Here are a few taken at random from Smiles's History of the

Huguenots--Bosanquet, Casaubon, Chenevix Trench, Champion de Crespigny,

Dalbiac, Delane, Dollond, Durand, Fonblanque, Gambier, Garrick,

Layard, Lefanu, Lefroy, Ligonier, Luard, Martineau, Palairet, Perowne,

Plimsoll, Riou, Romilly--all respectable and many distinguished, even

cricket being represented. These more educated foreigners usually

kept their names, sometimes with slight modifications which do not

make them unrecognizable. Thus, Bouverie, literally "ox-farm," is

generally found in its unaltered form, though the London Directory has

also examples of the perverted Buffery. But the majority of the

immigrants were of the artisan class and illiterate. This explains

the extraordinary disappearance, in the course of two centuries, of

the thousands of French names which were introduced between 1550 and

1700.

We have many official lists of these foreigners, and in these lists we

catch the foreign name in the very act of transforming itself into

English. This happens sometimes by translation, e.g. Poulain became

Colt, Poisson was reincarnated as Fish, and a refugee bearing the

somewhat uncommon name Petitoeil transformed himself into Little-eye,

which became in a few generations Lidley. But comparatively few

surnames were susceptible of such simple treatment, and in the great

majority of cases the name underwent a more or less arbitrary

perversion which gave it a more English physiognomy. Especially

interesting from this point of view is the list of--"Straungers

residing and dwellinge within the city of London and the liberties

thereof," drawn up in 1618. The names were probably taken down by the

officials of the different wards, who, differing themselves in

intelligence and orthography, produced very curious results.

As a rule the Christian name is translated, while the surname is

either assimilated to some English form or perverted according to the

taste and fancy of the individual constable. Thus, John Garret, a

Dutchman, is probably Jan Gerard, and James Flower, a milliner, born

in Rouen, is certainly Jaques Fleur, or Lafleur. John de Cane and

Peter le Cane are Jean Duquesne and Pierre Lequesne (Norman quêne,

oak), though the former may also have come from Caen. John Buck, from

Rouen, is Jean Bouc, and Abraham Bushell, from Rochelle, was probably

a Roussel or Boissel. James King and John Hill, both Dutchmen, are

obvious translations of common Dutch names, while Henry Powell, a

German, is Heinrich Paul. Mary Peacock, from Dunkirk, and John

Bonner, a Frenchman, I take to be Marie Picot and Jean Bonheur, while

Nicholas Bellow is surely Nicolas Belleau. Michael Leman, born in

Brussels, may be French Leman or Lemoine, or perhaps German Lehmann.

To each alien's name is appended that of the monarch whose subject he

calls himself, but a republic is outside the experience of one

constable, who leaves an interrogative blank after Cristofer Switcher,

born at Swerick (Zürich) in Switcherland. The surname so ingeniously

created appears to have left no pedagogic descendants. In some cases

the harassed Bumble has lost patience, and substituted a plain English

name for foreign absurdity. To the brain which christened Oliver

Twist we owe Henry Price, a subject of the King of Poland, Lewis

Jackson, a "Portingall," and Alexander Faith, a steward to the Venice

Ambassador, born in the dukedom of Florence.

PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES

In the returns made outside the bounds of the city proper the aliens

have added their own signatures, or in some cases made their marks.

Jacob Alburtt signs himself as Jacob Elbers, and Croft Castell as

Kraft Kassels. Harman James is the official translation of Hermann

Jacobs, Mary Miller of Marija Moliner, and John Young of Jan le Jeune.

Gyllyam Spease, for Wilbert Spirs, seems to be due to a Welsh

constable, and Chrystyan Wyhelhames, for Cristian Welselm, looks like

a conscientious attempt at Williams. One registrar, with a phonetic

system of his own, has transformed the Dutch Moll into the more

familiar Maule, and has enriched his list with Jannacay Yacopes for

Jantje Jacobs. Lowe Luddow, who signs himself Louij Ledou, seems to

be Louis Ledoux. An alien who writes himself Jann Eisankraott (Ger.

Eisenkraut? ) cannot reasonably complain plain at being transformed

into John Isacrocke, but the substitution of John Johnson for Jansen

Vandrusen suggests that this individual's case was taken at the end of

a long day's work.

These examples, taken at random, show how the French and Flemish names

of the humbler refugees lost their foreign appearance. In many cases

the transformation was etymologically justified. Thus, some of our

Druitts and Drewetts may be descended from Martin Druett, the first

name on the list. But this is probably the common French name Drouet

or Drouot, assimilated to the English Druitt, which we find in 1273.

And both are diminutives of Drogo, which occurs in Domesday Book, and

is, through Old French, the origin of our Drew. But in many cases the

name has been so deformed that one can only guess at the continental

original. I should conjecture, for instance, that the curious name

Shoppee is a corruption of Chappuis, the Old French for a carpenter,

and that

Jacob Shophousey, registered as a German cutler, came from

Schaffhausen. In this particular region of English nomenclature a

little guessing is almost excusable. The law of probabilities makes

it mathematically certain that the horde of immigrants included

representatives of all the very common French family names, and it

would be strange if Chappuis were absent.

This process of transformation is still going on in a small way,

especially in our provincial manufacturing towns, in which most large

commercial undertakings have slipped from the nerveless grasp of the

Anglo-Saxon into the more capable and prehensile fingers of the

foreigner--

"Hilda then learnt that Mrs. Gailey had married a French modeller

named Canonges. . . and that in course of time the modeller had

informally changed the name to Cannon, because no one in the five

towns could pronounce the true name rightly."

(Arnold Bennett, Hilda Lessways, i. 5.)

This occurs most frequently in the case of Jewish names of German

origin. Thus, Löwe becomes Lowe or Lyons, Meyer is transformed into

Myers, Goldschmid into Goldsmith, Kohn into Cowan, Levy into Lee or

Lewis, Salamon into Salmon, Hirsch or Hertz into Hart, and so on.

Sometimes a bolder flight is attempted--

"Leopold Norfolk Gordon had a house in Park Lane, and ever so many

people's money to keep it up with. As may be guessed from his name,

he was a Jew."

(Morley Roberts, Lady Penelope, ch. ii.)

JEWISH NAMES

The Jewish names of German origin which are now so common in England

mostly date from the beginning of the nineteenth century, when laws

were passed in Austria, Prussia and Bavaria to compel all Jewish

families to adopt a fixed surname. Many of them chose personal names,

e.g. Jakobs, Levy, Moses, for this purpose, while others named

themselves from their place of residence, e.g. Cassel, Speyer

(Spires), Hamburg, often with the addition of the syllable -er, e.g.

Darmesteter, Homburger. Some families preferred descriptive names

such as Selig (Chapter XXII), Sonnenschein, Goldmann, or invented

poetic and gorgeous place-names such as Rosenberg, Blumenthal,

Goldberg, Lilienfeld. The oriental fancy also showed itself in such

names as Edelstein, jewel, Glueckstein, luck stone, Rubinstein, ruby,

Goldenkranz, golden wreath, etc. [Footnote: Our Touchstone would seem

also to be a nickname. The obituary of a Mr. Touchstone appeared in

the Manchester Guardian, December 12, 1912.] It is owing to the

existence of the last two groups that our fashionable intelligence is

now often so suggestive of a wine-list. Among animal names adopted

the favourites were Adler, eagle, Hirsch, hart, Löwe, lion, and Wolf,

each of which is used with symbolic significance in the Old Testament.

CHAPTER VI. TOM, DICK AND HARRY

"Watte vocat, cui Thomme venit, neque Symme retardat,

Betteque, Gibbe simul, Hykke venire jubent;

Colle furit, quem Geffe juvat nocumenta parantes,

Cum quibus ad dampnum Wille coire vovet.

Grigge rapit, dum Dawe strepit, comes est quibus Hobbe,

Lorkyn et in medio non minor esse putat:

Hudde ferit, quem Judde terit, dum Tebbe minatur,

Jakke domosque viros vellit et ense necat."

(GOWER, On Wat Tyler's Rebellion.)

Gower's lines on the peasant rebels give us some idea of the names

which were most popular in the fourteenth century, and which have

consequently impressed themselves most strongly on our modern

surnames. It will be noticed that one member of the modern

triumvirate, Harry, or Hal, is absent. [Footnote: The three names

were not definitely established till the nineteenth century. Before

that period they had rivals. French says Pierre et Paul, and German

Heinz and Kunz, i.e. Heinrich and Conrad.] The great popularity of

this name probably dates from a rather later period and is connected

with the exploits of Henry V. Moreover, all the names, with the

possible exception of Hud, are of French introduction and occur rarely

before the Conquest. The old Anglo-Saxon names did survive,

especially in the remoter parts of the country, and have given us many

surnames (see ch. vii.), but even in the Middle Ages people had a

preference for anything that came over with the Conqueror. French

names are nearly all of German origin, the Celtic names and the Latin

names which encroached on them having been swept away by the Frankish

invasion, a parallel to the wholesale adoption of Norman names in

England. Thus our name Harvey, no longer usual as a font-name, is Fr.

Herod, which represents the heroic German name Herewig, to the second

syllable of which belongs such an apparently insignificant name as

Wigg.

MEDIEVAL FONT-NAMES

The disappearance of Latin names is not to be regretted, for the Latin

nomenclature was of the most unimaginative description, while the Old

German names are more like those of Greece; e.g. Ger. Ludwig, which

has passed into most of the European languages (Louis, Lewis,

Ludovico, etc), is from Old High Ger. hlut-wig, renowned in fight,

equivalent to the Greek Clytomachus, with one-half of which it is

etymologically cognate.

