mentioned[2530] when speaking of the glandiferous trees. In the number
of these there is the laurel, which bears its own peculiar kind of
grape, and more particularly the barren laurel,[2531] which bears
nothing else; for which reason it is looked upon by some persons as the
male tree. The filbert, too, bears catkins, which are hard and compact,
but of no use[2532] whatever.
(30.) But it is the box-tree that supplies us with the greatest number
of products, not only its seed, but a berry also, known by the name of
cratægum;[2533] while on the north side it produces mistletoe, and on
the south hyphear; two products of which I shall shortly have to speak
more[2534] at length. Sometimes, indeed, this tree has all four of
these products growing upon it at the same moment.
CHAP. 53.—DIFFERENCES IN TREES IN RESPECT OF THE TRUNKS AND BRANCHES.
Some trees are of a simple form, and have but a single trunk rising
from the root, together with numerous branches; such as the olive, for
instance, the fig, and the vine; others again are of a shrubby nature,
such as the paliurus,[2535] the myrtle, and the filbert; which last,
indeed, is all the better, and the more abundant its fruit, the more
numerous its branches. In some trees, again, there is no trunk at all,
as is the case with one species of box,[2536] and the lotus[2537] of
the parts beyond sea. Some trees are bifurcated, while there are some
that branch out into as many as five parts. Others, again, divide in
the trunk but have no branches, as in the case of the elder; while
others have no division in the trunk but throw out branches, such as
the pitch-tree, for instance.
In some trees the branches are symmetrically arranged, the pitch-tree
and the fir, for example; while with others they are dispersed without
any order or regularity, as in the robur, the apple, and the pear. In
the fir the branches are thrown out from the trunk straight upwards,
pointing to the sky, and not drooping downwards from the sides of the
trunk. It is a singular thing,[2538] but this tree will die if the ends
of its branches are cut, though, if taken off altogether, no bad effect
is produced. If it is cut, too, below the place where the branches
were, the part of the tree which is left will continue to live; but if,
on the other hand, the top only of the tree is removed, the whole of it
will die.
Some trees, again, throw out branches from the roots, the elm for
example; while others are branchy at the top, the pine for instance,
and the lotus[2539] or Grecian bean, the fruit of which, though wild,
resembles the cherry very closely, and is called the lotus at Rome,
on account of its sweetness. For sheltering houses these trees are
more particularly esteemed, as they throw out their branches to a
considerable distance, from a short trunk, thus affording a very
extensive shade, and very frequently encroaching upon the neighbouring
mansions. There is no tree, however, the shade afforded by which is
less long-lived than this, and when it loses its leaves in winter, it
affords no shelter from the sun. No tree has a more sightly bark, or
one which has greater attractions for the eye; or branches which are
longer, stouter, or more numerous; indeed, one might almost look upon
them as forming so many trees. The bark[2540] of it is used for dyeing
skins, and the root for colouring wool.
The branches of the apple-tree have a peculiar conformation; knots are
formed which resemble the muzzles[2541] of wild beasts, several smaller
ones being united to a larger.
CHAP. 54.—THE BRANCHES OF TREES.
Some of the branches are barren, and do not germinate; this takes place
either from a natural deficiency of strength, or else some injury
received in consequence of having been cut, and the cicatrix impeding
the natural functions. The same that the branch is in the trees that
spread out, is the eye[2542] in the vine, and the joint in the reed.
All trees are naturally the thickest in the parts that are nearest the
ground. The fir, the larch, the palm, the cypress, and the elm, and,
indeed, every tree that has but a single trunk, develope themselves
in their remarkable height. Among the branchy trees the cherry is
sometimes[2543] found to yield a beam forty cubits in length by two in
thickness throughout. Some trees divide into branches from the very
ground, as in the apple-tree, for example.
CHAP. 55. (31.)—THE BARK OF TREES.
In some trees the bark[2544] is thin, as in the laurel and the lime; in
others, again, it is thick, as in the robur; in some it is smooth, as
in the apple and the fig, while in the robur and the palm it is rough:
in all kinds it becomes more wrinkled when the tree is old. In some
trees the bark bursts spontaneously, as in the vine for instance, while
in others it falls off even, as we see in the apple and the arbutus. In
the cork-tree and the poplar, the bark is substantial and fleshy; in
the vine and the reed it is membraneous. In the cherry it is similar to
the coats of the papyrus, while in the vine, the lime, and the fir, it
is composed of numerous layers. In others, again, it is single, the fig
and the reed for instance.
CHAP. 56.—THE ROOTS OF TREES.
There are great differences, too, in the roots of trees. In the fig,
the robur, and the plane, they are numerous; in the apple they are
short and thin, while in the fir and the larch they are single; and by
this single root is the tree supported, although we find some small
fibres thrown out from it laterally. They are thick and unequal in
the laurel and the olive, in which last they are branchy also; while
in the robur they are solid and fleshy.[2545] The robur, too, throws
its roots downwards to a very considerable depth. Indeed, if we are
to believe Virgil,[2546] the æsculus has a root that descends as deep
into the earth as the height to which the trunk ascends in the air.
The roots of the olive, the apple, and the cypress, creep almost upon
the very surface: in some trees they run straight and horizontally,
as in the laurel and the olive; while in others they have a sinuous
course—the fig for example. In some trees the roots are bristling with
small filaments, as in the fir, and many of the forest trees; the
mountaineers cut off these fine filaments, and weave with them very
handsome flasks,[2547] and various other articles.
Some writers say that the roots of trees do not descend below the level
to which the sun’s heat is able to penetrate; which, of course, depends
upon the nature of the soil, whether it happens to be thin or dense.
This, however, I look upon[2548] as a mistake: and, in fact, we find
it stated by some authors that a fir was transplanted, the roots of
which had penetrated eight cubits in depth, and even then the whole of
it was not dug up, it being torn asunder.[2549] The citrus has a root
that goes the very deepest of all, and is of great extent; next after
it come the plane, the robur, and the various glandiferous trees. In
some trees, the laurel for instance, the roots are more tenacious of
life the nearer they are to the surface: hence, when the trunk withers,
it is cut down, and the tree shoots again with redoubled vigour. Some
think that the shorter the roots are, the more rapidly the tree decays;
a supposition which is plainly contradicted by the fig, the root of
which is among the very largest, while the tree becomes aged at a
remarkably early period. I regard also as incorrect what some authors
have stated, as to the roots of trees diminishing[2550] when they are
old; for I once saw an ancient oak, uprooted by a storm, the roots of
which covered a jugerum of ground.
CHAP. 57.—TREES WHICH HAVE GROWN SPONTANEOUSLY FROM THE GROUND.
It is a not uncommon thing for trees when uprooted to receive new
strength when replanted, the earth about their roots forming a sort of
cicatrix[2551] there. This is particularly the case with the plane,
which, from the density of its branches, presents a remarkably broad
surface to the wind: when this happens, the branches are cut off, and
the tree, thus lightened, is replaced in its furrow: this, too, has
also been done before now with the walnut, the olive, and many others.
(32.) We have many instances cited also of trees falling to the ground
without there being any storm or other perceptible cause, but merely by
way of portentous omen, and then rising again of themselves. A prodigy
of this nature happened to the citizens of Rome during their wars
with the Cimbri: at Nuceria, in the grove consecrated to Juno, an elm
inclined to such a degree, even after the top had been cut off, as to
overhang the altar there, but it afterwards recovered itself to such an
extent as to blossom immediately: it was from that very moment, too,
that the majesty of the Roman people began to flourish once again after
it had been laid low by disaster and defeat. A similar circumstance is
said to have taken place also at Philippi, where a willow, which had
fallen down, and the top of which had been taken off, rose again; and
at Stagira, in the Museum[2552] there, where the same thing occurred
to a white poplar; all which events were looked upon as favourable
omens. But what is most wonderful of all, is the fact that a plane, at
Antandros, resumed its original position even after its sides had been
rough-hewn all round with the adze,[2553] and took root again: it was a
tree fifteen cubits long, and four ulnæ in thickness.
CHAP. 58.—HOW TREES GROW SPONTANEOUSLY—DIVERSITIES IN THEIR NATURE, THE
SAME TREES NOT GROWING EVERYWHERE.
The trees which we owe to Nature are produced in three different ways;
spontaneously, by seed sown, or by a slip which throws out a root. Art
has multiplied the methods of reproduction, as we shall have occasion
to state in its own appropriate Book:[2554] at present our sole subject
is the operations of Nature, and the manifold and marvellous methods
she adopts. The trees, as we have already stated,[2555] do not all of
them grow in every locality, nor will they live, many of them,[2556]
when transplanted: this happens sometimes through a natural antipathy
on the part of the tree, sometimes through an innate stubbornness, but
more frequently through the weakness of the variety so transplanted,
either the climate being unfavourable, or the soil repulsive to it.
CHAP. 59.—PLANTS THAT WILL NOT GROW IN CERTAIN PLACES.
Balsamum[2557] will grow nowhere but [in[2558] Judæa]: and the citron
of Assyria refuses to bear fruit in any other country. The palm, too,
will not grow everywhere, and even if it does grow in some places, it
will not bear: sometimes, indeed, it may make a show and promise of
bearing, but even then its fruit comes to nothing, it seeming to have
borne them thus far in spite of itself. The cinnamon[2559] shrub has
not sufficient strength to acclimatize itself in the countries that
lie in the vicinity of Syria. Amomum,[2560] too, and nard,[2561] those
most delicate of perfumes, will not endure the carriage from India
to Arabia, nor yet conveyance by sea; indeed, King Seleucus did make
the attempt, but in vain. But what is more particularly wonderful,
is the fact that most of the trees by care may be prevailed upon to
live when transplanted; for sometimes the soil may be so managed as
to nourish the foreigner and give support to the stranger plant;
climate, however, can never be changed. The pepper-tree[2562] will
live in Italy, and cassia[2563] in the northern climates even, while
the incense-tree[2564] has been known to live in Lydia: but how are
we to impart to these productions the requisite warmth of the sun, in
order to make all the crude juices go off by evaporation, and ripen the
resins that distil from them?
