included
all kinds of works for the common weal, museums, training ships,
hospitals, a rescue society, orphanages, a tree-planting society, a fund
for sea baths for the poor, temperance organisations, and the like. The
profits which would otherwise have gone to enrich a few have thus been
scattered about doing good to the many.
PART IV.
ENGLAND.
CHAPTER I.
THE GROWTH OF THE LICENSING SYSTEM.
The English are often said to be the most drunken among civilised nations;
but, like many other constantly repeated statements, this is not correct.
Denmark, Belgium and Russia certainly take the precedence of us in this
matter; and it is an open question if alcoholism is not doing at least as
much harm in northern and central France and Switzerland, as in the
British Isles. The casual visitor to our lively neighbour sees but little
open intoxication, and consequently assumes that France is a sober
country. But those who have gone beneath the surface, and examined the
results as recorded in the statistics of prisons and asylums, know that
intemperance is rapidly becoming a national plague there.
While we may not be the worst offenders in this respect, it is yet
undoubted that alcoholism is the greatest source of social misery in our
land. Theorists may quarrel among themselves as to the exact proportion of
poverty and crime produced by intemperance; but no thinking man who is
not altogether shut out from association with his fellows can doubt the
awful ravages it is producing. We do not require to have it proved to us
by figures; we only need to open our eyes and to use such brain power as
we may possess to have the proof forced on us. Among the fashionable rich,
among the idle women of upper middle-class families, as well as in our
slum population, intemperance is doing a work of destruction before which
the results of the most fatal diseases seem hardly worth notice.
Most of us would gladly be optimists on this subject, if hard facts would
only let us; but it is useless to indulge in an idle optimism, which
suffers us to do nothing when the need of our services is greatest. It is
accepted by many as an undeniable fact that we are steadily becoming a
more sober people; but, unfortunately, statistics do not bear out this
view. In some ways temperance has made great advances. Drunkenness is no
longer looked upon as an amiable weakness, but as a serious offence
against society and against oneself. The days of the three-bottle men are
over, let us hope never to return; and the incessant drinking among
friends that was common not many years ago is now little seen. Over
one-sixth of the people have entirely abandoned the use of strong drink;
everywhere active temperance societies are working hard to promote
sobriety; the conditions of life have become infinitely brighter and
easier for the great mass of wage earners; education has become universal,
and the sale of alcohol has been placed under greater restrictions. Yet,
notwithstanding all this, the drink trade was never so strong as it is
to-day. Within fifty years the amount spent on liquor has almost doubled;
though the police rarely arrest a drunken person except when outrageously
disorderly, nearly 200,000 men and women are brought before the
magistrates each year for intoxication;[9] and the number of deaths caused
through inebriety cannot be estimated at a lower figure than 40,000 a
year.
The Saxon chronicles tell how Edgar the Peaceable, acting on the advice of
Archbishop Dunstan, determined to do something to check that drunkenness
which was, the same a thousand years ago as to-day, all too prevalent on
this island. He reduced the number of ale houses to one in each village,
and had pegs put in the drinking cup to mark the amount that any person
might consume at one draught. These drinking cups held about a couple of
quarts each; and, if tradition speaks truly, it was no uncommon thing for
men to finish up the whole of this quantity without once taking their lips
from the vessel. By the law of Edgar, eight pegs were placed in each cup,
and heavy penalties were provided for any person who dared to drink
further than from one peg to another at a time. Edgar's efforts were not
crowned with much success. The law restricting the number of public-houses
was not long observed; and the draught limit led, in the end, to an
increase in the evil it was designed to check.