Some of the names in Gower's list, e.g. Watte (Chapter I), Thomme,

Symme, Geffe (Chapter VI), Wille, Jakke, are easily recognized. Bette

is for Bat, Bartholomew, a name, which has given Batty, Batten, Bates,

Bartle (cf. Bartlemas), Bartlett, Badcock, Batcock. But this group of

names belongs also to the Bert- or -bent, which is so common in

Teutonic names, such as Bertrand, Bertram, Herbert, Hubert, many of

which reached us in an Old French form. For the loss of the _r_, cf.

Matty from Martha. Gibe is for Gilbert. Hick is rimed on Dick:

(Chapter VI). Colle is for Nicolas. Grig is for Gregory, whence

Gregson and Scottish Grier. Dawe, for David, alternated with Day and

Dow, which appear as first element in many surnames, though Day has

another origin (Chapter XIX) and Dowson sometimes belongs to the

female name Douce, sweet. Hobbe is a rimed form from Robert. Lorkyn,

or Larkin, is for Lawrence, for which we also find Law, Lay, and Low,

whence Lawson, Lakin, Lowson, Locock, etc. For Hudde see Chapters I,

VII. Judde, from the very popular Jordan, has given Judson, Judkins,

and the contracted Jukes. Jordan (Fr. Jourdain, Ital. Giordano) seems

to have been adopted as a personal name in honour of John the Baptist.

Tebbe is for Theobald (Chapter I).

THE COMMONEST FONT-NAMES

Many people, in addressing a small boy with whom they are

unacquainted, are in the habit of using Tommy as a name to which any

small boy should naturally answer. In some parts of Polynesia the

natives speak of a white Mary or a black Mary, i.e. woman, just as the

Walloons round Mons speak of Marie bon bec, a shrew, Marie grognon, a

Mrs. Gummidge, Marie quatre langues, a chatterbox, and several other

Maries still less politely described. We have the modern silly Johnny

for the older silly Billy, while Jack Pudding is in German Hans Wurst,

John Sausage. Only the very commonest names are used in this way,

and, if we had no further evidence, the rustic Dicky bird, Robin

redbreast, Hob goblin, Tom tit, Will o' the Wisp, Jack o' lantern,

etc., would tell us which have been in the past the most popular

English font-names. During the Middle Ages there was a kind of race

among half a dozen favourite names, the prevailing order being John,

William, Thomas, Richard, Robert, with perhaps Hugh as sixth.

Now, for each of these there is a reason. John, a favourite name in

so many languages (Jean, Johann, Giovanni, Juan, Ian, Ivan, etc.), as

the name of the Baptist and of the favoured disciple, defied even the

unpopularity of our one King of that name. The special circumstances

attending the birth and naming of the Baptist probably supplied the

chief factor in its triumph.

For some time after the Conquest William led easily. We usually

adopted the W- form from the north-east of France, but Guillaume has

also supplied a large number of surnames in Gil-, which have got

inextricably mixed up with those derived from Gilbert, Gillian

(Juliana), and Giles. Gilman represents the French dim. Guillemin,

the local-looking Gilliam is simply Guillaume, and Wilmot corresponds

to Fr. Guillemot.

The doubting disciple held a very insignificant place until the shrine

of St. Thomas of Canterbury became one of the holy places of

Christendom. To Thomas belong Macey, Massie, and Masson, dims. of

French aphetic forms, but the first two are also from Old French forms

of Matthew, and Masson is sometimes an alternative form of Mason.

Robert and Richard were both popular Norman names. The first was

greatly helped by Robin Hood and the second by the Lion-Heart.

The name Hugh was borne by several saints, the most famous of whom in

England was the child-martyr, St. Hugh of Lincoln, said to have been

murdered by the Jews C. 1250. It had a dim. Huggin and also the forms

Hew and How, whence Hewett, Hewlett, Howitt, Howlett, etc., while from

the French dim. Huchon we get Hutchin and its derivatives, and also

Houchin. Hugh also appears in the rather small class of names

represented by Littlejohn, Meiklejohn, etc. [Footnote: This formation

seems to be much commoner in French. In the "Bottin" I find

Grandblaise, Grandcollot (Nicolas), Grandgeorge, Grandgérard,

Grandguillaume, Grandguillot, Grandjacques, Grand-jean, Grandperrin

(Pierre), Grandpierre, Grandremy, Grandvincent, and Petitcolin,

Petitdemange (Dominique), Petitdidier (Desiderius), Petit-Durand,

Petit-Etienne (Stephen), Petit-Gérard, Petit-Huguenin, Petitjean,

Petitperrin, Petit-Richard.] We find Goodhew, Goodhue. Cf.

Gaukroger, i.e. awkward Roger, and Goodwillie. But the more usual

origin of Goodhew, Goodhue is from Middle Eng. heave, servant, hind.

Cf. Goodhind.

Most of the other names in Gower's list have been prolific. We might

add to them Roger, whence Hodge and Dodge, Humfrey, which did not lend

itself to many variations, and Peter, from the French form of which we

have many derivatives (Chapter III), including perhaps the Huguenot

Perowne, Fr. Perron, but this can also be local, du Perron, the

etymology, Lat. Petra, rock, remaining the same.

The absence of the great names Alfred [Footnote: The name Alured is

due to misreading of the older Alvred, v being written u in old MSS.

Allfrey is from the Old French form of the name.] and Edward is not

surprising, as they belonged to the conquered race. Though Edward was

revived as the name of a long line of Kings, its contribution to

surnames has been small, most names in Ed-, Ead-, e.g. Ede, Eden,

Edison, Edkins, Eady, etc., belonging rather to the once popular

female name Eda or to Edith, though in some cases they are from Edward

or other Anglo-Saxon names having the same initial syllable. James is

a rare name in medieval rolls, being represented by Jacob, and no

doubt partly by Jack (Chapter IV). It is--

"Wrested from Jacob, the same as Jago [Footnote: Jago is found, with

other Spanish names, in Cornwall; cf. Bastian or Baste, for

Sebastian.] in Spanish, Jaques in French; which some Frenchified

English, to their disgrace, have too much affected" (Camden).

It appears in Gimson, Jemmett, and the odd-looking Gem, while its

French form is somewhat disguised in Jeakes and Jex.

FASHIONS IN FONT-NAMES

The force of royal example is seen in the popularity under the Angevin

kings of Henry, or Harry, Geoffrey and Fulk, the three favourite names

in that family. For Harry see Chapter III. Geoffrey, from Ger.

Gottfried, Godfrey, has given us a large number of names in Geff-,

Jeff-, and Giff-, Jiff-, and probably also Jebb, Gepp and Jepson,

while to Fulk we owe Fewkes, Foakes, Fowkes, Vokes, etc., and perhaps

in some cases Fox. But it is impossible to catalogue all the popular

medieval font-names. Many others will be found scattered through this

book as occasion or association suggests them.

Three names whose poor representation is surprising are Arthur,

Charles and George, the two great Kings of medieval romance and the

patron saint of Merrie England. All three are fairly common in their

unaltered form, and we find also Arter for Arthur. But they have

given few derivatives, though Atkins, generally from Ad-, i.e. Adam,

may sometimes be from Arthur (cf. Bat for Bart, Matty for Martha,

etc.). Arthur is a rare medieval font-name, a fact no doubt due to

the sad fate of King John's nephew. Its modern popularity dates from

the Duke of Wellington, while Charles and George were raised from

obscurity by the Stuarts and the Brunswicks. To these might be added

the German name Frederick, the spread of which was due to the fame of

Frederick the Great. It gave, however, in French the dissimilated

Ferry, one source of our surnames Ferry, Ferris, though the former is

generally local. [Footnote: "For Frideric, the English have commonly

used Frery and Fery, which hath been now a long time a Christian name

in the ancient family of Tilney, and lucky to their house, as they

report." (Camden.)]

If, on the other hand, we take from Gower's list a name which is

to-day comparatively rare, e.g. Gilbert, we find it represented by a

whole string of surnames, e.g. Gilbart, Gibbs, Gibson, Gibbon,

Gibbins, Gipps, Gipson, to mention only the most familiar. From the

French dim. Gibelot we get the rather rare Giblett; cf. Hewlett for

Hew-el-et, Hamlet for Ham-el-et (Hamo), etc.

DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES

In forming patronymics from personal names, it is not always the first

syllable that is selected. In Toll, Tolley, Tollett, from

Bartholomew, the second has survived, while Philpot, dim. of Philip,

has given Potts. From Alexander we get Sanders and Saunders. But,

taking, for simplicity, two instances in which the first syllable has

survived, we shall find plenty of instruction in those two pretty men

Robert and Richard. We have seen (Chapter VI) that Roger gave Hodge

and Dodge, which, in the derivatives Hodson and Dodson, have coalesced

with names derived from Odo and the Anglo-Sax. Dodda (Chapter VII).

Similarly Robert gave Rob, Hob and Dob, and Richard gave Rick, Hick

and Dick. [Footnote: I believe, however, that Hob is in some cases

from Hubert, whence Hubbard, Hibbert, Hobart, etc.] Hob, whence Hobbs,

was sharpened into Hop, whence Hopps. The diminutive Hopkin, passing

into Wales, gave Popkin, just as ap-Robin became Probyn, ap-Hugh Pugh,

ap-Owen Bowen, etc. In the north Dobbs became Dabbs (p. A. Hob also

developed another rimed form Nob cf. to "hob-nob" with anyone),

whence Nobbs and Nabbs, the latter, of course, being sometimes rimed

on Abbs, from Abel or Abraham. Bob is the latest variant and has not

formed many surnames. Richard has a larger family than Robert, for,

besides Rick, Hick and Dick, we have Rich and Hitch, Higg and Digg.

The reader will be able to continue this genealogical tree for

himself.