Nearly as great a marvel, too, is the fact that the nature of the tree
may be modified by circumstances, and yet the tree itself be none the
less vigorous in its growth. Nature originally gave the cedar[2565] to
localities of burning heat, and yet we find it growing in the mountains
of Lycia and Phrygia. She made the laurel, too, averse to cold, and
yet there is no tree that grows in greater abundance on Mount Olympus.
At the city of Panticapæum, in the vicinity of the Cimmerian Bosporus,
King Mithridates and the inhabitants of the place used every possible
endeavour, with a view to certain religious ceremonies, to cultivate
the myrtle[2566] and the laurel: they could not succeed, however,
although trees abound there which require a hot climate, such as the
pomegranate and the fig, as well as apples and pears of the most
approved quality. In the same country, too, the trees that belong to
the colder climates, such as the pine, the fir, and the pitch-tree,
refuse to grow. But why go search for instances in Pontus? In the
vicinity of Rome itself it is only with the greatest difficulty[2567]
that the cherry and the chesnut will grow, and the peach-tree, too, at
Tusculum: the Greek nut, too, is grown there from grafts only at a cost
of considerable labour, while Tarracina abounds with whole woods of it.
CHAP. 60. (33.)—THE CYPRESS.
The cypress[2568] is an exotic, and has been reckoned one of the
trees that are naturalized with the greatest difficulty; so much so,
indeed, that Cato[2569] has expatiated upon it at greater length and
more frequently than any of the others. This tree is naturally of a
stubborn[2570] disposition, bears a fruit that is utterly useless,
a berry that causes a wry[2571] face when tasted, and a leaf that is
bitter: it also gives out a disagreeable pungent smell,[2572] and its
shade is far from agreeable. The wood that it furnishes is but scanty,
so much so indeed, that it may be almost regarded as little more than a
shrub. This tree is sacred to Pluto, and hence it is used as a sign of
mourning[2573] placed at the entrance of a house: the female[2574] tree
is for a long time barren. The pyramidal appearance that it presents
has caused it not to be rejected, but for a long time it was only used
for marking the intervals between rows of pines: at the present day,
however, it is clipped and trained to form hedge-rows, or else is
thinned and lengthened out in the various designs[2575] employed in
ornamental gardening, and which represent scenes of hunting, fleets,
and various other objects: these it covers with a thin small leaf,
which is always green.
There are two varieties of the cypress; the one[2576] tapering and
pyramidal, and which is known as the female; while the male tree[2577]
throws its branches straight out from the body, and is often pruned
and employed as a rest for the vine. Both the male and the female are
permitted to throw out their branches, which are cut and employed for
poles and props, being worth, after thirteen years’ growth, a denarius
a-piece. In respect of income, a plantation of cypress is remarkably
profitable, so much so, indeed, that it was a saying in old times that
a cypress-wood is a dowry for a daughter.[2578] The native country
of this tree is the island of Crete, although Cato[2579] calls it
Tarentine, Tarentum being the first place, I suppose, in which it was
naturalized: in the island of Ænaria,[2580] also, if the cypress is
cut down, it will grow again[2581] from the root. But, in the Isle
of Crete, in whatever place the earth is moved, this tree will shoot
up[2582] of its own natural vigour, and immediately appear above the
soil; indeed, in that island there is no occasion even to solicit
the soil, for it grows spontaneously there, on the mountains of Ida
more particularly, and those known as the White Mountains. On the
very summit of these elevations, from which the snows never depart,
we find the cypress growing in great abundance; a thing that is truly
marvellous—seeing that, in other countries, it will only grow in warm
localities; from which it would appear to have a great dislike to its
native climate.
CHAP. 61.—THAT THE EARTH OFTEN BEARS PRODUCTIONS WHICH IT HAS NEVER
BORNE BEFORE.
It is not only the quality of the soil and the unchanging influences
of the climate that affect the nature of trees, but wet and showery
weather also, temporarily at least. Indeed, the torrents very often
bring down with them seeds, and sometimes we find those of unknown
kinds even floating along. This took place in the territory of
Cyrenaica, at the period when laser was first grown there, as we shall
have occasion to mention when we speak of the nature of the various
herbs.[2583] A forest, too, sprang[2584] up in the vicinity of the city
of Cyrene, just after a shower of rain, of a dense, pitchy nature,
about the year of the City of Rome 430.
CHAP. 62. (34.)—THE IVY.—TWENTY VARIETIES OF IT.
It is said that the ivy now grows in Asia,[2585] though
Theophrastus[2586] has denied that such is the fact, and asserts that
it grows nowhere in India, except upon Mount Meros.[2587] He says, too,
that Harpalus used every possible exertion to naturalize it in Media,
but to no purpose; and that Alexander, in consequence of the rarity of
this plant, had himself crowned[2588] with it, after the example of
Father Liber, when returning victorious with his army from India: and
at the present day even, it is used to decorate the thyrsus of that
god, and the casques and bucklers employed by the nations of Thrace in
their sacred ceremonials. The ivy is injurious[2589] to all trees and
plants, and makes its way through tombs and walls; it forms a haunt
much frequented by serpents, for its refreshing coolness; so that it is
a matter for astonishment that there should have been such remarkable
veneration for this plant.
The two principal kinds in the ivy, as in other plants, are the male
tree and the female.[2590] The male is said to have a larger trunk
than the female, and a leaf that is harder and more unctuous, with a
flower nearly approaching to purple: indeed, the flower of both the
male and female tree strongly resembles the wild[2591]-rose, were it
not destitute of smell. Each of these kinds of ivy is divided into
three other varieties; the white[2592] ivy, the black,[2593] and a
third known as the helix.[2594] These varieties are again subdivided
into others, as there is one in which the fruit only is white, and
another in which it is only the leaf that is so. In those which have
a white fruit, the berry in some cases is closely packed and large,
the clusters, which are known as “corymbi,” being of a spherical form.
So, too, with the selenitium, which has a smaller berry, and fewer
clusters; and the same is the case with the black ivy. One kind has a
black seed, and another a seed of a saffron[2595] colour—it is this
last that poets use for their chaplets,[2596] and the leaves of it
are not so black as in the other kinds: by some it is known as the
ivy of Nysa, by others as that of Bacchus:[2597] it is the one that
among the black varieties has the largest clusters of all. Some of
the Greek writers even distinguish in this last kind two varieties,
according to the colour of the berries, the erythranum[2598] and the
chrysocarpus.[2599]
It is the helix, however, that has the most peculiarities of all,
and in the appearance of the leaf more particularly, which is small,
angular, and of a more elegant shape, the leaf in all the other kinds
being plain and simple. It differs, too, in the distance between the
joints, and in being barren more especially, as it never bears fruit.
Some authors, however, think that this difference exists solely in
respect of age and not of kind, and are of opinion that what is the
helix when young, becomes the ordinary ivy when old. This, however,
is clearly proved to be an error upon their part, for we find more
varieties of the helix than one, and three in particular—that of a
grass-green colour, which is the most abundant of all, the kind with
a white leaf, and a third, which is parti-coloured, and known as
the Thracian helix. In that of a grass-green colour, the leaves are
smaller, more closely packed together, and symmetrically arranged;
while in the other kinds the features are altogether different. In the
parti-coloured kind, also, one variety has a smaller leaf than usual,
similarly arranged, and lying closer together, while in the other none
of these features are observed. The leaves, too, are either greater or
smaller and differ in the disposition of the spots upon them, and in
the white helix some of them are whiter than others: the grass-green
variety, however, is the one that grows to the greatest height.
The white helix is in the habit of killing trees by depriving them of
their juices, and increases to such a degree of density as to be quite
a tree itself. Its characteristics are, a very large, broad, leaf, and
projecting buds, which in all the other kinds are bent inwards; its
clusters, too, stand out erect. Although, too, all the ivies have arms
that throw out a root, those of this variety are particularly branchy
and strong; next to it in strength, are those of the black ivy.
It is a peculiarity of the white ivy to throw out arms from the middle
of the leaves, with which it invariably embraces any object that may be
on either side of it; this is the case, too, with walls, even though it
should not be able to clasp them. If the trunk is cut across in ever so
many places, it will still live and thrive, having as many fresh roots
as it has arms, by means of which it ensures safety and impunity, while
at the same time it sucks and strangles the trees to which it clings.
There are great differences also in the fruit of both the white ivy
and the black; for in some of them the berry is so bitter that birds
will not touch it. There is an ivy also which grows upright,[2600] and
stands without any support; being the only one that does so among all
the varieties, it has thence obtained the distinctive name of “cissos.”
The chamæcissos,[2601] on the other hand, is never found except
creeping upon the ground.
CHAP. 63. (35.)—THE SMILAX.
