language is almost invariably simple and direct. The lessons in this
book afford ample opportunity for the use of the fundamental forms of
language in communicating actual experience. Many of the stories may
well be supplemented by stories that the child tells himself. Care
should be taken, however, to keep the child within the limits of what
was possible during the age to which his story refers. Much benefit is
derived from allowing the children of the class to dramatize a story
after they have read it and represented it by means of pantomime.
Although there is ample room for written work, it is _oral_ rather than
written language that should receive emphasis at this time.
_Field Lessons._ The geographical phases of the work are referred to so
frequently throughout the text as well as under the special suggestions
for each lesson, that little need be added at this time except to
emphasize the fact that the teacher should make use of every opportunity
to cultivate in the child an intelligent interest in his natural
environment. Perhaps nothing will contribute more toward developing this
interest than field lessons. The value of these lessons will depend upon
whether an adequate motive is aroused in the child for taking the trip
and upon whether he is given the opportunity to make use of the
experience gained in a practical way. There are schools in crowded
quarters of large cities where it does not yet seem practicable to take
an entire class out on a field lesson. But it is always feasible to make
use of informal observations that the child makes from day to day as
well as the results of trips that have previously been taken by some
members of the class. During the time that this book is used it is hoped
that at least two or three of the following field trips or excursions
may be made:
1. To uncultivated spots on hillsides, in the woods, and on natural
meadows to find--
(_a_) A place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived.
(_b_) Wild foods, and to discover if possible the reasons for
abundance or scarcity of certain forms.
(_c_) Trees that offer protection from the sun and rain, and branches
that are tough and strong.
(_d_) Suitable sticks for primitive implements and weapons.
(_e_) Grasses, barks, willows, rushes, and other tough and flexible
fibers for basketry.
(_f_) The topographical features which later are to be represented
in sand.
(_g_) What animals now live in uncultivated places.
2. To a brook or river to find--
(_a_) The best drinking-places for animals.
(_b_) The best fords.
(_c_) The best places to build bridges.
(_d_) Stones for primitive implements and weapons.
(_e_) How the river grinds the stones.
(_f_) What the river carries in its water.
(_g_) What plants and animals may be seen there.
3. To a circus to see the wild animals, so as to be better able to
realize what the animals that lived when the Tree-dwellers did were
like.
4. To a farm to find--
(_a_) What animals live there, how they are taken care of, and how
they differ from wild animals.
(_b_) What plants are cultivated on the farm and in the gardens, how
they are cultivated, and how they differ from the wild plants that
can be found in uncultivated spots.
5. To a gravel bed or stone quarry to find--
(_a_) What kinds of stone are there.
(_b_) How stone is quarried and what it is used for.
(_c_) A problem with reference to how the gravel bed or the stone
quarry was made.
SUPPLEMENTARY FACTS
The child asks many questions, some of which are difficult to answer.
Since what has been ascertained regarding the period during which the
Tree-dwellers lived is not contained in books that are generally
available, it has seemed best to present at this time such summarized
statements as will furnish the teacher with the facts that she may need.
ANIMAL LIFE
_Extinct Species._ Among the animals of the mid-Pleistocene period that
have since become extinct were the Irish deer; the big-nosed, the
small-nosed, and the woolly rhinoceros; the mammoth; the cave-bear; and
a sabre-toothed felis (_Machairodus latidens_), sometimes, though
incorrectly, referred to as the cave-tiger.
_The Rhinoceros._ The big-nosed and the small-nosed rhinoceros came to
western Europe from the south. The former came the earlier and stayed
until the late Pleistocene period, when the later cavemen hunted the
reindeer. During this period it became extinct. As the climate became
severe, both species may have migrated south each winter. It would have
been possible, however, for them to remain, for they were well adapted
to a cold climate. It is interesting to know that many of our popular
tales of dragons originated in connection with the discoveries of the
huge bones of these creatures, which could be accounted for in no other
way.