The full or the shortened name can become a surname, either without

change, or with the addition of the genitive -s or the word -son, the

former more usual in the south, the latter in the north. To take a

simple case, we find as surnames William, Will, Williams, Wills,

Williamson, Wilson. [Footnote: This suffix has squeezed out all the

others, though Alice Johnson is theoretically absurd. In Mid. English

we find daughter, father, mother, brother and other terms of

relationship used in this way, e.g. in 1379, Agnes Dyconwyfdowson, the

wife of Dow's son Dick. Dawbarn, child of David, is still found. See

also Chapter XXI]

From the short form we get diminutives by means of the English

suffixes -ie or -y (these especially in the north), -kin (Chapter IV),

and the French suffixes -et, -ot (often becoming -at in English), -in,

-on (often becoming -en in English). Thus Willy, Wilkie, Willett. I

give a few examples of surnames formed from each class

Ritchie (Richard), Oddy (Odo, whence also Oates), Lambie (Lambert),

Jelley (Julian); [Footnote: Lamb is also, of course, a nickname cf.

Agnew, Fr. agneau]

Dawkins, Dawkes (David), Hawkins, Hawkes (Hal), Gilkins (Geoffrey),

Perkins, Perks (Peter), Rankin (Randolf);

Gillett (Gil, Chapter VI), Collett (Nicholas), Bartlett (Bartholomew),

Ricketts (Richard), Marriott, Marryat (Mary), Elliott (Elias, see

Chapter IX), Wyatt (Guy), Perrott (Peter);

Collins (Nicholas), Jennings (John, see Chapter X), Copping (Jacob,

see Chapter I), Rawlin (Raoul, the French form of Radolf, whence Roll,

Ralph, Relf), Paton (Patrick), Sisson (Sirs, i.e. Cecilia), Gibbons

(Gilbert), Beaton (Beatrice).

In addition to the suffixes and diminutives already mentioned, we have

the two rather puzzling endings -man and -cock. Man occurs as an

ending in several Germanic names which are older than the Conquest,

e.g. Ashman, Harman, Coleman; and the simple Mann is also an

Anglo-Saxon personal name. It is sometimes to be taken literally,

e.g. in Goodman, i.e. master of the house (Matt. xx. ii), Longman,

Youngman, etc. In Hickman, Homan (How, Hugh), etc., it may mean

servant of, as in Ladyman, Priestman, or may be merely an augmentative

suffix. In Coltman, Runciman, it is occupative, the man in charge of

the colts, rouncies or nags. Chaucer's Shipman--

"Rood upon a rouncy as he kouthe" (A. 390).

In Bridgeman, Pullman, it means the man who lived near, or had some

office in connection with, the bridge or pool. But it is often due to

the imitative instinct. Dedman is for the local Debenham, and Lakeman

for Lakenham, while Wyman represents the old name Wymond, and Bowman

and Beeman are sometimes for the local Beaumont (cf. the pronunciation

of Belvoir). But the existence in German of the name Bienemann shows

that Beeman may have meant bee-keeper. Sloman may be a nickname, but

also means the man in the slough (Chapter XII), and Godliman is an old

familiar spelling of Godalming. We of course get doubtful cases, e.g.

Sandeman may be, as explained by Bardsley, the servant of Alexander

(Chapter VI), but it may equally well represent Mid. Eng. sandeman, a

messenger, and Lawman, Layman, are rather to be regarded as

derivatives of Lawrence (Chapter VI) than what they appear to be.

THE SUFFIX -COCK

Many explanations have been given of the suffix -cock, but I cannot

say that any of them have convinced me. Both Cock and the patronymic

Cocking are found as early personal names. The suffix was added to

the shortened form of font-names, e.g. Alcock (Allen), Hitchcock

(Richard), was apparently felt as a mere diminutive, and took an -s

like the diminutives in -kin, e.g. Willcocks, Simcox. In Hedgecock,

'Woodcock, etc., it is of course a nickname. The modern Cox is one of

our very common names, and the spelling Cock, Cocks, Cox, can be found

representing three generations in the churchyard of Invergowrie, near

Dundee.

The two names Bawcock and Meacock had once a special significance.

Pistol, urged to the breach by Fluellen, replies

"Good bawcock, bate thy rage! use lenity, sweet chuck"

(Henry V., iii, 2);

and Petruchio, pretending that his first interview with Katherine has

been most satisfactory, says--

"'Tis a world to see

How tame, when men and women are alone,

A meacock wretch can make the curstest shrew."

(Taming of the Shrew, ii.1.)

These have been explained as Fr. beau coq, which is possible, and meek

cock, which is absurd. As both words are found as surnames before

Shakespeare's time, it is probable that they are diminutives which

were felt as suited to receive a special connotation, just as a man

who treats his thirst generously is vulgarly called a Lushington.

Bawcock can easily be connected with Baldwin, while Meacock, Maycock,

belong to the personal name May or Mee, shortened from the Old Fr.

Mahieu (Chapter IX).

Although we are not dealing with Celtic names, a few words as to the

Scottish, Irish, and Welsh surnames which we find in our directories

may be useful. Those of Celtic origin are almost invariably

patronymics. The Scottish and Irish Mac, son, used like the Anglo-Fr.

Fitz-, ultimately means kin, and is related to the -mough of Watmough

(Chapter XXI) and to the word maid. In MacNab, son of the abbot, and

MacPherson, son of the parson, we have curious hybrids. In Manx

names, such as Quilliam (Mac William), Killip (Mac Philip), Clucas

(Mac Lucas), we have aphetic forms of Mac. The Irish 0', grandson,

descendant, has etymologically the same meaning as Mac, and is related

to the first part of Ger. Oheim, uncle, of Anglo-Sax. eam (see Eames,

Chapter XXI), and of Lat. avus, grandfather. Oe or oye is still used

for grandchild in Scottish--

"There was my daughter's wean, little Eppie Daidle, my oe, ye ken"

(Heart of Midlothian, ch. iv.).

The names of the Lowlands of Scotland are pretty much the same as

those of northern England, with the addition of a very large French

element, due to the close historical connection between the two

countries. Examples of French names, often much corrupted, are

Bethune (Pas de Calais), often corrupted into Beaton, the name of one

of the Queen's Maries, Boswell (Bosville, Seine Inf.), Bruce (Brieux,

Orne), Comyn, Cumming (Comines, Nord), Grant (le grand), Rennie

(René), etc.

CELTIC NAMES

Welsh Ap or Ab, reduced from an older Map, ultimately cognate with

Mac, gives us such names as Probyn, Powell (Howell, Hoel), Price

(Rhys), Pritchard, Prosser (Rosser), Prothero (Roderick), Bedward,

Beddoes (Eddowe), Blood (Lud, Lloyd), Bethell (Ithel), Benyon (Enion),

whence also Binyon and the local-looking Baynham. Onion and Onions

are imitative forms of Enion. Applejohn and Upjohn are corruptions of

Ap-john. The name Floyd, sometimes Flood, is due to the English

inability to grapple with the Welsh Ll--

"I am a gentylman and come of Brutes [Brutus'] blood,

My name is ap Ryce, ap Davy, ap Flood."

(Andrew Boorde, Book of the Introduction of Knowledge, ii 7.)

While Welsh names are almost entirely patronymic, Cornish names are

very largely local. They are distinguished by the following prefixes

and others of less common occurrence: Caer-, fort, Lan-, church, Pen-,

hill, Pol-, pool, Ros-, heath, Tre-, settlement, e.g. Carthew, Lanyon,

Penruddock, Polwarth, Rosevear, Trethewy. Sometimes these elements

are found combined, e.g. in Penrose.

A certain number of Celtic nicknames and occupative names which are

frequently found in England will be mentioned elsewhere (pp. 173,

216). In Gilchrist, Christ's servant, Gildea, servant of God,

Gillies, servant of Jesus, Gillespie, bishop's servant, Gilmour,

Mary's servant, Gilroy, red servant, we have the Highland "gillie."

Such names were originally preceded by Mac-, e.g. Gilroy is the same

as MacIlroy; cf. MacLean, for Mac-gil-Ian, son of the servant of John.

To the same class of formation belong Scottish names in Mal-, e.g.

Malcolm, and Irish names in Mul-, e.g. Mulholland, in which the first

element means tonsured servant, shaveling, and the second is the name

of a saint.

CHAPTER VII. GODERIC AND GODIVA

"England had now once more (A.D. 1100) a King born on her own soil, a

Queen of the blood of the hero Eadmund, a King and Queen whose

children would trace to AElfred by two descents. Norman insolence

mocked at the English King and his English Lady under the English

names of Godric and Godgifu." [Footnote: "Godricum eum, et comparem

Godgivam appellantes" (William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum).]

(FREEMAN, Norman Conquest, v. 170.)

In dealing with surnames we begin after the Conquest, for the simple

reason that there were no surnames before. Occasionally an important

person has come down in history with a nickname, e.g. Edmund

Iron-side, Harold Harefoot, Edward the Confessor; but this is

exceptional, and the Anglo-Saxon, as a rule, was satisfied with one

name. It is probable that very many of the names in use before the

Conquest, whether of English or Scandinavian origin, were chosen

because of their etymological meaning, e.g. that the name Beornheard

(Bernard, Barnard, Barnett) was given to a boy in the hope that he

would grow up a warrior strong, just as his sister might be called

AEthelgifu, noble gift. The formation of these old names is both

interesting and, like all Germanic nomenclature, poetic.

FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON NAMES

As a rule the name consists of two elements, and the number of those

elements which appear with great frequency is rather limited. Some

themes occur only in the first half of the name, e.g. Aethel-, whence

Aethelstan, later Alston; AElf-, whence AElfgar, now Elgar and Agar

(AEthel- and AElf- soon got confused, so that Allvey, Elvey may

represent both AEthelwig and AElfwig, or perhaps in some cases

Ealdwig); Cuth-, whence Cuthbeald, now Cobbold [Footnote: This is also

the origin of Cupples, and probably of Keble and Nibbles. It shares

Cobbett and Cubitt with Cuthbeorht.]; Cyne-, whence Cynebeald now

Kimball and Kemble, both of which are also local, Folc-, whence

Folcheard and Folchere, now Folkard and Fulcher; Gund-, whence

Gundred, now Gundry and Grundy (Metathesis, Chapter III); Os-, whence

Osbert, Osborn,

Other themes only occur as the second half of the name. Such are

-gifu, in Godgifu, i.e. Godiva, whence Goodeve; -lac in Guthlac, now

Goodlake and Goodluck (Chapter XXI); -laf in Deorlaf, now Dearlove;

-wacer in Eoforwacer, now Earwaker.

Other themes, and perhaps the greater number, may occur indifferently

first and second, e.g. beald, god, here, sige, weald, win, wulf or

ulf. Thus we have complete reversals in Beald-wine, whence Baldwin,

and Wine-beald, whence Winbolt, Here-weald, whence Herald, Harold,

Harrod, and Weald-here, whence Walter (Chapter I). With these we may

compare Gold-man and Man-gold, the latter of which has given Mangles.

So also we have Sige-heard, whence Siggers, and Wulf-sige, now Wolsey,

Wulf-noth, now the imitative Wallnutt, and Beorht-wulf, later Bardolph

and Bardell. The famous name Havelock was borne by the hero of a

medieval epic, "Havelock the Dane," but Dunstan is usually for the

local Dunston. On the other hand, Winston is a personal name,

Wine-stan, whence Winstanley.

These examples show that the pre-Norman names are by no means

unrepresented in the twentieth century, but, in this matter, one must

proceed with caution. To take as examples the two names that head

this chapter, there is no doubt that Goderic and Godiva are now

represented by Goodrich and Goodeve, but these may also belong to the

small group mentioned in Chapter VI, and stand for good Richard and

good Eve. Also Goodrich comes in some cases from Goodrich, formerly

Gotheridge, in Hereford, which has also given Gutteridge.

Moreover, it must not be forgotten that our medieval nomenclature is

preponderantly French, as the early rolls show beyond dispute, so

that, even where a modern name appears susceptible of an Anglo-Saxon

explanation, it is often safer to refer it to the Old French cognate;

for the Germanic names introduced into France by the Frankish

conquerors, and the Scandinavian names which passed into Normandy,

contained very much the same elements as our own native names, but

underwent a different phonetic development. Thus I would rather

explain Bawden, Bowden, Boulders, Boden, and the dims. Body and

Bodkin, as Old French variants from the Old Ger. Baldawin than as

coming directly from Anglo-Saxon. Boyden undoubtedly goes back to Old

Fr. Baudouin.

Practically all the names given in Gower's lines (Chapter V), and many

others to which I have ascribed a continental origin, are found

occasionally in England before the Conquest, but the weight of

evidence shows that they were either adopted in England as French

names or were corrupted in form by the Norman scribes and officials.

To take other examples, our Tibbald, Tibbles, Tibbs suggest the Fr.

Thibaut rather than the natural development of Anglo-Sax. Thiudbeald,

i.e. Theobald; and Ralph, Relf, Roff, etc., show the regular Old

French development of Raedwulf, Radolf. Tibaut Wauter, i.e. Theobald

Walter, who lived in Lancashire in 1242, had both his names in an old

French form.

ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES

As a matter of fact, the various ways of forming nicknames or

descriptive names, are all used in the pre-Conquest personal names.

We find Orme, i.e. serpent or dragon (cf. Great Orme's Head), Wulf,

i.e. Wolf, Hwita, i.e. White, and its derivative Hwiting, now Whiting,

Saemann, i.e. Seaman, Bonda, i.e. Bond, Leofcild, dear child, now Leif

child, etc. But, except the case of Orme, so common as the first

element of place-names, I doubt the survival of these as purely

personal names into the surname period and regard White, Seaman, Bond,

Leif child rather as new epithets of Mid. English formation. Whiting

is of course Anglo-Saxon, -ing being the regular patronymic suffix.

Cf. Browning, Benning, Dering, Dunning, Gunning, Hemming, Kipping,

Manning, and many others which occur in place-names. But not all

names in -ing are Anglo-Saxon, e.g. Baring is German; cf. Behring, of

the Straits; and Jobling is Fr. Jobelin, a double dim. of Job.

I will now give a few examples of undoubted survival of these

Anglo-Saxon compounds, showing how the suffixes have been corrupted

and simplified. Among the commonest of these suffixes are -beald,

-beorht, -cytel (Chapter VII.), -god, -heard, -here, -man, -mund,

-raed, -ric, -weald, -weard, -wine, [Footnote: Bold, bright, kettle,

god, strong, army, man, protection, counsel, powerful, ruling, guard,

friend.] which survive in Rumball and Rumbold (Rumbeald), Allbright

[Footnote: AIbert is of modern German introduction.] and Allbutt

(Ealdbeorht, i.e. Albert), Arkle (Earncytel), Allgood and Elgood

(AElfgod), Everett (Eoforheard, i.e. Everard), Gunter (Gundhere),

Harman (Hereman), Redmond (Raedmund), [Footnote: Pure Anglo-Saxon,

like the names of so many opponents of English tyranny. Parnell is of

course not Irish (Chapter X).] Aldred, Eldred (AEthelraed or

Ealdraed), Aldridge, Alderick, Eldridge (AEthelric or Ealdric),

Thorold (Thurweald), and, through Fr. Turold, Turrell, Terrell, and

Tyrrell, Harward and Harvard (Hereweard), Lewin (Leofwine).

In popular use some of these endings got confused, e.g. Rumbold

probably sometimes represents Rumweald, while Kennard no doubt stands

for Coenweard as well as for Coenheard. Man and round were often

interchanged (Chapter VI), so that from Eastmund come both Esmond and

Eastman. Gorman represents Gormund, and Almond (Chapter XI) is so

common in the Middle Ages that it must sometimes be from AEthelmund.

Sometimes the modern forms are imitative. Thus Allchin is for

Ealhwine (Alcuin), and Goodyear, Goodier and Goodair may represent

Godhere. [Footnote: This may, however, be taken literally. There is

a German name Gutjahr and a Norfolk name Feaveryear.] Good-beer,

Godbehere, Gotobed are classed by Bardsley under Godbeorht, whence

Godber. But in these three names the face value of the words may well

be accepted (pp. 156, 203, 206). Wisgar or Wisgeard has given the

imitative Whisker and Vizard, and, through French, the Scottish

Wishart, which is thus the same as the famous Norman Guiscard.

Garment and Rayment are for Garmund and Regenmund, i.e. Raymond.

ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS

Other names which can be traced directly to the group of Anglo-Saxon

names dealt with above are Elphick (AElfheah), which in Norman French

gave Alphege, Elmer (AElfmaer), Allnutt (AElfnoth), Alwin, Elwin,

Elvin (AElfwine), Aylmer (AEthelmaer), Aylward (AEthelweard), Kenrick

(Coenric), Collard (Ceolheard), Colvin (Ceolwine), Darwin (Deorwine),

Edridge (Eadric), Aldwin, Auden (Ealdwine), Baldry (Bealdred or

Bealdric), Falstaff (Fastwulf), Filmer (Filumaer), Frewin eowine),

Garrard, Garrett, Jarrold (Gaerheard, Gaerweald), but probably these

are through French, Garbett (Garbeald, with which cf. the Italian

Garibaldi), Gatliffe (Geatleof), Goddard (Godheard), Goodliffe

(Godleof), Gunnell (Gunhild), Gunner (Gunhere), [Footnote: It is

unlikely that this name is connected with gun, a word of too late

appearance. It may be seen over a shop in Brentford, perhaps kept by

a descendant of the thane of the adjacent Gunnersbury.] Haines

(Hagene), Haldane (Haelfdene), Hastings (Haesten, the Danish chief who

gave his name to Hastings, formerly Haestinga-ceaster), Herbert

(Herebeorht), Herrick Hereric), Hildyard (Hildegeard), Hubert,

Hubbard, Hobart, Hibbert (Hygebeorht), Ingram (Ingelram), Lambert

(Landbeorht), Livesey (Leofsige), Lemon (Leofman), Leveridge

(Leofric), Loveridge (Luferic), Maynard (Maegenheard), Manfrey

(Maegenfrith), Rayner (Regenhere), Raymond (Regenmund), Reynolds

(Regenweald), Seabright (Sigebeorht or Saebeorht), Sayers (Saegaer),

[Footnote: The simple Sayer is also for "assayer," either of metals or

of meat and drink--"essayeur, an essayer; one that tasts, or takes an

essay; and particularly, an officer in the mint, who touches every

kind of new Coyne before it be delivered out" (Cotgrave). Robert le

sayer, goldsmith, was a London citizen c. 1300.] Sewell (Saeweald or

Sigeweald), Seward (Sigeweard), Turbot (Thurbeorht), Thoroughgood

(Thurgod), Walthew (Waltheof), Warman (Waermund), Wyberd (Wigbeorht),

Wyman (Wigmund), Willard (Wilheard), Winfrey (Winefrith), Ulyett and

Woollett (Wulfgeat), Wolmer (Wulfmaer), Woodridge (Wulfric).

In several of these, e.g. Fulcher, Hibbert, Lambert, Reynolds, the

probability is that the name came through French. Where an

alternative explanation is possible, the direct Anglo-Saxon origin is

generally the less probable. Thus, although Coning occurs as an

Anglo-Saxon name, Collings is generally a variant of Collins (cf.

Jennings for Jennins), and though Hammond is etymologically Haganmund,

it is better to connect it with the very popular French name Hamon.

Simmonds might come from Sigemund, but is more likely from Simon with

excrescent -d (Epithesis, Chapter III).