Very similar to the ivy is a plant which first came from Cilicia,
but is now more commonly found in Greece, and known by the name of
smilax.[2602] It has numerous thick stalks covered with joints, and
thorny branches of a shrub-like form: the leaf resembles that of the
ivy, but is not angular, while from the foot-stalk it throws out
tendrils; the flower is white, and has the smell of the lily. It bears
clusters like those of the wild vine and not the ivy, and of a reddish
colour. The larger berries contain three stones, the smaller but one
only: these berries are black and hard. This plant is looked upon as
ill-omened, and is consequently banished from all sacred rites, and
is allowed to form no part of chaplets; having received this mournful
character from the maiden Smilax, who upon her love being slighted by
the youth Crocus, was transformed into this shrub. The common people,
being mostly ignorant of this, not unfrequently take it for ivy, and
pollute their festivities with its presence; for who, in fact, is
unaware that the ivy is used as a chaplet by poets, as also by Father
Liber and Silenus? Tablets are made[2603] of the wood of the smilax,
and it is a peculiarity of this wood to give out a slight sound,[2604]
if held close to the ear. It is said that ivy is remarkably efficacious
for testing wine, and that a vessel made of this wood will let the wine
pass through it, while the water will remain behind, if there has been
any mixed with it.[2605]
CHAP. 64. (36.)—WATER PLANTS: THE RUSH: TWENTY-EIGHT VARIETIES OF THE
REED.
Among those plants which thrive best in cold localities, it will be
only proper to mention the aquatic shrubs.[2606] In the first rank, we
find the reed, equally indispensable for the emergencies of war and
peace, and used among the appliances[2607] of luxury even. The northern
nations make use of reeds for roofing their houses, and the stout
thatch thus formed will last for centuries even; in other countries,
too, they make light vaulted ceilings with them. Reeds are employed,
too, for writing upon paper, those of Egypt more particularly, which
have a close affinity to the papyrus: the most esteemed, however, are
the reeds of Cnidos, and those which grow in Asia, on the margin of the
Anaitic Lake[2608] there.
The reed of our country is naturally of a more fungous nature, being
formed of a spongy cartilage, which is hollow within, and covered by a
thin, dry, woody coat without; it easily breaks into splinters, which
are remarkably sharp at the edge. In other respects, it is of a thin,
graceful shape, articulated with joints, and tapering gradually towards
the top, which ends in a thick, hairy tuft. This tuft is not without
its uses, as it is employed for filling the beds used in taverns,
in place of feathers; or else, when it has assumed a more ligneous
consistency, it is pounded, as we see done among the Belgæ, and
inserted between the joints of ships, to close the seams, a thing that
it does most effectually, being more tenacious than glue, and adhering
more firmly than pitch.
CHAP. 65.—REEDS USED FOR ARROWS, AND FOR THE PURPOSE OF WRITING.
It is by the aid of the reed[2609] that the nations of the East decide
their wars; fixing in it a barbed point, they inflict a wound from
which the arrow cannot be withdrawn. By the addition of feathers they
accelerate the flight of this instrument of death, and the weapon, if
it breaks in the wound, furnishes the combatants with a weapon afresh.
With these missiles the warriors darken the very rays of the sun.[2610]
It is for this reason more particularly that they desire a clear and
serene sky, and hold in abhorrence all windy and rainy weather, which
has the effect of compelling them, in spite of themselves, to be at
peace with one another.
If a person were carefully to enumerate the peoples of Æthiopia, Egypt,
Arabia, India, Scythia, Bactria, and Sarmatia, together with all the
numerous peoples of the East, and the vast realms of the Parthians, he
would find that fully one-half of mankind throughout the whole world
live under a dominion imposed by the agency of the arrow. It was their
surpassing excellence in this arm that so ennobled the warriors of
Crete, though in this respect, as well as in all others, Italy has
gained the mastery; there being no reed in existence better adapted for
making arrows than that found in the Rhenus, a river of the territory
of Bononia: filled with a greater quantity of pith than any of the
others, it is light, and easily cleaves the air, while at the same
time it has sufficient weight to resist the action of the wind; an
advantage that is not possessed in an equal degree by those employed
among the Belgæ. These advantages, however, are possessed by the most
approved kinds that are found in Crete, although those of India are
preferred; in the opinion of some persons, however, these last are of
a totally different nature, for by adding a point to them, the natives
are able to use them as lances even. Indeed, we find that in India the
reed grows to the thickness of a tree, a fact which is proved by the
specimens which are everywhere to be seen in our temples. The Indians
assure us that in this plant, too, there is the distinction of male and
female; the body of the male being more compact, and that of the female
of a larger size. In addition to this, if we can credit the fact, a
single compartment between the joints is sufficiently large to answer
the purposes of a boat.[2611] These reeds are found more particularly
on the banks of the river Acesines.
In every variety of the reed a single root gives birth to numerous
stems, and if cut down, they will shoot again with increased fecundity.
The root, which is naturally tenacious of life, is also jointed as well
as the stem. The reeds of India are the only ones in which the leaves
are short; but in all the varieties these leaves take their rise at
the joints, and surround the stem with a fine tissue about half way
upwards to the next joint, and then leave the stem and droop downwards.
The reed, as well as the calamus, although rounded, has two sides,
which throw out leaves alternately from above the joints, in such a
way that when one springs from the right side, the next issues from
the joint above it on the left, and so in turns. Branches, too, shoot
occasionally from the stem, being themselves reeds of diminutive growth.
CHAP. 66.—FLUTE REEDS: THE REED OF ORCHOMENUS; REEDS USED FOR FOWLING
AND FISHING.
The varieties of the reed are numerous. Some are more compact than
others, thicker at the joints, and with a shorter interval between
them; while others, again, are less compact, with longer intervals
between the joints, and not so straight. Another kind of reed is quite
hollow; it is known as the “syringia,”[2612] and is particularly useful
for making flutes, having neither pith in it nor any fleshy substance.
The reed of Orchomenus has a passage in it open from one end to the
other, and is known as the auleticon;[2613] this last is best for
making pipes,[2614] the former[2615] for the syrinx. There is another
reed, the wood of which is thicker, and the passage very contracted,
being entirely filled with a spongy kind of pith. One kind, again, is
shorter, and another longer, the one thinner, the other more thick.
That known as the donax, throws out the most shoots, and grows only in
watery localities; indeed, this is a point which constitutes a very
considerable difference, those reeds being greatly preferred which
grow in a dry soil. The archer’s reed forms a peculiar species, as we
have already stated;[2616] but that of Crete[2617] has the longest
intervals between the joints, and when subjected to heat is capable of
being rendered perfectly pliable[2618] at pleasure. The leaves, too,
constitute different varieties, not only by their number, but their
colour also. The reed of Laconia is spotted,[2619] and throws out a
greater number of shoots at the lower extremities; being very similar
in nature, it is thought, to the reeds that we find growing about
stagnant waters, and unlike those of the rivers, in being covered with
leaves of considerable length; which, climbing upwards, embrace the
stem to a considerable distance above the joints. There is also an
obliquely-spreading reed, which does not shoot upwards to any height,
but spreads out like a shrub, keeping close to the earth; this reed
is much sought by animals when young, and is known by some persons as
the elegia.[2620] There is in Italy, too, a substance found in the
marsh-reeds, called by the name of adarca:[2621] it is only to be found
issuing from the outer skin, below the flossy head of the plant, and is
particularly beneficial to the teeth, having, in fact, an equal degree
of pungency with mustard.
The terms of admiration in which they are spoken of by the ancients
compels me to enter into some more minute details relative to the
reed-beds of Lake Orchomenus. Characias[2622] was the name given there
to a reed of stout and compact quality, while a thinner one was known
as the plotias; this last was to be found growing on the floating
islands there, while the former grew upon the banks that were covered
by the waters of the lake. A third kind again, which had the name of
“auleticon,” was the same that is now known as the musical pipe[2623]
reed. This reed used to take nine years to grow, as it was for that
period that the waters of the lake were continually on the increase;
it used to be looked upon as a prodigy of evil omen, if at the end of
its rise its waters remained overflowing so long as a couple of years;
a thing that was observed at the period of the Athenian disasters at
Cheronæa, and on various other occasions. This lake has the name of
Lebaida, at the part where the river Cephisus enters it.
When this inundation has lasted so long as a year, the reed is found
large enough to be available for the purposes of fowling: at this
period it used to be called zeugites.[2624] On the other hand, when
the waters subsided at an earlier period, the reeds were known as
bombyciæ,[2625] being of a more slender form. In this variety, too,
the leaf of the female plant was broader and whiter than that of the
others, while that upon which there was little or no down bore the
name of the eunuch reed. The stem of this last variety was used for
the manufacture of concert[2626] flutes. I must not here pass by in
silence the marvellous care which the ancients lavished upon these
instruments, a thing which will, in some measure, plead as an apology
for the manufacture of them at the present day of silver in preference.
The reed used to be cut, as it was then looked upon as being in the
best condition, at the rising of Arcturus;[2627] an usage which
prevailed down to the time of Antigenides, the musician, and while
flute-playing was of a more simple style. Being thus prepared, the
reeds became fit for use in the course of a few years. At that period
even the reed required considerable seasoning to render it pliable,
and to be instructed, as it were, in the proper modulation of its
sounds; the mouth-piece and stops[2628] being naturally contracted,
and so producing a music better adapted to the theatrical taste of
the day. But in later times, when the music became more varied, and
luxury began to exercise its influence upon the musical taste, it
became the general usage to cut the reeds before the summer solstice,
and to make them fit for use at the end of three months; the stops and
mouth-piece being found, when the reeds were cut at that period, to be
more open and better adapted for the modifications of sound: it is in
this state that the reed is used for similar purposes at the present
day. In those times it was a very general persuasion also, that every
pipe ought to have the tongue of its own mouth-piece cut from the same
reed as itself, and that a section from the part nearest the root
was best adapted to form the left-handed flute,[2629] and from the
part adjoining the top the right-handed one: those reeds, too, were
considered immeasurably superior, which had been washed by the waters
of Cephisus itself.