After this attempt the trade was allowed to go on almost without
restriction till the end of the fifteenth century; but then the evils
caused by it became too apparent to be longer passively borne. In the year
1494, power was given to any two justices of the peace to stop the common
selling of ale; and fifty-eight years later, in the reign of Edward VI., a
serious attempt was made to grapple with the trade. Parliament complained
that "intolerable hurts and troubles to the commonwealth of this realm
doth daily grow and increase through such abuses and disorders as are had
and used in common ale houses or other houses called 'tippling houses';"
and in order to check these evils it passed various laws for the
regulation of public-houses. This act is the foundation of our present
licensing laws, and the three main lines which it laid down for the
limitation of the business have continued to be observed ever since. These
are: (1) that the retail trade in intoxicants is an exceptional business,
which the State can only permit to be carried on by duly licensed persons;
(2) that the power of granting licences lies with the justices of the
peace; and (3) that the magistrates have power, when they think fit, to
take away such licences.
Notwithstanding this Act, the national drunkenness showed no signs of
decreasing; and when James I. came to the throne fresh efforts were put
forth to check it. For many years past the inns had been steadily changing
their character; and from being places of rest and refreshment for
travellers they had become principally tippling houses. So a measure was
passed "to restrain the inordinate haunting and tippling in inns".
According to the preamble of the Act, "the ancient, true and principal use
of inns was for the receipt and relief and lodging of wayfaring people
travelling from place to place; and for the supply of the wants of such
people as are not able by greater quantities to make their provision of
victuals; and not meant for the entertainments and harbouring of lewd and
idle people, to spend and consume their time in lewd and drunken manner".
To prevent this improper use of the taverns, various stringent regulations
were made. No resident in the district or city where any inn was situated
was allowed to remain drinking in it unless (1) he was invited by and
accompanied some traveller staying at the inn; (2) he was a labourer, in
which case he would be allowed to stay at the inn for an hour at dinner
time; (3) he was a lodger; or (4) unless he was there for some other
urgent and necessary cause, allowed to be such by two magistrates. A
ten-shilling fine, to go to the poor, was the punishment for breaking this
law.
Two years later, a further Act was passed for the prevention of
drunkenness. According to the preamble, "The loathsome and odious sin of
drunkenness is of late grown into common use, being the root and
foundation of many other enormous sins, as bloodshed, stabbing, murder,
fornication, adultery, and such like, to the great dishonour of God and of
our nation, the overthrow of many good arts and manual trades, the
disabling of divers workmen, and the general impoverishing of many good
subjects, abusively wasting the good creatures of God". This time it was
provided that any person found drunk should be fined five shillings, or
confined in the stocks for six hours. In 1609 a further Act was passed
dealing with the matter, in which it was admitted that no success had
attended the former attempts. "Notwithstanding all laws and provisions
already made, the inordinate vice of excessive drinking and drunkenness
doth more and more prevail." In order to more effectually suppress it,
heavier penalties were provided, the landlord who permitted tippling was
to lose his licence, and less evidence was required to secure a
conviction. Not long afterwards the penalties were again increased.
It is notorious that all these measures failed to effect their purpose.
But the country was soon to learn that difficult as it may be to promote
sobriety by law, it is easy enough for Parliament to encourage and promote
drunkenness. Soon after William and Mary came to the throne, the nominal
policy of previous reigns was altered, with immediate and overwhelming
results. Formerly almost all the spirits used in England had been imported
from the continent, and the conditions under which their manufacture could
be carried on at home were such as to keep the business very small. But in
1689 Parliament changed this. The Government was in great need of money to
meet the plots of traitors at home and carry on its campaigns abroad; and
it was thought that a considerable revenue might be obtained by
encouraging the home spirit trade. Accordingly, the importation of
distilled waters from foreign countries was prohibited, and the right to
manufacture them was thrown open to all, subject merely to the payment of
certain excise dues. The natural consequence was that the price of spirits
fell so greatly as to place them within the reach of all classes. Before
long dram drinking had, to use the expression of Lecky, "spread with the
rapidity and the virulence of an epidemic". The results of free trade in
drink were visible all over the land. Gin shops arose in all directions in
every large town; and in London there were, outside the city and the
borough, over 6000 spirit dealers to a population of 700,000. In less than
fifty years the consumption of British spirits rose sevenfold; and
everywhere the same tale was heard of the ruin it was bringing on all
classes. It was at this time that the gin dealers hung out signs
announcing that customers could get drunk for a penny, dead drunk for
twopence, and have straw to lie on for nothing. Nor was this a mere boast;
for many of the innkeepers actually provided rooms whose floors were
covered with straw on which the intoxicated customers could lie until they
recovered consciousness.