In many cases the Anglo-Saxon name was a simplex instead of a

compound. The simple Cytel survives as Chettle, Kettle. [Footnote:

Connected with the kettle or cauldron of Norse mythology. The

renowned Captain Kettle, described by his creator as a Welshman, must

have descended from some hardy Norse pirate. Many names in this

chapter are Scandinavian.] Beorn is one of the origins of Barnes.

Brand also appears as Braund, Grim is common in place-names, and from

Grima we have Grimes. Cola gives Cole, the name of a monarch of

ancient legend, but this name is more usually from Nicolas (Chapter

VI). Gonna is now Gunn, Serl has given the very common Searle, and

Wicga is Wigg. From Hacun we have Hack and the dim. Hackett.

To these might be added many examples of pure adjectives, such as

Freo, Free, Froda, (prudent), Froude, Gods, Good, Leof (dear), Leif,

Leaf, Read (red), Read, Reid, Reed, Rica, Rich, Rudda (ruddy), Rudd

and Rodd, Snel (swift, valiant), Snell, Swet, Sweet, etc., or epithets

such as Boda (messenger), Bode, Cempa (warrior), Kemp, Cyta, Kite,

Dreng (warrior), Dring, Eorl, Earl, Godcild, Goodchild, Nunna, Nunn,

Oter, Otter, Puttoc (kite), Puttock, Saemann, Seaman, Spearhafoc,

Sparhawk, Spark (Chapter I), Tryggr (true), Triggs, Unwine (unfriend),

Unwin, etc. But many of these had died out as personal names and, in

medieval use, were nicknames pure and simple.

MONOSYLLABIC NAMES

Finally, there is a very large group of Anglo-Saxon dissyllabic names,

usually ending in -a, which appear to be pet forms of the longer

names, though it is not always possible to establish the connection.

Many of them have double forms with a long and short vowel

respectively. It is to this class that we must refer the large number

of our monosyllabic surnames, which would otherwise defy

interpretation. Anglo-Sax. Dodds gave Dodd, while Dodson's partner

Fogg had an ancestor Focga. Other examples are Bacga, Bagg, Benna,

Benn, Bota, Boot and dim. Booty, Botts, Bolt, whence Bolting, Bubba,

Bubb, Budda, Budd, Bynna, Binns, Cada, Cade, Cobbs, Cobb, Coda, Coad,

Codda, Codd, Cuffs, Cuff, Deda, Deedes, Duda, Dowd, Duna, Down, Donna,

Dunn, Dutta, Dull, Eada, Eade, Edes, etc., Ebba, Ebbs; Eppa, Epps,

Hudda, Hud, whence Hudson, Inga, Inge, Sibba, Sibbs, Sicga, Siggs,

Tata, Tate and Tait, Tidda, Tidd, Tigga, Tigg, Toca, Tooke, Tucca,

Tuck, Wada, Wade, Wadda, Waddy, etc. Similarly French took from

German a number of surnames formed from shortened names in -o, with an

accusative in -on, e.g. Old Ger. Bodo has given Fr. Bout and Bouton,

whence perhaps our Butt and Button.

But the names exemplified above are very thinly represented in early

records, and, though their existence in surnames derived from

place-names (Dodsley, Bagshaw, Bensted, Bedworth, Cobham, Ebbsworth,

etc.) would vouch for them even if they were not recorded, their

comparative insignificance is attested by the fact that they form very

few derivatives.

Compare, for instance, the multitudinous surnames which go back to

monosyllables of the later type of name, such as John and Hugh, with

the complete sterility of the names above. Therefore, when an

alternative derivation for a surname is possible, it is usually ten to

one that this alternative is right. Dodson is a simplified Dodgson,

from Roger (Chapter VI); Benson belongs to Benedict, sometimes to

Benjamin; Cobbett is a disguised Cuthbert or Cobbold (cf. Garrett,

Chapter II); Down is usually local, at the down or dune; Dunn is

medieval le dun, a colour nickname; names in Ead-, Ed-, are usually

from the medieval female name Eda (Chapter VI); Sibbs generally

belongs to Sibilla or Sebastian; Tait must sometimes be for Fr. Tête,

with which cf. Eng. Head; Tidd is an old pet form of Theodore; and

Wade is more frequently atte wade, i.e. ford. Even Ebbs and Epps are

more likely to be shortened forms of Isabella, usually reduced to Ib,

or Ibbot (Chapter X), or of the once popular Euphemia.

To sum up, we may say that the Anglo-Saxon element in our surnames is

much larger than one would imagine from Bardsley's Dictionary, and

that it accounts, not only for names which have a distinctly

Anglo-Saxon suffix or a disguised form of one, but also for a very

large number of monosyllabic names which survive in isolation and

without kindred. In this chapter I have only given sets of

characteristic examples, to which many more might be added. It would

be comparatively easy, with some imagination and a conscientious

neglect of evidence, to connect the greater number of our surnames

with the Anglo-Saxons.

Thus Honeyball might very well represent the Anglo-Sax. Hunbeald, but,

in the absence of links, it is better to regard it as a popular

perversion of Hannibal (Chapter VIII). In dealing with this subject,

the via media is the safe one, and one cannot pass in one stride from

Hengist and Horsa to the Reformation period.

"HIDEOUS NAMES"

Matthew Arnold, in his essay on the Function of Criticism at the

Present Time, is moved by the case of Poor Wragg, who was "in

custody," to the following wail--

"What a touch of grossness in our race, what an original shortcoming

in the more delicate spiritual perceptions, is shown by the natural

growth amongst us of such hideous names-Higginbottom, Stiggins, Bugg!"

But this is the poet's point of view. Though there may have been "no

Wragg by the Ilissus," it is not a bad name, for, in its original form

Ragg, it is the first element of the heroic Ragnar, and probably

unrelated to Raggett, which is the medieval le ragged. Bugg, which

one family exchanged for Norfolk Howard, is the Anglo-Saxon Bucgo, a

name no doubt borne by many a valiant warrior. Stiggins, as we have

seen (Chapter XIII), goes back to a name great in history, and

Higginbottom (Chapter XII) is purely geographical.

CHAPTER VIII. PALADINS AND HEROES

"Morz est Rollanz, Deus en ad l'anme es ciels.

Li Emperere en Rencesvals parvient...

Carles escriet: 'U estes vus, bels niés?

U l'Arcevesques e li quens Oliviers?

U est Gerins e sis cumpainz Geriers?

Otes u est e Ii quens Berengiers?

Ives e Ivories que j'aveie tant chiers?

Qu'est devenuz li Guascuinz Engeliers,

Sansun li dux e Anseïs li fiers?

U est Gerarz de Russillun li vielz,

Li duze per que j'aveie laissiet?'"

(Chanson de Roland, 1. 2397.)

[Footnote: "Dead is Roland, God has his soul in heaven. The Emperor

arrives at Roncevaux... Charles cries: 'Where are you, fair nephew?

Where the archbishop (Turpin) and Count Oliver? Where is Gerin and

his comrade Gerier? Where is Odo and count Berenger? Ivo and Ivory

whom I held so dear? What has become of the Gascon Engelier? Samson

the duke and Anseis the proud? Where is Gerard of Roussillon the old,

the twelve peers whom I had left?' "]

It is natural that many favourite names should be taken from those of

heroes of romance whose exploits were sung all over Europe by

wandering minstrels. Such names, including those taken from the Round

Table legends, usually came to us through French, though a few names

of the British heroes are Welsh, e.g. Cradock from Caradoc

(Caractacus) and Maddox from Madoc.

THE ROUND TABLE

But the Round Table stories were versified much later than the true

Old French Chansons de Geste, which had a basis in the national

history, and not many of Arthur's knights are immortalized as

surnames. We have Tristram, Lancelot, whence Lance, Percival, Gawain

in Gavin, and Kay. But the last named is, like Key, more usually from

the word we now spell "quay," though Key and Keys can also be

shop-signs, as of course Crosskeys is. Linnell is sometimes for

Lionel, as Neil, [Footnote: But the Scottish Neil is a Gaelic name

often exchanged for the unrelated Nigel.] Neal for Nigel. The ladies

have fared better. Vivian, which is sometimes from the masculine

Vivien, is found in Dorset as Vye, and Isolt and Guinevere, which long

survived as font-names in Cornwall, have given several names. From

Isolt come Isard, Isitt, Izzard, Izod, and many other forms, while

Guinever appears as Genever, Jennifer, Gaynor, Gilliver, Gulliver,

[Footnote: There is also an Old Fr. Gulafre which will account for

some of the Gullivers.] and perhaps also as Juniper. It is probably

also the source of Genn and Ginn, though these may come also from

Eugenia or from Jane. The later prose versions of the Arthurian

stories, such as those of Malory, are full of musical and picturesque

names like those used by Mr. Maurice Hewlett, but this artificial

nomenclature has left no traces in our surnames.

Of the paladins the most popular was Roland or Rowland, who survives

as Rowe, Rowlinson, Rolls, Rollit, etc., sometimes coalescing with the

derivations of Raoul, another epic hero. Gerin or Geri gave Jeary,

and Oates is the nominative (Chapter VIII) of Odo, an important Norman

name. Berenger appears as Barringer and Bellinger (Chapter III). The

simple Oliver is fairly common, but it also became the Cornish Olver.

But perhaps the largest surname family connected with the paladins is

derived from the Breton Ives or Ivon [Footnote: A number of Old French

names had an accusative in -on or -ain. Thus we find Otes, Oton,

Ives, Ivain, and feminines such as Ide, Idain, all of which survive as

English surnames.] whose name appears in that of two English towns.

It is the same as Welsh Evan, and the Yvain of the Arthurian legends,

and has given us Ives, Ivison, Ivatts, etc. The modern surname Ivory

is usually an imitative form of Every or Avery (p, 82). Gerard has a

variety of forms in Ger- and Gar-, Jerand Jar- (see p.32). The others

do not seem to have survived, except the redoubtable Archbishop

Turpin, whose fame is probably less than that of his namesake Dick.