At the present day the sacrificial pipes used by the Tuscans are
made of box-wood, while those employed at the games are made of the
lotus,[2630] the bones of the ass, or else silver. The fowler’s reeds
of the best quality are those of Panormus,[2631] and the best reeds for
fishing-rods come from Abarita in Africa.[2632]
CHAP. 67.—THE VINE-DRESSERS’ REED.
The reed is employed in Italy more particularly, as a support for
the vine. Cato[2633] recommends that it should be planted in a damp
situation, the soil being first turned up with a double mattock, and a
distance of three feet left between the young[2634] layers; he says,
too, that the wild asparagus[2635] from which the cultivated species is
produced, may be planted together with it, as they agree particularly
well together.
(37.) He says also that the willow may be planted in its vicinity, than
which there is no aquatic plant of more general utility, although the
poplar may be preferred for the training of the vine, and the support
of the Cæcuban grape; although, too, the alder affords a more efficient
protection by the hedges it forms, and, planted in the very water,
makes a rampart along the banks in defence of the adjoining country
against the violence of the rivers when they overflow; when cut down,
too, this last tree is useful for the innumerable suckers which it
throws out.
CHAP. 68.—- THE WILLOW: EIGHT VARIETIES OF IT.
Of the willow, too, there are several varieties. One[2636] of them
throws out its branches to a considerable height; and these, coupled
together, serve as perches for the vine, while the bark around the
tree itself is used for withes.[2637] Others,[2638] again, of a more
pliable nature, supply a flexible twig, which is used for the purpose
of tying; while others throw out osiers of remarkable thinness, adapted
by their suppleness and graceful slenderness for the manufacture of
wicker-work.[2639] Others, again, of a stouter make, are used for
weaving panniers, and many other utensils employed in agriculture;
while from a whiter willow the bark is peeled off, and, being
remarkably tractable, admits of various utensils being made of it,
which require a softer and more pliable material than leather: this
last is also found particularly useful in the construction of those
articles of luxury, reclining chairs. The willow, when cut, continues
to thrive, and, indeed, throws out more thickly from the top, which,
when closely clipped, bears a stronger resemblance to a closed fist
than the top of a stump. It is a tree, which, in my opinion, deserves
to be placed by no means in the lowest rank of trees; for there is none
that will yield a more certain profit, which can be cultivated at less
expense, or which is less liable to be influenced by changes in the
weather.
CHAP. 69.—TREES IN ADDITION TO THE WILLOW, WHICH ARE OF USE IN MAKING
WITHES.
Cato[2640] considers the culture of the willow as deserving to hold the
third rank in estimation, and he gives it precedence to the cultivation
of the olive, tillage for corn, or laying out land for pasture. It is
not, however, because the willow is the only tree that produces withes;
for they may be procured also from the broom, the poplar, the elm,
the blood-red cornel, the birch, and the reed itself when split, or
else the leaves of that plant, as we know to be the case in Liguria.
The vine, also, will furnish them; the bramble, too, with the thorns
removed, as well as the twisted hazel. It is a very singular thing,
that a wood after it has been beaten and pounded should be found all
the stronger for making withes, but such is a striking peculiarity that
exists in the willow. The Greek red[2641] willow is split for this
purpose: while the willow[2642] of Ameria is whiter but more brittle,
for which reason it is used in an uncut state for tying. In Asia there
are three varieties known of the willow; the black[2643] willow, which
is best adapted for making withes, the white willow, employed for
various agricultural purposes, and a third, which is shorter than the
others, and known as the helix.[2644]
With us, also, there is the same number of denominations given to as
many varieties of the willow; one being known as the viminal or purple
willow,[2645] another as the nitelina,[2646] from its resemblance to
the colour of the nitela, thinner in the trunk than the preceding one,
and the third as the Gallic[2647] kind, being the thinnest of them all.
CHAP. 70.—RUSHES: CANDLE-RUSHES: RUSHES FOR THATCHING.
The rush,[2648] so frail in form, and growing in marshy spots, cannot
be reckoned as belonging to the shrubs, nor yet to the brambles or the
stalk plants; nor, indeed, in strict justice, to any of the classes of
plants except one that is peculiarly its own. It is extensively used
for making thatch and matting, and, with the outer coat taken off, for
making candles and funeral torches. In some places, however, the rush
is more hard and firm: thus, for instance, it is employed not only
by the sailors on the Padus for making the sails of boats, but for
the purposes of sea-fishing as well, by the fishermen of Africa, who,
in a most preposterous manner, hang the sails made of it behind the
masts.[2649] The people, too, of Mauritania thatch their cottages[2650]
with rushes; indeed, if we look somewhat closely into the matter, it
will appear that the rush is held in pretty nearly the same degree
of estimation there as the papyrus is in the inner regions of the
world.[2651]
CHAP. 71.—THE ELDER: THE BRAMBLE.
Of a peculiar nature, too, though to be reckoned among the
water[2652]-plants, is the bramble, a shrub-like plant, and the elder,
which is of a spongy nature, though not resembling giant fennel,
from having upon it a greater quantity of wood. It is a belief among
the shepherds that if they cut a horn or trumpet from the wood of
this tree, it will give all the louder sound if cut in a spot where
the shrub has been out of hearing of the crowing of the cock. The
bramble bears mulberries,[2653] and one variety of it, known as the
cynosbatos,[2654] bears a flower similar to the rose. There is a third
variety, known to the Greeks as the Idæan[2655] bramble, from the place
where it grows: it is slighter than the others, with smaller thorns,
and not so hooked. Its flower, mixed with honey, is employed as an
ointment for sore eyes and erysipelas: and an infusion of it in water
is used for diseases of the stomach.[2656]
The elder[2657] bears a small black berry, which contains a viscous
juice, employed more particularly for staining[2658] the hair. The
berries, too, are boiled in water and eaten.[2659]
CHAP. 72. (38.)—THE JUICES OF TREES.
There is a juice in the bark of trees, which must be looked upon as
their blood, though it is not of a similar nature in all. In the fig it
is of a milky consistency, and has the peculiar property of curdling
milk, and so forming cheese.[2660] In the cherry-tree this juice is
gummy, in the elm clammy, in the apple viscous and fatty, while in the
vine and the pear it is watery. The more viscous this humour is, the
more long-lived the tree. In a word, we find in the bodies of trees—as
with all other beings that are animated—skin, blood, flesh, sinews,
veins, bones, and marrow; the bark serving them in place of skin. It is
a singular fact connected with the mulberry-tree, that when the medical
men wish to extract its juice, if the incision is lightly made, by a
blow with a stone, and at the second hour of the day in spring, the
juice will flow: but if, on the other hand, a wound is inflicted to any
depth, it has all the appearance of being dried up.
Immediately beneath the bark in most trees there is a fatty substance,
which, from its colour, has obtained the name of alburnum:[2661] it is
soft, and is the very worst part of the wood, and in the robur even
will very easily rot, being particularly liable to wood-worm, for which
reason it is invariably removed. Beneath this fat lies the flesh[2662]
of the tree, and then under that, its bones, or, in other words, the
choicest part of the wood. Those trees which have a dry wood, the
olive, for instance, bear fruit every other year only: this is more the
case with them than with those the wood of which is of a fleshy nature,
such as the cherry, for instance. It is not all trees, too, that have
this fat and flesh in any abundance, the same as we find to be the
case among the more active animals. The box, the cornel, and the olive
have none at all, nor yet any marrow, and a very small proportion,
too, of blood. In the same way, too, the service-tree has no bones,
and the elder no flesh, while both of them have marrow in the greatest
abundance. Reeds, too, have hardly any flesh.
CHAP. 73.—THE VEINS AND FIBRES OF TREES.
In the flesh of some trees we find both fibres[2663] and veins: they
are easily distinguished. The veins[2664] are larger, while the fibres
are of whiter material, and are to be found in those woods more
particularly which are easily split. Hence it is that if the ear is
applied to the extremity of a beam of wood, however long, a tap with
a graver[2665] even upon the other end may be distinctly heard, the
sound penetrating by the passages which run straight through it: by
these means it is that we ascertain whether timber runs awry, or is
interrupted by knots. The tuberosities which we find on trees resemble
the kernels[2666] that are formed in flesh: they contain neither
veins nor fibres, but only a kind of tough, solid flesh, rolled up in
a sort of ball: it is these tuberosities that are the most esteemed
parts[2667] in the citrus and the maple. As to the other kinds of wood
which are employed for making tables, the trees are split into planks
lengthwise, and the parts are then selected along which the fibres
run, and properly rounded; for the wood would be too brittle to use if
it were cut in segments crosswise.[2668] In the beech, the grain of
the fibrous part runs crosswise;[2669] hence it is that the ancients
held in such high esteem all vessels made with the wood of it. Manius
Curius made oath, on one occasion, that he had not touched an article
of all the spoil except a single oil cruet[2670] of beech, to use for
sacrificing. Wood is always put lengthwise into the water to season,
as that part which was nearest the root will sink to a greater[2671]
depth than the other. In some wood there is fibre, without veins,
and merely consisting of filaments slightly knit together: wood of
this nature is remarkably fissile. Other wood, again, is more easily
broken across than split, such as the wood of those trees that have no
fibre, the olive and the vine, for instance: on the other hand, in the
fig-tree, the whole of the body consists of flesh.[2672] The holm-oak,
the cornel, the robur, the cytisus, the mulberry, the ebony, the lotus,
and the other trees which we have mentioned[2673] as being destitute
of marrow, consist entirely of bone.[2674] All these woods are of a
blackish colour, with the exception of the cornel, of which glossy
yellow hunting-spears are made, marked with incisions for their further
embellishment. In the cedar, the juniper, and the larch, the wood is
red.