Such a condition of affairs could not be long permitted to continue.
Parliament, alarmed at the results proceeding from its own action, set
about for a remedy. As a first step, dealers in spirits were compelled to
obtain licences, like ale house keepers; an annual charge of L20 was
placed on the spirit licence, and the principle was introduced of having
the licences renewed annually. But the change was made too suddenly, and
the licence fee was too high; and this resulted in an extensive illicit
trade springing up. In order to stop this, Parliament repealed the Act and
passed another, forbidding the sale of spirits except in a dwelling-house,
under a penalty of L10. That is to say, every householder was given leave
to sell drink in his own home.
The last state was worse than the first. In 1736 the magistrates of
Middlesex petitioned Parliament, stating forcibly the terrible results
from the state of the law. A Parliamentary Committee was appointed to
consider the whole matter; and it reported that the low price of
spirituous liquors was the principal inducement to their excessive use;
and that, in order to prevent this, a duty should be placed on strong
drink, and the right to vend it should be restricted. The same year the
Government passed the famous Gin Act, a measure so stringent as to
practically prohibit the sale of spirits. No person was allowed to dispose
of them unless he had paid an annual licensing fee of L50; and the penalty
for breaking the law was a fine of L100. A tax of twenty shillings a
gallon was also placed on all spirits manufactured.
The Gin Act came too late. The passion for spirits had become firmly
rooted among the people, and they would not consent to have their supplies
cut off. They rose against the officers appointed to carry out the Act,
and in many of the larger towns there was for some time danger of
rebellion. The legal sale of proof spirits dropped in a year to two-thirds
of its former proportions; but an immense illicit trade was carried on,
which far more than balanced the reduction. All the power at the back of
the Government was not enough to obtain the enforcement of this measure,
though the magistrates made strenuous efforts to carry it out. In two
years 12,000 persons were convicted of breaking the law, but all the
prisons of the country would have failed to hold a tithe of those who
openly set it at defiance. The excise officers were held in general
detestation, and informers or any who dared to appear in excise
prosecutions went in danger of their lives. At last the Government had to
give way, and in 1742 the Act was repealed.
In 1828 the various Acts relating to the licensing of public-houses were
consolidated, and the control of them was made more stringent. Two years
later a new and most unfortunate departure was taken. With the hope of
causing people to abandon the drinking of spirits, Parliament determined
to encourage the sale of beer; and an Act was passed permitting any
householder to open a beer shop on paying an excise fee of two guineas.
The consumption of beer rose twenty-eight per cent. in consequence; but it
was soon found that this, in place of checking the rush to spirits, aided
it; and the increase in the spirit trade was even greater than that in
beer. The number of houses for the sale of intoxicating liquors rose from
88,930 to 123,396; and many old inns, that formerly had been respectably
conducted, were now driven by the stress of competition to very doubtful
means for the promotion of their trade. At the same time crime showed a
great increase, and, to quote from a Report of a Committee of the House of
Lords, "The commitments for trial in England and Wales in the years
1848-49 were, in the proportion to those of 1830-31, the two first years
after the enactment of the Beer Act, of 156 to 100; that this is not a
mere casual coincidence the Committee have the strongest reasons to
believe from the general evidence submitted to them, but more especially
from that of the chief constables of police and the chaplains of gaols,
who have the best opportunities, the one of watching the character of the
beer shops and of those who frequent them, the other of tracing the causes
of crime and the career of criminals".