Besides the paladins, there are many heroes of Old French epic whose

names were popular during the two centuries that followed the

Conquest. Ogier le Danois, who also fought at Roncevaux, has given us

Odgers; Fierabras occasionally crops up as Fairbrass, Firebrace;

Aimeri de Narbonne, from Almaric, [Footnote: A metathesis of Amalric,

which is found in Anglo-Saxon.] whence Ital. Amerigo, is in English

Amery, Emery, Imray, etc.; Renaud de Montauban is represented by

Reynolds (Chapter VII) and Reynell.

The famous Doon de Mayence may have been an ancestor of Lorna, and the

equally famous Garin, or Warin, de Monglane has given us Gearing,

Gearing, Waring, sometimes Warren, and the diminutives Garnett and

Warnett. Milo, of Greek origin, became Miles, with dim. Millett, but

the chief origin of the surname Miles is a contracted form of the

common font-name Michael. Amis and Amiles were the David and Jonathan

of Old French epic and the former survives as Ames, Amies, and Amos,

the last an imitative form.

We have also Berner from Bernier, Bartram from Bertran, Farrant from

Fernand, Terry and Terriss from Thierry, the French form of Ger.

Dietrich (Theodoric), which, through Dutch, has given also Derrick.

Garner, from Ger. Werner, is our Garner and Warner, though these have

other origins (pp. 154, 185). Dru, from Drogo, has given Drew, with

dim. Druitt (Chapter V), and Druce, though the latter may also come

from the town of Dreux. Walrond and Waldron are for Waleran, usually

Galeran, and King Pippin had a retainer named Morant. Saint Leger, or

Leodigarius, appears as Ledger, Ledgard, etc., and sometimes in the

shortened Legg. Among the heroines we have Orbell from Orable, while

Blancheflour may have suggested Lillywhite; but the part played by

women in the Chansons de Geste was insignificant.

THE CHANSONS DE GESTE

As this element in our nomenclature has hitherto received no

attention, it may be well to add a few more examples of names which

occur very frequently in the Chansons de Geste and which have

undoubted representatives in modern English. Allard was one of the

Four Sons of Aymon. The name is etymologically identical with Aylward

(Chapter VII), but in the above form has reached us through French.

Acard or Achard is represented by Haggard, Haggett, and Hatchard,

Hatchett, though Haggard probably has another origin (Chapter XXIII).

Harness is imitative for Harnais, Herneis. Clarabutt is for

Clarembaut; cf. Archbutt for Archembaut, the Old French form of

Archibald, Archbold. Durrant is Durand, still a very common French

surname. Ely is Old Fr. Élie, i.e. Elias (Chapter IX), which had the

dim. Elyot. [Footnote: For other names belonging to this group see

Chapter IX.] We also find Old Fr. Helye, whence our Healey.

Enguerrand is telescoped to Ingram, though this may also come from the

English form Ingelram. Fawkes is the Old Fr. Fauques, nominative

(Chapter VIII) of Faucon, i.e. falcon. Galpin is contracted from

Galopin, a famous epic thief, but it may also come from the common

noun galopin--

"Galloppins, under cookes, or scullions in monasteries."

(Cotgrave.)

In either case it means a "runner." Henfrey is from Heinfrei or

Hainfroi, identical with Anglo-Sax. Haganfrith, and Manser from

Manesier. Neame (Chapter XXI) may sometimes represent Naime, the

Nestor of Old French epic and the sage counsellor of Charlemagne.

Richer, from Old Fr. Richier, has generally been absorbed by the

cognate Richard. Aubrey and Avery are from Alberic, cognate with

Anglo-Sax. AElfric. An unheroic name like Siggins may be connected

with several heroes called Seguin.

ANTIQUE NAMES

Nor are the heroes of antiquity altogether absent. Along with Old

French national and Arthurian epics there were a number of romances

based on the legends of Alexander, Caesar, and the tale of Troy.

Alexander, or Saunder, was the favourite among this class of names,

especially in Scotland. Cayzer was generally a nickname (Chapter

XIII), its later form Cesar being due to Italian influence, [Footnote:

Julius Cesar, physician to Queen Elizabeth, was a Venetian

(Bardsley).] and the same applies to Hannibal, [Footnote: But the

frequent occurrence of this name and its corruptions in Cornwall

suggests that it may really have been introduced by Carthaginian

sailors.] when it is not an imitative form of the female name Annabel,

also corrupted into Honeyball. Both Dionisius and Dionisia were once

common, and have survived as Dennis, Dennett, Denny, and from the

shortened Dye we get Dyson. But this Dionisius was the patron saint

of France. Apparent names of heathen gods and goddesses are almost

always due to folk-etymology, e.g. Bacchus is for back-house or

bake-house, and the ancestors of Mr. Wegg's friend Venus came from

Venice.

CHAPTER IX. THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR

" 'O Now you see, brother Toby,' he would say, looking up, 'that

Christian names are not such indifferent things;--had Luther here been

called by any other name but Martin, he would have been damn'd to all

eternity' "

(Tristram Shandy, ch. xxxv).

OLD TESTAMENT NAMES

The use of biblical names as font-names does not date from the

Puritans, nor are surnames derived from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob

necessarily Jewish. The Old Testament names which were most popular

among the medieval peasants from whom we nearly all spring were

naturally those connected with the most picturesque episodes of sacred

history. Taking as an example the father of all men, we find derived

from the name Adam the following: Adams, Adamson, Adcock, Addis,

Addison, Adds, Addy, Ade, Ades, Adey, Adis, Ady, Addey, Aday, Adee,

Addyman, Adkin, Adkins, Adkinson, Adnett, [Footnote: Adenet (little

Adam) le Roi was an Old French epic hero.] Adnitt, Adnet, Adnot,

Atkin, Atkins, Atkinson, and the northern Aitken, etc. This list,

compiled from Bardsley's Dictionary of Surnames, is certainly not

exhaustive. Probably Taddy is rimed on Addy as Taggy is on Aggy

(Agnes). To put together all the derivatives of John or Thomas would

be a task almost beyond the wit of man. Names in Abb-, App-, may come

from either Abraham or Abel, and from Abbs we also have Nabbs. Cain

was of course unpopular. Cain, Cane, Kain, when not Manx, is from the

town of Caen or from Norman quêne, an oak.

Moses appears in the French form Moyes (Moïse) as early as 1273, and

still earlier as Moss. Of the patriarchs the favourites were perhaps

Jacob and Joseph, the name Jessop from the latter having been

influenced by Ital. Giuseppe. Benjamin has sometimes given Benson and

Bennett, but these are generally for Benedict (Chapter IV). The

Judges are poorly represented, except Samson, a name which has

obviously coalesced with the derivatives of Samuel. David had, of

course, an immense vogue, especially in Wales (for some of its

derivatives see Chapter VI), and Solomon was also popular, the modern

Salmon not always being a Jewish name.

But almost the favourite Old Testament name was Elijah, Elias, which,

usually through its Old French form Élie, whence Ely, is the parent of

Ellis, Elliot, and many other names in El-, some of which, however,

have to be shared with Ellen and Alice (Chapter X). Job was also

popular, and is easily recognized in Jobson, Jobling, etc., but less

easily in Chubb (Chapter III) and Jupp. The intermediate form was the

obsolete Joppe. Among the prophetic writers Daniel was an easy

winner, Dann, Dance (Chapter I), Dannatt, Dancock, etc. Balaam is an

imitative spelling of the local Baylham.

In considering these Old Testament names it must be remembered that

the people did not possess the Bible in the vernacular. The teaching

of the parish priests made them familiar with selected episodes, from

which they naturally took the names which appeared to contain the

greatest element of holiness or of warlike renown. It is probable

that the mystery plays were not without influence; for the personal

name was not always a fixed quantity, and many of the names mentioned

in the preceding paragraph may have been acquired rather on the

medieval stage than at the font.

This would apply with still more force to names taken from the legends

of saints and martyrs on which the miracle plays were based. We even

find the names Saint, Martyr and Postill, the regular aphetic form of

apostle (Chapter III), just as we find King and Pope. Camden,

speaking of the freedom with which English names are formed, quotes a

Dutchman, who--

"When he heard of English men called God and Devil, said, that the

English borrowed names from all things whatsoever, good or bad."

The medieval name Godde may of course be for Good, Anglo-Sax. Goda,

but Ledieu is common enough in France. The name seems to be obsolete,

unless it is disguised as Goad. The occurrence in medieval rolls of

Diabolus and le Diable shows that Deville need not always be for de

Eyville. There was probably much competition for this important part,

and the name would not be always felt as uncomplimentary. Among

German surnames we find not only Teufel, but also the compounds

Manteufel and Teufelskind.

NEW TESTAMENT NAMES

Coming to the New Testament, we find the four Evangelists strongly

represented, especially the first and last. Matthew appears not only

in an easily recognizable form, e.g. in Matheson, but also as Mayhew

and Mayo, Old Fr. Mahieu. From the latter form we have the shortened

May and Mee, whence Mayes, Makins, Meakin, Meeson, [Footnote: One

family of Meeson claims descent from Malvoisin.] and sometimes Mason.

Mark is one of the sources of March (p, 90), as Luke is of Luck,

whence Lucock, Luckett, etc, though we more often find the learned

form Lucas.