(39.) In Greece the female larch furnishes a wood[2675] which is known
as ægis, and is just the colour of honey. This wood has been found to
be proof against decay, and forms the pannels used by painters, being
never known to gape or split; the portion thus employed is that which
lies nearest to the pith. In the fir-tree this part is called “leuson”
by the Greeks. In the cedar, too, the hardest part is the wood that
lies nearest to the sap: after the slimy[2676] pith has been carefully
removed, it has a similar degree of hardness to the bones in the bodies
of animals. It is said, too, that in Greece the inner part of the elder
is remarkably firm: indeed, those whose business it is to make hunting
spears, prefer this material to all others, it being a wood composed
wholly of skin and bone.
CHAP. 74.—THE FELLING OF TREES.
The proper time for felling trees that are wanted for barking, the
round, tapering trees, for instance, that are employed in temples and
for other purposes, is at the period of germination:[2677] for at
other times it is quite impossible to detach the bark from the rotten
wood that adheres to it, while the wood itself assumes a blackish
hue. Squared logs, and wood from which the bark has been lopped, are
generally cut in the period that intervenes between the winter solstice
and the prevalence of the west winds; or else, if it is necessary to
anticipate that period, at the setting of Arcturus and before that of
the Lyre, the very earliest period being the summer solstice: the days
of these respective constellations will be mentioned in the appropriate
place.[2678]
In general it is looked upon as quite sufficient to use all due
precaution that a tree is not rough-hewn before it has borne its
yearly crop. The robur, if cut in spring, is subject to the attacks
of wood-worm, but if cut in winter, will neither rot nor warp:
otherwise it is very liable to bend and become awry, as well as to
crack; the same is the case, too, with the cork-tree, even if cut
down at the proper time. The state of the moon,[2679] too, is of
infinite importance, and it is generally recommended that trees
should be cut only between the twentieth and the thirtieth days of
the month. It is generally agreed, however, by all, that it is the
very best time for felling timber, when the moon is in conjunction
with the sun, a day which is called by some persons the interlunium,
and by others the moon’s silence. At all events, it was under these
circumstances that Tiberius Cæsar gave orders for the larches to be
cut in Rhætia, that were required for the purpose of rebuilding the
bridge of the Naumachia[2680] after it had been destroyed by fire.
Some persons say that the moon ought not only to be in conjunction,
but below the horizon as well, a thing that can only happen in the
night. If the conjunction should chance to fall on the very day of the
winter solstice, the timber, they say, that is then felled will be of
everlasting duration; the next best being the timber that is cut when
the conjunction coincides with the constellations previously mentioned.
There are some, too, who add the rising of the Dog-star as a favourable
time, and say that it was at this period that the timber was cut which
was employed in building the Forum of Augustus.
Wood which is intended for timber ought to be cut neither when too
young nor too old. Some persons, too—and the practice is by no means
without its utility—cut round[2681] the tree as far as the pith, and
then leave the timber standing, so that all the juices may be enabled
to escape. Going back to ancient times, it is a remarkable fact, that
in the first Punic War the fleet commanded by Duillius was on the water
within sixty days from the time the timber was cut: and, what is still
more so, Piso relates that King Hiero had two hundred and twenty ships
wholly constructed in forty-five days: in the second Punic War, too,
the fleet of Scipio was at sea the fortieth day after the axe had been
put to the tree. Such is the energy and dispatch that can be displayed
on occasions of emergency.
CHAP. 75.—THE OPINION OF CATO ON THE FELLING OF TIMBER.
Cato,[2682] a man of consummate authority in all practical matters,
expresses himself in relation to timber to the following effect:—“For
making presses, employ the wood of the sappinus in preference. When
you root up the elm, the pine, the nut-tree, or, indeed, any other
kind of tree, mind and do so when the moon is on the wane, after
midday, and when there is no south wind blowing. The proper time for
cutting a tree is when the seed[2683] is ripe, but be careful not to
draw it away or plane it while the dew is falling.” He then proceeds
to say[2684]—“Never touch the timber, except when the moon is on the
change, or else at the end of the second quarter: at those periods you
may either root up the tree, or fell it as it stands. The next seven
days after the full moon are the best of all for grubbing up a tree. Be
particularly careful, too, not to rough-hew timber, or, indeed, to cut
or touch it, unless it is perfectly dry; and by no means while it is
covered with frost or dew.”
The Emperor Tiberius used also to observe the changes of the moon for
cutting his hair.[2685] M. Varro[2686] has recommended that the hair
should be cut at full moon only, if we would avoid baldness.
CHAP. 76.—THE SIZE OF TREES: THE NATURE OF WOOD: THE SAPPINUS.
From the larch, and still more the fir, after it has been cut, a
liquid[2687] flows for a considerable period: these are the loftiest
and straightest of all the trees. The fir is preferred for making the
masts and sailyards of ships, on account of its comparative lightness.
It is a common feature with these trees, in common with the pine,
to have four rows of veins running along the wood, or else two, or
sometimes only one. The heart[2688] of these trees is peculiarly well
adapted for joiners’ work, and the best wood of all is that which has
four layers of veins, it being softer than the rest: men of experience
in these matters can instantly form a judgment of the quality from
the bark. That part in the fir which is nearest to the ground is free
from knots: when soaked in river water in the way we have already
mentioned,[2689] and then barked, the wood of this part is known[2690]
as sappinus; while that of the upper part, which is harder and knotty,
goes by the name of “fusterna.” In trees, the side which looks towards
the north-east is the most robust, and it is universally the case, that
those which grow in moist and damp localities are of inferior quality,
while in those which grow in warm and sunny spots, the wood is more
compact and durable; hence it is, that at Rome the fir is preferred
that grows on the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea to that of the shores of
the Adriatic.
There are also considerable differences in the qualities of these trees
according to the country of their growth: the most esteemed are those
of the Alps and the Apennines; in Gaul, those of Jura[2691] and Mount
Vogesus; those also of Corsica, Bithynia, Pontus, and Macedonia; while
the firs of Ænea[2692] and Arcadia are of inferior quality. Those,
however, of Parnassus and Eubœa are the worst of all, the trees being
branchy and knotted, and the wood very apt to rot. As for the cedar,
those of Crete, Africa, and Syria are the most esteemed. Wood, if well
rubbed with oil of cedar, is proof against wood-worm and decay. The
juniper, too, has the same[2693] virtues as the cedar; in Spain it
grows to a very considerable size, in the territory of the Vaccæi[2694]
more particularly: the heart of this tree, too, is universally more
firm and solid than cedar even. A general fault in all wood is that
known as cross-grain, which is formed by contortions of the knots
and veins.[2695] In the wood of some trees there are to be found
knurs,[2696] like those in marble; these knurs are remarkably hard, and
offer a resistance like that of a nail, to the great injury of the saw:
in some cases, also, they are formed accidentally, from either a stone,
or the branch of another tree lodging there, and being absorbed in the
body of the tree.
In the Forum at Megara there long stood a wild olive upon which
warriors who had distinguished themselves by their martial powers
had been in the habit of suspending their arms. In the lapse of time
the bark of this tree had closed, and quite concealed these arms from
view. Upon it, however, depended the fate of the city; for it had been
announced by an oracle, that when a tree there should bring forth arms,
the fall of the city would be close at hand: and such, in fact, was
the result, when the tree was cut down and greaves and helmets were
found within the wood.[2697] It is said that stones found under these
circumstances have the property of preventing abortion.
(40.) It is generally thought that the largest[2698] tree that has ever
been seen, was the one that was exhibited at Rome, by Tiberius Cæsar,
as an object of curiosity, upon the bridge of the Naumachia previously
mentioned.[2699] It had been brought thither along with other timber,
and was preserved till the construction of the amphitheatre of the
Emperor Nero:[2700] it was a log of larch, one hundred and twenty feet
long, and of an uniform thickness of a couple of feet. From this fact
we can form an estimate of the original height of the tree; indeed,
measured from top to bottom it must have been originally of a length
that is almost incredible. In our own time, too, in the porticos of the
Septa,[2701] there was a log which had been left there by M. Agrippa,
as being equally an object of curiosity, having been found too large to
be used in the building of the vote office[2702] there: it was twenty
feet shorter than the one previously mentioned, and a foot-and-a-half
in thickness. There was a fir, too, that was particularly admired, when
it formed the mast of the ship, which brought from Egypt, by order of
the Emperor Caius,[2703] the obelisk[2704] that was erected in the
Vaticanian Circus, with the four blocks of stone intended for its base.
It is beyond all doubt that there has been seen nothing on the sea
more wonderful than this ship: one hundred and twenty thousand modii
of lentils formed its ballast; and the length of it took up the greater
part of the left side of the harbour at Ostia. It was sunk at that spot
by order of the Emperor Claudius, three moles, each as high as a tower,
being built upon it; they were constructed with cement[2705] which the
same vessel had conveyed from Puteoli. It took the arms of four men
to span the girth of this tree, and we not unfrequently hear of the
price of masts for such purposes, as being eighty thousand sesterces or
more: rafts, too, of this wood are sometimes put together, the value
of which is forty thousand. In Egypt and Syria, it is said, the kings,
for want of fir, used to employ cedar[2706] for building their ships:
the largest cedar that we find mentioned is said to have come from
Cyprus, where it was cut to form the mast of a galley of eleven tiers
of oars that belonged to Demetrius: it was one hundred and thirty feet
in length, and took three men to span its girth. The pirates of Germany
navigate their seas in vessels formed of a single tree hollowed[2707]
out: some of these will hold as many as thirty men.