The Report of a Committee of the House of Commons in 1854 was still more
emphatic. "The beer shop system," it said truly, "has proved a failure."
_Off Licences._--Through legislation introduced by Mr. Gladstone early in
the "sixties," persons are now permitted to sell spirits, wine or beer in
bottles, for consumption off the premises, on payment of a small licence
fee. Previous to then it was illegal for any spirit merchant to supply
less than two gallons at a time. The new law has led to a considerable
trade in strong drink through grocers, and it has been estimated that the
off licence holders supply about five per cent. of spirits sold. This
departure has been the object of very considerable opposition from both
publicans and temperance advocates. The publicans naturally object to
having a large part of what was their monopoly thrown open to almost free
competition; and temperance advocates declare that the off licences are
very largely responsible for the rapid increase of intemperance among
women. It is said that many who would not venture to go to a public-house
to order what they want, quietly and secretly obtain their supplies
through the grocer, and are able to indulge at home without restraint.
Innumerable clergymen and doctors declare that, to their personal
knowledge, these facilities have largely promoted female intemperance. But
in the very nature of the thing, these statements, while worthy of all
attention, are not capable of ordinary proof. The only way they could be
shown to be true would be by naming a large number of cases, with names
and addresses, and submitting them for examination. Naturally neither
clergymen nor doctors can do this; for it would be impossible for them to
make public the secrets of persons whose inner histories they learn in
their professional administrations. It was this that caused the failure of
the temperance party to convince the Committee of the House of Lords, in
1879, as to the harmfulness of the off licences. In its Report, the Lords'
Committee made this statement about the matter:--
"The question which the Committee have had to consider is, not whether
some cases of intemperance may be traced to the purchase of spirits at
grocers' shops, but whether any general increase of intemperance can be
attributed to grocers' licences. After the examination of many witnesses
on the point, and after the best inquiries they could make, the Committee
have obtained very little direct evidence in support of this view; and the
conclusion they have come to is, that upon the whole there have been no
sufficient grounds shown for specially connecting intemperance with the
retail of spirits at shops as contrasted with their retail at other
licensed houses."
_Sunday Closing._--Sunday closing now prevails over almost the whole of
the empire, with the exception of England itself. It is in force in nearly
every colony, and in Scotland, Wales and Ireland. For the latter country
an Act was passed in 1877, granting this measure to the whole island,
except Dublin, Cork, Belfast, Limerick and Waterford, for the space of
four years. The Act was looked upon as purely experimental; but it
operated so successfully that it has since been renewed, year by year, as
an annual measure. Many efforts have been made to place it on a permanent
basis, and to include the five exempted cities in its scope. Both
Protestants and Catholics are agreed as to its necessity, and leading
statesmen of both parties have testified to its beneficial effects.
In 1888, when Mr. T. W. Russell brought before the House a Bill to make
Sunday closing permanent and general in Ireland, the opponents of the
measure obtained the appointment of a Committee to inquire into the
results of the Act. After a most exhaustive inquiry this Committee
reported in favour of it, and recommended--
(_a_) That all drink shops in Ireland close at nine P.M. on Saturdays.
(_b_) That the present Irish Sunday Closing Act be made permanent, and
include the five hitherto exempted towns.
(_c_) That the distance requisite for a person to travel to qualify as a
_bona-fide_ traveller entitled to purchase refreshments be increased from
three miles to six.
This was a great triumph for the Sunday closers. In the words of Mr. A. J.
Balfour, "it was not unfair to say that the whole weight of evidence, with
comparatively insignificant exceptions, was in favour of the continuance
of Sunday closing in Ireland, and of the adoption of Saturday closing
after nine o'clock. The people who gave evidence were not drawn from one
class of the community, but they represented every class and every section
of opinion."
Since then Acts have been brought in year after year embodying these
recommendations; but although supported by the Government it has never
been found possible to carry them, chiefly on account of the congested
condition of business in the Commons.