Of John there is no need to speak. Of the apostles the great

favourites, Simon, or Peter, John, and Bartholomew have already been

mentioned. Almost equally popular was Philip, whence Philp, Phipps,

Phelps, and the dim. Philpot, whence the aphetic Pott, Potts. Andrew

flourished naturally in Scotland, its commonest derivative being

Anderson, while Dendy is for the rimed form Dandy. Paul has of course

had a great influence and is responsible for Pawson or Porson,

Pawling, Polson, Pollett, and most names in Pol-. [Footnote: This does

not of course apply to Cornish names in Pol- (Chapter VI)] It is

also, in the form Powell, assimilated to the Welsh Ap Howel. Paul is

regularly spelt Poule by Chaucer, and St. Paul's Cathedral is often

called Powles in Tudor documents. Paul's companions are poorly

represented, for Barnby is local, while names in Sil- and Sel- come

from shortened form of Cecil, Cecilia, and Silvester. Another great

name from the Acts of the Apostles is that of the protomartyr Stephen,

among the numerous derivatives of which we must include Stennett and

Stimpson.

Many non-biblical saints whose names occur very frequently have

already been mentioned, e.g. Antony, Bernard, Gregory, Martin,

Lawrence, Nicholas, etc To these may be added Augustine, or Austin,

Christopher, or Kit, with the dim. Christie and the patronymic Kitson,

Clement, whence a large family of names in Clem-, Gervase or Jarvis,

Jerome, sometimes represented by Jerram, and Theodore or Tidd (cf.

Tibb fron Theobald), who becomes in Welsh Tudor. Vincent has given

Vince, Vincey and Vincett, and Baseley, Blazey are from Basil and

Blaine. The Anglo-Saxon saints are poorly represented, though

probably most of them survive in a disguised form, e.g. Price is

sometimes for Brice, Cuthbert has sometimes given Cubitt and Cobbett,

and also Cutts. Bottle sometimes represents Botolf, Neate may be for

Neot, and Chad (Ceadda) survives as Chatt and in many local names.

The Cornish Tangye is from the Breton St. Tanneguy. The Archangel

Michael has given one of our commonest names, Mitchell (Chapter IV).

This is through French, but we have also the contracted Miall--

"At Michael's term had many a trial,

Worse than the dragon and St. Michael."

(Hudibras, III. ii. 51.)

[Footnote: Cf. Vialls from Vitalis, also a saint's name.]

This name exists in several other forms, e.g. Mihell, Myhill, Mighill,

and most frequently of all as Miles (Chapter VIII). The reader will

remember the famous salient of Saint-Mihiel, on the Meuse, held by the

Germans for so long a period of the war. From Gabriel we have Gabb,

Gabbett, etc. The common rustic pronunciation Gable has given Cable

(Chapter III).

Among female saints we find Agnes, pronounced Annis, the derivatives

of which have become confused with those of Anne, or Nan, Catherine,

whence Call, Catlin, etc., Cecilia, Cicely, whence Sisley, and of

course Mary and Margaret. For these see Chapter X. St. Bride, or

Bridget, survives in Kirkbride.

FEAST-DAYS

A very interesting group of surnames are derived from font-names taken

from the great feasts of the Church, date of birth or baptism, etc.

[Footnote: Names of this class were no doubt also sometimes given to

foundlings.] These are more often French or Greco-Latin than English,

a fact to be explained by priestly influence. Thus Christmas is much

less common than Noel or Nowell, but we also find Midwinter (Chapter

II) and Yule. Easter has a local origin (from a place in Essex) and

also represents Mid. Eng. estre, a word of very vague meaning for part

of a building, originally the exterior, from Lat. extra. It survives

in Fr. les êtres d'une maison. Hester, to which Bardsley gives the

same origin, I should rather connect with Old Fr. hestre (hêtre), a

beech. However that may be, the Easter festival is represented in our

surnames by Pascall, Cornish Pascoe, and Pask, Pash, Pace, Pack.

Patch, formerly a nickname for a jester (Chapter XX), from his motley

clothes, is also sometimes a variant of Pash. And the dim. Patchett

has become confused with Padgett, from Padge, a rimed form of Madge.

Pentecost is recorded as a personal name in Anglo-Saxon times.

Michaelmas is now Middleman (Chapter III), and Tiffany is an old name

for Epiphany. It comes from Greco-Latin theophania (while Epiphany

represents epiphania), which gave the French female name Tiphaine,

whence our Tiffin. Lammas (loaf mass) is also found as a personal

name, but there is a place called Lammas in Norfolk. We have

compounds of day in Halliday or Holiday, Hay-day, for high day,

Loveday, a day appointed for reconciliations, and Hockaday, for a

child born during Hocktide, which begins on the 15th day after Easter.

It was also called Hobday, though it is hard to say why; hence the

name Hobday, unless this is to be taken as the day, or servant

(Chapter XIX), in the service of Hob; cf. Hobman.

The days of the week are puzzling, the only one at all common being

Munday, though most of the others are found in earlier nomenclature.

We should rather expect special attention to be given to Sunday and

Friday, and, in fact, Sonntag and Freytag are by far the most usual in

German, while Dimanche and its perversions are common in France, and

Vendredi also occurs. This makes me suspect some other origin,

probably local, for Munday, the more so as Fr. Dimanche, Demange,

etc., is often for the personal name Dominicus, the etymology

remaining the same as that of the day-name, the Lord's day. Parts of

the day seem to survive in Noon, Eve, and Morrow, but Noon is local,

Fr. Noyon (cf. Moon, earlier Mohun, from Moyon), Eve is the mother of

mankind, and Morrow is for moor-wro, the second element being Mid.

Eng. wra, comer, whence Wray.

MONTH NAMES

We find the same difficulty with the names of the months. Several of

these are represented in French, but our March has four other origins,

from March in Cambridgeshire, from march, a boundary, from marsh, or

from Mark; while May means in Mid. English a maiden (Chapter XXI), and

is also a dim. of Matthew (Chapter IX). The names of the seasons also

present difficulty. Spring usually corresponds to Fr. La Fontaine

(Chapter II), but we find also Lent, the old name for the season, and

French has Printemps. [Footnote: The cognate Ger. Lenz is fairly

common, hence the frequency of Lent in America.] Summer and Winter

[Footnote: Winter was one of Hereward's most faithful comrades.] are

found very early as nicknames, as are also Frost and Snow; but why

always Summers or Somers with s and Winter without? [Footnote: Two

other common nicknames were Flint and Steel.] The latter has no doubt

in many cases absorbed Vinter, vintner (Chapter III) but this will not

account for the complete absence of genitive forms. And what has

become of the other season? We should not expect to find the learned

word "autumn," but neither Fall nor Harvest, the true English

equivalents, are at all common as surnames.

I regard this group, viz. days, months, seasons, as one of the least

clearly accounted for in our nomenclature, and cannot help thinking

that the more copious examples which we find in French and German are

largely distorted forms due to the imitative instinct, or are

susceptible of other explanations. This is certainly true in some

cases, e.g. Fr. Mars is the regular French development of Medardus, a

saint to whom a well-known Parisian church is dedicated; and the

relationship of Janvier to Janus may be via the Late Lat. januarius,

for janitor, a doorkeeper.

[Footnote: Medardus was the saint who, according to Ingoldsby, lived

largely on oysters obtained by the Red Sea shore. At his church in

Paris were performed the 'miracles' of the Quietists in the

seventeenth century. When the scenes that took place became a

scandal, the government intervened, with the result that a wag adorned

the church door with the following:

"De par le Roi, défense à Dieu

De faire miracle en ce lieu."]

CHAPTER X. METRONYMICS

"During the whole evening Mr. Jellyby sat in a corner with his head

against the wall, as if he were subject to low spirits."

(Bleak House, ch. iv.)

Bardsley first drew attention to the very large number of surnames

derived from an ancestress. His views have been subjected to much

ignorant criticism by writers who, taking upon themselves the task of

defending medieval virtue, have been unwilling to accept this terrible

picture of the moral condition of England, etc. This anxiety is

misplaced. There are many reasons, besides illegitimacy, for the

adoption of the mother's name. In medieval times the children of a

widow, especially posthumous children, would often assume the mother's

name. Widdowson itself is sufficiently common. In the case of second

marriages the two families might sometimes be distinguished by their

mothers' names. Orphans would be adopted by female relatives, and a

medieval Mrs. Joe Gargery would probably have impressed her own name

rather than that of her husband on a medieval Pip. In a village which

counted two Johns or Williams, and few villages did not, the children

of one might assume, or rather would be given by the public voice, the

mother's name. Finally, metronymics can be collected in hundreds by

anyone who cares to work through a few early registers.

FEMALE FONT-NAMES

Thus, in the Lancashire Inquests 205-1307 occur plenty of people

described as the sons of Alice, Beatrice, Christiana, Eda, Eva,

Mariot, Matilda, Quenilda, [Footnote: An Anglo-Saxon name, Cynehild,

whence Quennell.] Sibilla, Ysolt. Even if illegitimacy were the only

reason, that would not concern the philologist.

Female names undergo the same course of treatment as male names. Mary

gave the diminutives Marion and Mariot, whence Marriott. It was

popularly shortened into Mal (cf. Hal for Harry), which had the

diminutive Mally. From these we have Mawson and Malleson, the former

also belonging to Maud. Mal and Mally became Mol and Molly, hence

Mollison. The rimed forms Pol, Polly are later, and names in

Pol- usually belong to Paul (Chapter IX). The name Morris has three

other origins (the font-name Maurice, the nickname Moorish, and the local

marsh), but both Morris and Morrison are sometimes to be referred to

Mary. Similarly Margaret, popularly Mar-get, became Mag, Meg, Mog,

whence Meggitt, Moxon, etc. The rarity of Maggot is easily

understood, but Poll Maggot was one of Jack Sheppard's accomplices and

Shakespeare uses maggot-pie for magpie (Macbeth, iii, 4). Meg was

rimed into Peg, whence Peggs, Mog into Pog, whence Pogson, and Madge

into Padge, whence Padgett, when this is not for Patchett (Chapter

IX), or for the Fr. Paget, usually explained as Smallpage. The royal

name Matilda appears in the contracted Maud, Mould, Moule, Mott,

Mahood (Old Fr. Maheut). Its middle syllable Till gave Tilly, Tillson

and the dim. Tillet, Tillot, whence Tillotson. From Beatrice we have

Bee, Beaton and Betts, and the northern Beattie, which are not

connected with the great name Elizabeth. This is in medieval rolls

represented by its cognate Isabel, of which the shortened form was

Bell (Chapter I), or Ib, the latter giving Ibbot, Ibbotson, and the

rimed forms Tib-, Nib-, Bib-, Lib-. Here also belong Ebbs and Epps

rather than to the Anglo-Sax. Ebba (Chapter VII).