Of all woods, the most compact, and consequently the heaviest, are the
ebony and the box, both of them of a slender make. Neither of these
woods will float in water, nor, indeed, will that of the cork tree,
if the bark is removed; the same is the case, too, with the wood of
the larch. Of the other woods, the driest is that of the tree known at
Rome as the lotus,[2708] and next, that of the robur, when the white
sap has been removed. The wood of the robur is dark, and that of the
cytisus[2709] still more so, approaching, in fact, the nearest of all
to the colour of ebony; though there are not wanting writers who assert
that the wood of the Syrian terebinth is darker.[2710] An artist of the
name of Thericles is highly spoken of for his skill in turning goblets
from the wood of the terebinth: and, indeed, that fact is a proof of
the goodness of the wood. Terebinth is the only wood that requires to
be rubbed with oil, and is improved thereby. Its colour is imitated
remarkably well with the walnut and the wild pear, which have its
peculiar tint imparted to them by being boiled in colouring liquid.
The wood of all the trees of which we have here made mention is firm
and compact. Next after them comes the cornel, although it can hardly
be looked upon as timber, in consequence of its remarkable slimness;
the wood of it, in fact, is used for hardly any other purpose than the
spokes of wheels, or else for making wedges for splitting wood, and
pins or bolts, which have all the hardness of those of iron. Besides
these, there are the holm-oak, the wild and the cultivated olive, the
chesnut, the yoke-elm, and the poplar. This last is mottled similarly
to the maple, and would be used for joiners’ work if wood could be good
for anything when the branches are so often lopped: that acting upon
the tree as a sort of castration, and depriving it of its strength.
In addition to these facts, most of these trees, but the robur more
particularly, are so extremely hard, that it is quite impossible to
bore the wood till it has been soaked in water; and even then, a nail
once driven home cannot be drawn out again. On the other hand, a nail
has no[2711] hold in cedar. The wood of the lime is the softest of all,
and, as it would appear, the hottest by nature; a proof of this, they
say, is the fact that it will turn the edge of the adze sooner than any
other wood.[2712] In the number, also, of the trees that are hot by
nature, are the mulberry, the laurel, the ivy, and all those woods from
which fire is kindled by attrition.
CHAP. 77.—METHODS OF OBTAINING FIRE FROM WOOD.
This is a method[2713] which has been employed by the outposts of
armies, and by shepherds, on occasions when there has not been a stone
at hand to strike fire with. Two pieces of wood are rubbed briskly
together, and the friction soon sets them on fire; which is caught on
dry and inflammable substances, funguses and leaves being found to
ignite the most readily. There is nothing superior to the wood of the
ivy for rubbing against, or to that of the laurel for rubbing with.
A species of wild vine,[2714] too—not the same as the labrusca—which
climbs up other trees like the ivy, is highly approved of. The
coldest[2715] woods of all are those of the aquatic trees; but they are
the most flexible also, and for that reason the best adapted for the
construction of bucklers. On an incision being made in them, they will
contract immediately, and so close up their wounds, at the same time
rendering it more difficult for the iron to penetrate: in the number of
these woods are the fig, the willow, the lime, the birch, the elder,
and both varieties of the poplar.
The lightest of all these woods, and consequently the most useful, are
the fig and the willow. They are all of them employed, however, in the
manufacture of baskets and other utensils of wicker-work; while, at
the same time, they possess a degree of whiteness and hardness which
render them very well adapted for carving. The plane has considerable
flexibility, but it is moist and slimy like the alder. The elm, too,
the ash, the mulberry, and the cherry, are flexible, but of a drier
nature; the wood, however, is more weighty. The elm is the best of all
for retaining its natural toughness, and hence it is more particularly
employed for socket beams for hinges, and cases for the pannelling of
doors, being proof against warping. It is requisite, however, that the
beam to receive the hinge should be inverted when set up, the top of
the tree answering to the lower hinge, the root to the upper. The wood
of the palm and the cork-tree is soft, while that of the apple and the
pear is compact. Such, however, is not the case with the maple, its
wood being brittle, as, in fact, all veined woods are. In every kind
of tree, the varieties in the wood are still more augmented by the
wild trees and the males. The wood, too, of the barren tree is more
solid than that of the fruit-bearing ones, except in those species in
which the male trees[2716] bear fruit, the cypress and the cornel, for
instance.
CHAP. 78.—TREES WHICH ARE PROOF AGAINST DECAY: TREES WHICH NEVER SPLIT.
The following trees are proof against decay and the otherwise
injurious effects of age—the cypress, the cedar, the ebony, the lotus,
the box, the yew, the juniper, and both the wild and cultivated olive.
Among the others, the larch, the robur, the cork-tree, the chesnut, and
the walnut are also remarkably durable. The cedar, cypress, olive, and
box are never known to split or crack spontaneously.
CHAP. 79.—HISTORICAL FACTS CONNECTED WITH THE DURABILITY OF WOOD.
Of all the woods, the ebony, the cypress, and the cedar are considered
to be the most durable, a good proof of which is to be seen in the
timber of which the Temple of Diana at Ephesus is built: it being now
four hundred years since it was erected, at the joint expense of the
whole of Asia;[2717] and, what is a well-known fact, the roof is wholly
constructed of planks of cedar. As to the statue of the goddess, there
is some doubt of what wood it is made; all the writers say that it is
ebony, with the exception of Mucianus, who was three times consul, one
of the very latest among the writers that have seen it; he declares
that it is made of the wood of the vine, and that it has never been
changed all the seven times that the temple has been rebuilt. He says,
too, that it was Endæus who made choice of this wood, and even goes
so far as to mention the artist’s name, a thing that really surprises
me very much, seeing that he attributes to it an antiquity that dates
before the times of Father Liber, and of Minerva even. He states, also,
that, by the aid of numerous apertures, it is soaked with nard, in
order that the moist nature of that drug may preserve the wood and keep
the seams[2718] close together: I am rather surprised, however, that
there should be any seams in the statue, considering the very moderate
size it is. He informs us, also, that the doors are made of cypress,
and that the wood, which has now lasted very nearly four hundred years,
has all the appearance of new.[2719] It is worthy of remark, too, that
the wood of these doors, after the pieces had been glued together, was
left to season four years before they were put up: cypress was made
choice of from the circumstance that it is the only kind of wood that
maintains its polish to all future time.
And have we not the statue of Vejovis,[2720] also, made of cypress,
still preserved in the Capitol, where it was consecrated in the year
of the City 661? The Temple of Apollo, too, at Utica, is equally
celebrated: there we may see beams of cedar still in existence, and in
just the same condition in which they were when erected at the first
building of that city, eleven hundred and seventy-eight years ago. At
Saguntum, too, in Spain, there is a temple of Diana, which was brought
thither by the original founders of the place, from the island of
Zacynthus, in the year 200 before the taking of Troy, Bocchus says—It
is preserved beneath the town, they say. Hannibal, being induced
thereto by feelings of religious veneration, spared this temple, and
its beams, made of juniper, are still in existence at this very day.
But the most memorable instance of all is that of the temple which
was dedicated to the same goddess at Aulis, several ages before the
Trojan War: of what wood, however, it was originally built is a fact
that has been long lost in oblivion. Speaking in general terms, we may
say that those woods are of the greatest durability which are the most
odoriferous.[2721]
Next to those woods of which we have just spoken, that of the mulberry
is held in the highest degree of esteem, and it will even turn black
when old. There are some trees, again, that are more durable than
others, when employed for certain purposes. The wood of the elm lasts
the best in the open air, that of the robur when buried in the ground,
and that of the quercus when exposed to the action of water: indeed,
the wood of this last, if employed in works above ground, is apt to
split and warp. The wood of the larch thrives best in the midst of
moisture; the same is the case, too, with that of the black alder. The
wood of the robur spoils by exposure to the action of sea-water. The
beech and the walnut are far from disapproved of for constructions
under water, and, in fact, these are the principal woods, too, that
are used for works under ground: the same is the case, also, with the
juniper; which is equally serviceable when exposed to the atmosphere.
The woods of the beech and the cerrus[2722] very quickly deteriorate,
and that of the æsculus will not withstand the action of water. On
the other hand, the alder, when driven into the ground in marshy
localities, is of everlasting duration, and able to support the very
heaviest weights. The wood of the cherry is strong, while those of
the elm and the ash are pliable, though apt to warp: these last will
still retain their flexibility, and be less liable to warp, if the wood
is left to stand and dry upon the trunk after the pith has been cut
around.[2723] It is said that the larch, when used for sea-going ships,
is liable to the attacks[2724] of the teredo, as, in fact, all the
woods are, with the exception of the wild and cultivated olive. It is a
fact, too, that there are some woods that are more liable to spoil in
the sea, and others in the ground.
CHAP. 80. (41.)—VARIETIES OF THE TEREDO.
There are four kinds of insects that attack wood. The teredo has a
head remarkably large in proportion to the other part of the body, and
gnaws away the wood with its teeth: its attacks, however, are confined
solely to the sea, and it is generally thought that this is the only
insect that is properly so called. The wood-worm that prevails on the
land is known as the “tinea,” while those which resemble a gnat in
appearance are called “thripes.” The fourth kind of wood-worm belongs
to the maggot class; some of them being engendered by the corruption
of the juices of the wood itself, and others being produced, just
as in the trees, by the worm known as the cerastes.[2725] When this
worm has eaten away enough of the wood to enable it to turn round, it
gives birth to another. The generation of these insects is prevented,
however, by the bitterness that exists in some woods, the cypress, and
the hardness of others, the box, for instance.