Our information regarding these creatures is exceedingly meager. They
are characterized as dull-witted creatures with dim eyesight,
exceedingly impulsive and dangerous. They rarely attacked other animals,
for they lived upon vegetable food; but if they were molested they were
formidable creatures. At such times they would root up young trees with
their tusks, and pierce and rend the bodies of their most powerful
assailants. A full grown rhinoceros was seldom attacked by even a
mammoth or the sabre-toothed felis. Its thick skin served as an
impervious shield, protecting it from the most powerful blows of the
fiercest animals. It is quite probable that packs of hyenas and wolves
learned to take advantage of precipices, and that they frightened the
rhinoceros over the brink, thus disabling him so that he became an easy
prey.
The woolly rhinoceros came down from the north during mid-Pleistocene
times and was protected from the cold by a fine inner coat which
resembled wool, and a coarse hairy outer coat. This species was abundant
until the close of the Pleistocene period, when it became extinct. What
is stated above with reference to the characteristics of the rhinoceros
applies equally well to this species.
Very little has been written concerning these extinct species that is
satisfactory for the teacher's use. Brief accounts can be found in
Hutchinson's _Extinct Monsters_, p. 225; in Stanley Waterloo's _The
Story of Ab_, p. 71; and in an article by E. D. Cope on "Extinct
American Rhinoceroses," in _The American Naturalist_, Vol. XIII., 771a.
_The Mammoth._ Professor Owen, the eminent paleontologist, writes: "The
mammoth is better known than most extinct animals by reason of the
discovery of an entire specimen preserved in the frozen soil of a cliff
at the mouth of the river Lena in Siberia. The skin was clothed with a
reddish wool, and with long black hairs. It is now preserved at St.
Petersburg, together with the skeleton."
The mammoth was not so large as it has sometimes been pictured. The
largest was not more than thirteen feet high, and many were not higher
than nine or ten feet. Its body was heavier than that of the elephant,
and its legs were shorter. It had enormous tusks, which it is thought
were sometimes used as crowbars in rooting up young trees in order to
get the branches for food. It is thought that several mammoths
cooperated in this work. Professor Owen writes: "The tusks of the
extinct _Elephas primigenius_, or mammoth, have a bolder and more
extensive curvature than those of the _Elephas Indicus_. Some have been
found which describe a circle, but the curve being oblique, they thus
clear the head, and point outward, downward, and backward. The numerous
fossil tusks of the mammoth which have been discovered and recorded may
be ranged under two averages of size, the larger ones at nine feet and a
half, the smaller at five feet and a half in length. The writer has
elsewhere assigned reasons for the probability of the latter belonging
to the female mammoth, which must accordingly have differed from the
existing elephant of India, and have more resembled that of Africa, in
the development of her tusks, yet manifesting an intermediate character
of smaller size. Of the tusks assigned to the male mammoth, one from the
newer tertiary deposits in Essex measured nine feet ten inches in
length, and two feet five inches in circumference at its thickest part."
Mammoth tusks are collected in Siberia as an article of commerce. The
ivory is little altered.
From the examination of the contents of the stomach of a mammoth that
was found frozen in a marsh it has been proved that the mammoth ate not
only the buds, cones, and tender branches of trees, but the wood itself.
Professor Owen shows that the mammoth was independent of the seasons on
account of being able to live upon such a diet. The teeth of the
mammoth, one of which weighs seventeen pounds, were well adapted to
grinding food that was hard and tough.
_The Cave-Bear._ The cave-bear differed from the grizzly of to-day
chiefly in its greater size and strength. An interesting story of the
cave-bear is found in Stanley Waterloo's _The Story of Ab_, Chapter
XXII. Ernest Thompson Seton's "Biography of a Grizzly," in _The Century
Magazine_, Vol. LIX., pp. 27-40, will be interesting to read in this
connection.
_The Sabre-toothed Felis_ (_Machairodus latidens_). This animal has
usually been spoken of as the cave-tiger, but Professor W. Boyd Dawkins
has shown that it was no more closely allied to the tigers than to other
felines, and that "the very tempting name of 'sabre-toothed tiger' must
therefore be given up as implying a relationship that does not exist.
It differs from the genus _Felis_ in the enormous development of the
serrated upper canines, as well as the presence of a third lobe on the
sectorial edge of the upper premolar." It was a peculiarly destructive
animal, its teeth being described as "uniting the power of a saw with
that of a knife." The canine tooth of this animal is the most perfect
instrument for piercing and dividing flesh known. It belonged to the
southern group of mammalia; and, as the winters became cold, it probably
migrated each fall. Although it was never abundant it was much feared.
Remains of similar animals have been found in the United States mingled
with the bones of the mammoth.
_Living Species._ Of the living species there were present in
mid-Pleistocene times, the brown bear, the grizzly bear, the wolf, the
fox, the stag, the roe, the urus or the wild-ox, the aurochs or European
bison, the hippopotamus, the horse, the wild boar, the beaver, the water
rat, the lion, sometimes spoken of as the cave-lion and being the same
species as the _Felis leo_ of to-day, the lynx, the panther or leopard,
the wild cat, the spotted hyena, the otter, the musk sheep, and the
marmot. No animal was domesticated at this time.
_The Urus._ The urus, which is the representative of the wild cattle of
this period, is the ancestor of our long-horned cattle, and should be
distinguished from the short-horned cattle that appear in western Europe
in the prehistoric period in a domesticated state. The wild bulls were
formidable antagonists when enraged. It is thought by some that the
Chillingham cattle are descendants of the urus. The color of the urus is
not known. Some think that it was white, but others doubt that the
species would have been able to survive with such a conspicuous
covering. On account of their fear of the beasts of prey the wild cattle
probably kept under cover of the trees during the day and went out to
the grassy uplands only when darkness came on. The feeding grounds of
the grass-eating animals determined the haunts of the beasts of prey.
When wild cattle are attacked, the larger animals in the herd surround
the younger and weaker so as to present a wall of horns to the
assailant. This habit is not peculiar to wild cattle, but is quite
characteristic of all grass-eating animals.
_The Wild Horse._ The steps in the evolution of the horse are stated so
fully in the text that it is not necessary to repeat them here. Almost
any good text in geology gives the same facts. It should be remembered
that horses with more than one toe on each foot did not live when the
Tree-dwellers did, but during earlier periods. The teacher who wishes to
read further regarding the wild horse will find materials in the
_Century Dictionary_ under _horse_, in _Chambers' Encyclopedia_,
in H. N. Hutchinson's _Creatures of Other Days_, in N. S. Shaler's
_Domesticated Animals_, and in _McClure's Magazine_, Vol. 15, p. 512.
_The Musk Sheep._ The appearance of the musk sheep in western Europe
during the mid-Pleistocene period marked the change that was beginning
to take place in the climate. As the climate increased in severity all
the arctic species came down from the north and occupied the land during
the late Pleistocene period. The musk sheep is the most arctic in its
habits of any of the herbivores, and at the present time is restricted
to the high latitudes of North America. It thrives in desolate,
treeless, barren grounds, not even being driven from its haunts by the
extremest cold. It is closely allied to the species which is the parent
of our domestic sheep, although that species did not appear in western
Europe until prehistoric times. The musk sheep goes in herds of from
twenty to thirty individuals, and when alarmed the animals huddle
together like frightened sheep. Its food is grass, lichens, moss, and
tender shoots of the willow and pine. It is much sought after for its
skin, which makes a fine robe. It is sometimes known as the musk ox and
occasionally as the musk bison.