It is said, too, that the fir, if barked about the time of budding, and
at the period of the moon already mentioned,[2726] will never spoil in
water. The followers of Alexander the Great have left a statement that,
at Tylos, an island in the Red Sea, there are trees, of which ships
are built, the wood of which has been found uninjured at the end of two
hundred years,[2727] even if it has been under water all that time.
They say, also, that in the same island there is a certain shrub,[2728]
about the thickness of a walking-stick only, and spotted like a tiger’s
skin: it is very heavy, and will break like glass if it happens to fall
upon a hard substance.
CHAP. 81. (42.)—THE WOODS USED IN BUILDING.
We have in Italy some woods that are apt to split of themselves: to
prevent this, architects recommend that they should be first seasoned
in manure[2729] and then dried, in order to render them proof against
the action of the atmosphere. The woods of the fir and larch are well
adapted, even when used transversely, for the support of heavy burdens;
while the robur and the olive are apt to bend and give way under a
weight. The wood of the poplar and the palm are also strong, but this
last will bend, though in a manner different from the others; for,
while in all other instances the wood bends downwards, in the palm it
bends in the contrary direction,[2730] and forms an arch. The woods
of the pine and the cypress are proof against decay and all attacks
of wood-worm. The walnut is easily warped, but we sometimes see beams
even made of it. It gives warning, however, before it breaks, by a loud
cracking noise; such was the case at Antandros, at the public baths
there—the bathers took the alarm upon hearing the beams crack, and made
their escape. The pine, the pitch-tree, and the alder are employed for
making hollow pipes for the conveyance of water, and when buried in the
earth will last for many years. If, however, they are not well covered
over, they will very soon rot; and the resistance they offer to decay
will increase in a most surprising degree if the outer surface as well
is left in contact with the water.
CHAP. 82.—CARPENTERS’ WOODS.
The wood of the fir is strongest in a vertical[2731] position: it is
remarkably well adapted for the pannels of doors, and all kinds of
in-door joiners’ work, whether in the Grecian, the Campanian, or the
Sicilian style. The shavings of this wood when briskly planed, always
curl up in circles like the tendrils of the vine. This wood, too,
unites particularly well with glue: it is used in this state for making
vehicles, and is found to split sooner in the solid parts than in a
place where the pieces have been glued together.
CHAP. 83. (43.)—WOODS UNITED WITH GLUE.
Glue, too, plays one of the principal parts in all veneering and works
of marqueterie. For this purpose, the workmen usually employ wood
with a threaded vein, to which they give the name of “ferulea,” from
its resemblance to the grain of the giant fennel,[2732] this part of
the wood being preferred from its being dotted and wavy. In every
variety there are some woods to be found that will not take the glue,
and which refuse to unite either with wood of the same kind or of any
other; the wood of the robur for example. Indeed, it is mostly the case
that substances will not unite unless they are of a similar nature; a
stone, for instance, cannot be made to adhere to wood. The wood of the
service-tree, the yoke-elm, the box, and, in a less degree, the lime,
have a particular aversion to uniting with the cornel. All the yielding
woods which we have already spoken[2733] of as flexible readily adapt
themselves to every kind of work; and in addition to them, the mulberry
and the wild fig. Those which are moderately moist are easily sawn
and cut, but dry woods are apt to give way beyond the part that is
touched by the saw; while, on the other hand, the green woods, with the
exception of the robur and the box, offer a more obstinate resistance,
filling the intervals between the teeth of the saw with sawdust, and
rendering its edge uniform and inert; it is for this reason that the
teeth are often made to project right and left in turns, a method by
which the saw-dust is discharged. The ash is found the most pliable
wood of all for working; and, indeed, for making[2734] spears it is
better even than the hazel, being lighter than the cornel, and more
pliable than the wood of the service-tree. The Gallic variety is so
supple, that it is employed in the construction of vehicles even. The
elm would rival the trunk of the vine[2735] for some purposes, were it
not that its weight is so much against it.
CHAP. 84.—VENEERING.
The wood, too, of the beech is easily worked, although it is brittle
and soft. Cut into thin layers of veneer, it is very flexible, but is
only used for the construction of boxes and desks. The wood, too, of
the holm-oak is cut into veneers of remarkable thinness, the colour
of which is far from unsightly; but it is more particularly where it
is exposed to friction that this wood is valued, as being one to be
depended upon; in the axle-trees of wheels, for instance; for which the
ash is also employed, on account of its pliancy, the holm-oak for its
hardness, and the elm, for the union in it of both those qualities.
There are also various workman’s tools made of wood, which, though
but small, are still remarkably useful; in this respect, it is said
that the best materials for making auger handles are the wild olive,
the box, the holm-oak, the elm, and the ash. Of the same woods also
mallets are made; the larger ones, however, are made of the pine and
the holm-oak. These woods, too, have a greater degree of strength
and hardness if cut in season than when hewn prematurely; indeed, it
has been known for hinge-jambs, made of olive, a wood of remarkable
hardness, after having remained a considerable time on the spot, to
put out buds[2736] like a growing plant. Cato[2737] recommends levers
to be made of holly, laurel, or elm; and Hyginus speaks highly of the
yoke-elm, the holm-oak, and the cerrus, for the handles of agricultural
implements.
The best woods for cutting into layers, and employing as a veneer for
covering others, are the citrus, the terebinth, the different varieties
of the maple, the box, the palm,[2738] the holly, the holm-oak, the
root of the elder, and the poplar. The alder furnishes also, as already
stated,[2739] a kind of tuberosity, which is cut into layers like those
of the citrus and the maple. In all the other trees the tuberosities
are of no value whatever. It is the central part of trees that is most
variegated, and the nearer we approach to the root the smaller are the
spots and the more wavy. It was in this appearance that originated that
requirement of luxury which displays itself in covering one tree with
another, and bestowing upon the more common woods a bark of higher
price. In order to make a single tree sell many times over, laminæ
of veneer have been devised; but that was not thought sufficient—the
horns of animals must next be stained of different colours, and their
teeth cut into sections, in order to decorate wood with ivory, and, at
a later period, to veneer it all over. Then, after all this, man must
go and seek his materials in the sea as well! For this purpose he has
learned to cut tortoise-shell into sections; and of late, in the reign
of Nero, there was a monstrous invention devised of destroying its
natural appearance by paint, and making it sell at a still higher price
by a successful imitation of wood.
It is in this way that the value of our couches is so greatly enhanced;
it is in this way, too, that they bid the rich lustre of the terebinth
to be outdone, a mock citrus to be made that shall be more valuable
than the real one, and the grain of the maple to be feigned. At one
time luxury was not content with wood; at the present day it sets us on
buying tortoise-shell in the guise of wood.
CHAP. 85. (44.)—THE AGE OF TREES. A TREE THAT WAS PLANTED BY THE FIRST
SCIPIO AFRICANUS. A TREE AT ROME FIVE HUNDRED YEARS OLD.
The life of some trees might really be looked upon as of infinite[2740]
duration, if we only think of the dense wilds and inaccessible forests
in some parts of the world. In relation, however, to those, the date
of which is still within the memory of man, there are some olive-trees
still in existence at Liternum, which were planted by the hand of the
first Scipio Africanus, as also a myrtle there of extraordinary size;
beneath them there is a grotto, in which, it is said, a dragon keeps
watch over that hero’s shade. There is a lotus[2741] tree in the open
space before the Temple of Lucina at Rome, which was built in the year
of the City 379, a year in which the republic had no[2742] magistrates.
How much older the tree is than the temple, is a matter of doubt; but
that it is older is quite certain, for it was from that same grove that
the goddess Lucina[2743] derived her name; the tree in question is now
about four hundred and fifty years old. The lotus tree, which is known
as the Capillata, is still older than this, though it is uncertain what
is its age; it received that name from the circumstance of the Vestal
Virgins suspending locks of their hair[2744] from it.
CHAP. 86.—TREES AS OLD AS THE CITY.
There is another lotus in the Vulcanal,[2745] which Romulus erected
with the tenth part of the spoil taken from the enemy: according to
Massurius, it is generally considered to be as old as the City. The
roots of this tree penetrate as far as the Forum of Cæsar, right across
the meeting-places of the municipalities.[2746] There was a cypress of
equal age growing with it till towards the latter part of Nero’s reign,
when it fell to the ground, and no attempts were made to raise it again.
CHAP. 87.—TREES IN THE SUBURBAN DISTRICTS OLDER THAN THE CITY.
Still older than the City is the holm-oak that stands on the Vaticanian
Hill: there is an inscription in bronze upon it, written in Etruscan
characters, which states that even in those days it was an object of
religious veneration. The foundation of the town of Tibur, too, dates
many years before that of the City of Rome: there are three holm-oaks
there, said to be more ancient than Tiburnus even, who was the
founder of that place; the tradition is that in their vicinity he was
inaugurated. Tradition states also that he was a son of Amphiaraüs, who
died before Thebes, one generation before the period of the Trojan war.
CHAP. 88.—TREES PLANTED BY AGAMEMNON THE FIRST YEAR OF THE TROJAN WAR:
OTHER TREES WHICH DATE FROM THE TIME THAT THE PLACE WAS CALLED ILIUM,
ANTERIOR TO THE TROJAN WAR.
There are some authors, too, who state that a plane-tree at Delphi was
planted by the hand of Agamemnon, as also another at Caphyæ, a sacred
grove in Arcadia. At the present day, facing the city of Ilium, and
close to the Hellespont, there are trees growing over the tomb[2747]
of Protesilaüs there, which, in all ages since that period, as soon as
they have grown of sufficient height to behold Ilium, have withered
away, and then begun to flourish again. Near the city, at the tomb of
Ilus, there are some oaks[2748] which are said to have been planted
there when the place was first known by the name of Ilium.
CHAP. 89.—TREES PLANTED AT ARGOS BY HERCULES: OTHERS PLANTED BY APOLLO.
A TREE MORE ANCIENT THAN ATHENS ITSELF.
At Argos[2749] an olive-tree is said to be still in existence, to
which Argus fastened Io, after she had been changed into a cow. In the
vicinity of Heraclea in Pontus, there are certain altars called after
Jupiter surnamed Stratios; two oaks there were planted by Hercules. In
the same country, too, is the port of Amycus,[2750] rendered famous by
the circumstance that King Bebryx was slain there. Since the day of
his death his tomb has been covered by a laurel, which has obtained
the name of the “frantic laurel,” from the fact that if a portion of
it is plucked and taken on board ship, discord and quarrelling are
the inevitable result, until it has been thrown overboard. We have
already made mention[2751] of Aulocrene, a district through which you
pass in going from Apamia into Phrygia: at this place they show a
plane upon which Marsyas was hanged, after he had been conquered by
Apollo, it having been chosen even in those days for its remarkable
height. At Delos, also, there is a palm[2752] to be seen which dates
from the birth of that divinity, and at Olympia there is a wild olive,
from which Hercules received his first wreath: at the present day it
is preserved with the most scrupulous veneration. At Athens, too, the
olive produced by Minerva, is said still to exist.
CHAP. 90.—TREES WHICH ARE THE MOST SHORT-LIVED.
On the other hand, the pomegranate,[2753] the fig, and the apple are
remarkably short-lived; the precocious trees being still more so than
the later ripeners, and those with sweet fruit than those with sour:
among the pomegranates, too, that variety which bears the sweetest
fruit lives the shortest time. The same is the case, too, with the
vine,[2754] and more particularly the more fruitful varieties. Græcinus
informs us that vines have lasted so long as sixty years. It appears,
also, that the aquatic trees die the soonest. The laurel,[2755] the
apple, and the pomegranate age rapidly, it is true, but then they throw
out fresh shoots at the root. The olive must be looked upon, then, as
being one of the most long-lived, for it is generally agreed among
authors that it will last two hundred years.
CHAP. 91.—TREES THAT HAVE BEEN RENDERED FAMOUS BY REMARKABLE EVENTS.
In the territory about the suburbs of Tusculum, upon a hill known by
the name of Corne, there is a grove which has been consecrated to Diana
by the people of Latium from time immemorial; it is formed of beeches,
the foliage of which has all the appearance of being trimmed by art.
Passienus Crispus, the orator, who in our time was twice consul, and
afterwards became still more famous as having Nero for his step-son, on
marrying his mother Agrippina, was passionately attached to a fine tree
that grew in this grove, and would often kiss and embrace it: not only
would he lie down, too, beneath it, but he would also moisten its roots
with wine.[2756] In the vicinity of this grove there is a holm-oak,
likewise of very considerable celebrity, the trunk of which is no
less[2757] than thirty-four feet in circumference; giving birth to ten
other trees of remarkable size, it forms of itself a whole forest.
CHAP. 92.—PLANTS THAT HAVE NO PECULIAR SPOT FOR THEIR GROWTH: OTHERS
THAT GROW UPON TREES, AND WILL NOT GROW IN THE GROUND. NINE VARIETIES
OF THEM: CADYTAS, POLYPODION, PHAULIAS, HIPPOPHÆSTON.
It is a well-known fact that trees are killed by ivy.[2758] The
mistletoe also has a similar influence, although it is generally
thought that its injurious effects are not so soon perceptible: and,
indeed, this plant, apart from the fruit that it bears, is looked
upon as by no means the least remarkable. There are certain vegetable
productions which cannot be propagated in the ground, and which grow
nowhere but on trees; having no domicile of their own, they live upon
others; such, for instance, is the case with the mistletoe, and a herb
that grows in Syria, and is known as the “cadytas.”[2759] This last
entwines around not only trees, but brambles even; in the neighbourhood
of Tempe, too, in Thessaly, there is found a plant which is called
“polypodion;”[2760] the dolichos[2761] is found also, and wild
thyme.[2762] After the wild olive has been pruned there springs up a
plant that is known as “phaulias;”[2763] while one that grows upon the
fuller’s thistle is called the “hippophæston;”[2764] it has a thin,
hollow stem, a small leaf, and a white root, the juice of which is
considered extremely beneficial as a purgative in epilepsy.
CHAP. 93.—THREE VARIETIES OF MISTLETOE. THE NATURE OF MISTLETOE AND
SIMILAR PLANTS.
There are three varieties of the mistletoe.[2765] That which grows upon
the fir and the larch has the name of[2766] stelis in Eubœa; and there
is the hyphear[2767] of Arcadia. It grows also upon the quercus,[2768]
the robur, the holm-oak, the wild plum, and the terebinth, but upon no
other tree.[2769] It is most plentiful of all upon the quercus, and is
then known as “adasphear.” In all the trees, with the exception of the
holm-oak and the quercus, there is a considerable difference in its
smell and pungency, and the leaf of one kind has a disagreeable odour;
both varieties, however, are sticky and bitter. The hyphear is the
best for fattening[2770] cattle with; it begins, however, by purging
off all defects, after which it fattens all such animals as have been
able to withstand the purging. It is generally said, however, that
those animals which have any radical malady in the intestines cannot
withstand its drastic effects. This method of treatment is generally
adopted in the summer for a period of forty days.
Besides the above, there is yet another difference[2771] in the
mistletoe; that which grows upon the trees which lose their leaves,
loses its leaves as well; while, on the other hand, that which grows
upon evergreens always retains its leaves. In whatever way the seed
may have been sown, it will never come to anything, unless it has been
first swallowed[2772] and then voided by birds, the wood-pigeon more
particularly, and the thrush: such being the nature of the plant, that
it will not come to anything unless the seed is first ripened in the
crop of the bird. It never exceeds a single cubit in height, and is
always green and branchy. The male[2773] plant is fruitful, the female
barren; sometimes, indeed, the male even bears no berry.
CHAP. 94.—THE METHOD OF MAKING BIRDLIME.
Birdlime is made of the berries of the mistletoe, which are gathered
at harvest, and while in an unripe state; for if the rainy season
comes on, though they increase in size, the viscous juice is apt to
lose its virtues. They are then dried,[2774] and when brought to a
state of perfect aridity, are first pounded, and then put in water,
in which they are left to rot for twelve days; this being, in fact,
the only thing that finds improvement in decay. After this, they are
again beaten in running water with a mallet, and after losing the outer
coat there is only the viscous inner pulp remaining. This substance
is birdlime; and after it has been thinned by the addition of walnut
oil, it is found particularly useful for catching birds, it being quite
sufficient if they only touch it with the wings.
CHAP. 95.—HISTORICAL FACTS CONNECTED WITH THE MISTLETOE.
Upon this occasion we must not omit to mention the admiration that is
lavished upon this plant by the Gauls. The Druids—for that is the name
they give to their magicians[2775]—held nothing more sacred than the
mistletoe and the tree that bears it, supposing always that tree to
be the robur.[2776] Of itself the robur is selected by them to form
whole groves, and they perform none of their religious rites without
employing branches of it; so much so, that it is very probable that
the priests themselves may have received their name from the Greek
name[2777] for that tree. In fact, it is the notion with them that
everything that grows on it has been sent immediately from heaven, and
that the mistletoe upon it is a proof that the tree has been selected
by God himself as an object of his especial favour.
The mistletoe, however, is but rarely found upon the robur; and when
found, is gathered with rites replete with religious awe. This is done
more particularly on the fifth day of the moon, the day which is the
beginning of their months and years, as also of their ages, which, with
them, are but thirty years. This day they select because the moon,
though not yet in the middle of her course, has already considerable
power and influence; and they call her by a name which signifies, in
their language, the all-healing.[2778] Having made all due preparation
for the sacrifice and a banquet beneath the trees, they bring thither
two white bulls, the horns of which are bound then for the first
time. Clad in a white robe the priest ascends the tree, and cuts the
mistletoe with a golden sickle, which is received by others in a white
cloak.[2779] They then immolate the victims, offering up their prayers
that God will render this gift of his propitious to those to whom he
has so granted it. It is the belief with them that the mistletoe, taken
in drink, will impart fecundity to all animals that are barren, and
that it is an antidote for all poisons.[2780] Such are the religious
feelings which we find entertained towards trifling objects among
nearly all nations.
SUMMARY.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, one
thousand one hundred and thirty-five.
ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro,[2781] Fetialis,[2782] Nigidius,[2783]
Cornelius Nepos,[2784] Hyginus,[2785] Massurius,[2786] Cato,[2787]
Mucianus,[2788] L. Piso,[2789] Trogus,[2790] Calpurnius Bassus,[2791]
Cremutius,[2792] Sextius Niger,[2793] Cornelius Bocchus,[2794]
Vitruvius,[2795] Græcinus.[2796]
FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Alexander Polyhistor,[2797] Hesiod,[2798]
Theophrastus,[2799] Democritus,[2800] Homer, Timæus[2801] the
mathematician.