_Plant Life._ The characteristic trees of the mid-Pleistocene period
were evergreen. Of these the most abundant forms were the spruce, the
fir, and the yew tree. The trees which shed their foliage were
represented by the oak and the birch. The banks of rivers were shaded by
thickets of laurel and by the sloe, the original form of the wild plum
tree. The marshes afforded rich pastures for grass-eating animals as
well as hiding-places, for they were partly covered by a heavy growth of
alders. Wild peas, beans, stringy-rooted carrots, ruta-bagas, and
turnips grew on the hillsides. The cabbage with its thick leaves, which
had not yet developed into a head, was present. Seeds of grasses were
available, but not used, for man had not yet learned to gather them and
convert them into nourishing food. The teacher may be interested in
referring to Candolle's _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ and Darwin's
_Plants and Animals Under Domestication_.
SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS
If possible read the entire book, including the preface, carefully
before beginning the work. If in addition to this you can read parts of
the following books and articles, do so; for in this way it will be
easier to grasp the full significance of the work.
References: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary
Education_, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press; "Some Steps in the
Evolution of Social Occupations," I., II., III., IV. _The Elementary
School Teacher_, Chicago, December, 1902, January, March, and April,
1903; "A New Factor in the Elementary School Curriculum," _The American
Journal of Sociology_, Chicago, September, 1902. Dewey and Runyon, _The
University Elementary Record_, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.
_Lesson I._ The child has the right to know what the book that he is
beginning to read deals with. This lesson is an attempt to answer the
question that naturally comes to his mind when opening the book. It is
hoped that it will serve as a means of enabling the child to gain a
clearer insight into the practical activities presented in the following
pages than would be possible without a consciousness of the goal toward
which they tend. Although this lesson embodies a great deal of the
philosophy of life, it is a philosophy that the child needs and one
which he can readily understand when presented in a simple form, and
when related to his own experience. Unless it arouses questions from the
child it may be passed over somewhat superficially at first, but
referred to again and again as occasions for its use present themselves.
Assist the child to get the real thought from the lesson by conversing
with him and encouraging him to converse with his parents and friends
regarding the way in which they lived when they were children, and the
improvements that have been made since then. Find out from what
countries the forefathers of the children of the class came originally,
and something of the way that they lived before they came to this
country. In this way the child will gradually see that what we have, and
what we know, we owe largely to the efforts of our forefathers who have
lived and worked for many long ages. If you can get the child to gain
even a slight appreciation of the privileges that he enjoys, and a
respect for honest labor, you will be doing a much-needed work.
This lesson should not be passed without noticing the meaning of these
three sentences: "_Each animal knew how to do one thing well. But the
people could do a great many things. They could remember, too, what had
happened before._" These three sentences contain the key to man's
superiority over the brutes. Man at this time had a mind, but he was
only beginning to use it. We have no other ground for thinking ourselves
superior to our forefathers, the Tree-dwellers, than this: We live at a
time when it is possible to take advantage of what has been accomplished
during many long ages. Were we deprived of the opportunities thus
presented, we should find it difficult to account for any superiority.
Reference: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary
Education_, pp. 16-24.
_Lesson II._ The two questions raised serve to show the child that the
Tree-dwellers needed some of the things that we need. We feel the need
of much that they did not have, but we, as well as the Tree-dwellers,
need food the most of all. Next to food we feel the need of shelter,
clothing, and means of protection.
The child is ready to understand that Sharptooth is a woman who differs
from women to-day chiefly in the fact that she did not have as good an
opportunity to learn. Help him to be alert to see the admirable traits
in Sharptooth's character. If he wishes to have her described, tell him
that she was shorter and probably more thick-set than women of to-day;
that she probably walked with a bend at the knee; that her forehead
sloped backward; that her jawbones were large and strong, her chin
small, and that probably her hair was a reddish color. These points were
omitted from the lesson because they are not regarded as essential, and
their introduction might lead to many questions which the teacher ought
not to be expected to be able to answer. They are added here as a help
to the teacher who may be questioned concerning these points. Should the
teacher desire further information on this subject, she will find it in
the references given below.
In places where it is impossible for the children to go to an
uncultivated place, the teacher may substitute for the suggestions at
the close of the lesson other work. But she should in some way give the
child an idea of grassy plains, wooded hills, and dense forests. Unless
he has such an experience as this he will not be able to deal with the
problem of finding a place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived. The
teacher's problem at the close of this lesson is the one that
constitutes the central thought of the next two lessons. It is this: How
can the child get such an experience as will enable him to select a
place where the Tree-dwellers might have lived? In these days of cheap
transportation there are few schools where it is not possible for some
of the children to visit places that are sufficiently wild to answer the
purpose. By making use of such experiences of the children in
uncultivated places as they have or they can easily get, and by
supplementing these by means of pictures, stories, and sand modeling,
very satisfactory results can be obtained.
References: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary
Education_, pp. 18, 19, 126, 127; "Some Steps in the Evolution of Social
Occupations," _The Elementary School Teacher_, January, 1903.
_Lesson III._ The problem of this lesson has already been stated. The
questions at the beginning of the lesson serve to help the child to
interpret what he has observed, or what has been illustrated to him. The
scene of this lesson need not be definitely located in space, for this
book is a generalized account of progress, not a description of a
particular locality. Should the teacher need assistance in getting a
more adequate notion of a river valley, she will do well to read the
following references, as well as the chapters on river valleys in any
good textbook on geography or physiography.
References: N. S. Shaler, _First Book in Geology_, pp. 1-4; Frye,
_Brooks and Brook Basins. Aspects of the Earth_, chapter on "River
Valleys."
Winchell, _Walks and Talks in a Geological Field_.
Rollin D. Salisbury and Wallace W. Atwood, _The Geography of the Devil's
Lake Region, Wisconsin_, pp. 36-58.
[NOTE. This pamphlet may be obtained by writing to Professor
E. A. Birge, State University, Madison, Wis., and enclosing thirty
cents. It is Bulletin No. 5, Educational Series No. 1.]
R. S. Tarr, _Elementary Physical Geography_, pp. 262-82.
_Lesson IV._ This lesson serves merely to bring out the striking
contrasts that the geographical features mentioned in the last lesson
present. The child can readily see why it was necessary for Sharptooth
to swing from branch to branch instead of walking on the ground.
_Lesson V._ Although the father was always more or less attached to the
primitive group, it was the mother and child that constituted the
original family. Not until the development of the patriarchal system in
the pastoral stage of culture was the relation of the father recognized
as of as great importance as that of the mother.
The data from which the part of the story that deals with the way in
which Sharptooth carried her baby was constructed was derived from the
practices of contemporary tribes in the lowest stages of culture. It is
a well-known fact that all young infants during the first few hours
after birth possess the power to grasp and to hang suspended by the
hands for several minutes.
References: Loria, _Economic Foundations of Society_, p. 87.
Thwing, _The Primitive Family_.
C. N. Starcke, _Primitive Family in its Origin and Development_.
G. L. Gomme, "The Primitive Human Horde," _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, Vol. XVII., pp. 118-33; "The Evolution of
the Family," _Popular Science Monthly_, Vol. XI., p. 257.
Ch. Letourneau, _The Evolution of Marriage and the Family_.
_Lesson VI._ This lesson is important as marking the beginning of the
textile industry. Undoubtedly the motive that prompted the first weaving
was the love of the mother for her child, and her desire to keep it safe
from harm. The materials were inevitably such as the immediate
environment could afford--vines, slender branches, or other fibrous
plants. The process at first must have been crude, but savage women very
early developed a skill in basketry that we are not able to find among
civilized peoples. By encouraging the child to think of the different
articles that he uses that were made by weaving, and by examining the
beauty of the work, he will be prepared to grasp something of the
significance of the simple act of Sharptooth, which was an expression of
the same kind of mother love which he enjoys, but which he accepts as a
matter of course.
Explain to the child that the Tree-dwellers did not have such music as
we have. But mothers as they held their babies in their arms would
gently sway back and forth, uttering a soothing sound. The little girls
will no doubt enjoy making such a lullaby in their hours of play.