Many names which would now sound somewhat ambitious were common among

the medieval peasantry and are still found in the outlying parts of

England, especially Devon and Cornwall. Among the characters in Mr.

Eden Phillpotts's Widecombe Fair are two sisters named Sibley and

Petronell. From Sibilla, now Sibyl, come most names in Sib-, though

this was used also as a dim. of Sebastian (see also Chapter VII),

while Petronilla, has given Parnell, Purnell. As a female name it

suffered the eclipse to which certain names are accidentally subject,

and became equivalent to wench. References to a "prattling Parnel"

are common in old writers, and the same fate overtook it in French--

"Taisez-vous, péronnelle" (Tartufe, i. 1).

Mention has already been made of the survival of Guinevere (Chapter

VIII). From Cassandra we have Cash, Cass, Case, and Casson, from

Idonia, Ide, Iddins, Iddison; these were no doubt confused with the

derivatives of Ida. William filius Idae is in the Fine Rolls of

John's reign, and John Idonyesone occurs there, temp. Edward I. Pim,

as a female font-name, may be from Euphemia, and Siddons appears to

belong to Sidonia, while the pretty name Avice appears as Avis and

Haweis. From Lettice, Lat. laetitia, joy, we have Letts, Lettson,

while the corresponding Joyce, Lat. jocosa, merry, has become confused

with Fr. Josse (Chapter I). Anstey, Antis, is from Anastasia,

Precious from Preciosa, and Royce from Rohesia.

DOUBTFUL CASES

It is often difficult to separate patronymics from metronymics. We

have already seen (Chapter VI) that names in Ed- may be from Eda or

from Edward, while names in Gil- must be shared between Julian,

Juliana, Guillaume, Gilbert, and Giles. There are many other cases

like Julian and Juliana, e.g. Custance is for Constance, but Cust may

also represent the masculine Constant, while among the derivatives of

Philip we must not forget the warlike Philippa. Or, to take pairs

which are unrelated, Kitson may be from Christopher or from Catherine,

and Mattison from Matthew or from Martha, which became Matty and

Patty, the derivatives of the latter coalescing with those of Patrick

(Chapter VI). It is obvious that the derivatives of Alice would be

confused with those of Allen, while names in El- may represent Elias

or Eleanor. Also names in Al- and El- are sometimes themselves

confused, e.g. the Anglo-Saxon AElfgod appears both as Allgood and

Elgood. More Nelsons are derived from Neil, i.e. Nigel, than from

Nell, the rimed dim. of Ellen. Emmett is a dim. of Emma, but Empson

may be a shortened Emerson from Emery (Chapter VIII). The rather

commonplace Tibbles stands for both Theobald and Isabella, and the

same is true of all names in Tib- and some in Teb-. Lastly, the

coalescence of John, the commonest English font-name, with Joan, the

earlier form of Jane, was inevitable, while the French forms Jean and

Jeanne would be undistinguishable in their derivatives. These names

between them have given an immense number of surnames, the masculine

or feminine interpretation of which must be left to the reader's

imagination.

CHAPTER XI. LOCAL SURNAMES

"Now as men have always first given names unto places, so hath it

afterwards grown usuall that men have taken their names from places"

(VERSTEGAN, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence).

There is an idea cherished by some people that the possession of a

surname which is that of a village or other locality points to

ancestral ownership of that region. This is a delusion. In the case

of quite small features of the landscape, e.g. Bridge, Hill, the name

was given from place of residence. But in the case of counties, towns

and villages, the name was usually acquired when the locality was

left. Thus John Tiler leaving Acton, perhaps for Acton's good, would

be known in his new surroundings as John Acton. A moment's reflection

will show that this must be so. Scott is an English name, the

aristocratic Scotts beyond the border representing a Norman family

Escot, originally of Scottish origin. English, early spelt Inglis, is

a Scottish name. The names Cornish and Cornwallis first became common

in Devonshire, as Devenish did outside that county. French and

Francis, Old Fr. le franceis, are English names, just as Langlois

(l'Anglais) is common in France. For the same reason Cutler is a rare

name in Sheffield, where all are cutlers. By exception the name

Curnow, which is Cornish for a Cornishman, is fairly common in its

native county, but it was perhaps applied especially to those

inhabitants who could only speak the old Cornish language.

CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES

The local name may range in origin from a country to a plant (France,

Darbishire, Lankester, Ashby, Street, House, Pound, Plumptre, Daisy),

and, mathematically stated, the size of the locality will vary in

direct proportion to the distance from which the immigrant has come.

Terentius Afer was named from a continent. I cannot find a parallel

in England, but names such as the nouns France, Ireland, Pettingell

(Portugal), or the adjectives Dench, Mid. Eng. dense, Danish, Norman,

Welsh, (Walsh, Wallis, etc.), Allman (Allemand), often perverted to

Almond, were considered a sufficient mark of identification for men

who came from foreign parts. But the untravelled inhabitant, if

distinguished by a local name, would often receive it from some very

minute feature of the landscape, e.g. Solomon Daisy may have been

descended from a Robert Dayeseye, who lived in Hunts in 1273. It is

not very easy to see how such very trifling surnames as this last came

into existence, but its exiguity is surpassed in the case of a

prominent French airman who bears the appropriately buoyant name of

Brindejonc, perhaps from some ancestor who habitually chewed a straw.

An immense number of our countrymen are simply named from the points

of the compass, slightly disguised in Norris, Anglo-Fr. le noreis,

[Footnote: The corresponding le surreis is now represented by

Surridge.] Sotheran, the southron, and Sterling, for Easterling, a

name given to the Hanse merchants. Westray was formerly le westreis.

A German was to our ancestors, as he still is to sailors, a Dutchman,

whence our name Douch, Ger. deutsch, Old High Ger. tiutisc, which,

through Old French tieis, has given Tyas. [Footnote: Tyars, or Tyers,

which Bardsley puts with this, seems to be rather Fr. Thiers, Lat.

tertius.]

But not every local name is to be taken at its face value. Holland is

usually from one of the Lancashire Hollands, and England may be for

Mid. Eng. ing-land, the land of Ing (cf. Ingulf, Ingold, etc.), a

personal name which is the first element in many place-names, or from

ing, a meadow by a stream. Holyland is not Palestine, but the

holly-land. Hampshire is often for Hallamshire, a district in

Yorkshire. Dane is a variant of Mid. Eng. dene, a valley, the

inhabitant of Denmark having given us Dench (Chapter XI) and Dennis

(le daneis). Visitors to Margate will remember the valley called the

Dane, which stretches from the harbour to St. Peters. Saxon is not

racial, but a perversion of sexton (Chapter XVII). Mr. Birdofredum

Sawin, commenting on the methods employed in carrying out the great

mission of the Anglo-Saxon race, remarks that--

"Saxons would be handy

To du the buryin' down here upon the Rio Grandy"

(Lowell, Biglow Papers).

The name Cockayne was perhaps first given derisively to a sybarite--

"Paris est pour le riche un pays de Cocagne" (Boileau),

but it may be an imitative form of Coken in Durham.

Names such as Morris, i.e. Moorish, or Sarson, i.e. Saracen (but also

for Sara-son), are rather nicknames, due to complexion or to an

ancestor who was mine host of the Saracen's Head. Moor is sometimes

of similar origin. Russ, like Rush, is one of the many forms of Fr.

roux, red-complexioned (Chapter II). Pole is for Pool, the native of

Poland being called Polack--

"He smote the sledded Polack on the ice" (Hamlet, I. i).

But the name Pollock is local (Renfrewshire).

COUNTIES AND TOWNS

As a rule it will be found that, while most of our counties have given

family names, sometimes corrupted, e.g. Lankshear, Willsher, Cant,

Chant, for Kent, with which we may compare Anguish for Angus, the

larger towns are rather poorly represented, the movement having always

been from country to town, and the smaller spot serving for more exact

description. An exception is Bristow (Bristol), Mid. Eng. brig-stow,

the place on the bridge, the great commercial city of the west from

which so many medieval seamen hailed; but the name is sometimes from

Burstow (Surrey), and there were possibly smaller places called by so

natural a name, just as the name Bradford, i.e. broad ford, may come

from a great many other places than the Yorkshire wool town. Rossiter

is generally for Rochester, but also for Wroxeter (Salop); Coggeshall

is well disguised as Coxall, Barnstaple as Bastable, Maidstone as

Mayston, Stockport as Stopford. On the other hand, there is not a

village of any antiquity but has, or once had, a representative among

surnames.

NAMES PRECEDED BY DE

The provinces and towns of France and Flanders have given us many

common surnames. From names of provinces we have Burgoyne and Burgin,

Champain and Champneys (Chapter II), Gascoyne and Gaskin, Mayne,

Mansell, Old Fr. Mancel (manceau), an inhabitant of Maine or of its

capital Le Mans, Brett and Britton, Fr. le Bret and le Breton,

Pickard, Power, sometimes from Old Fr. Pohier, a Picard, Peto,

formerly Peitow, from Poitou, Poidevin and Puddifin, for

Poitevin, Loring, Old Fr. le Lohereng, the man from Lorraine,

assimilated to Fleming, Hammy, an old name for Hainault, Brabazon, le

Brabançon, and Brebner, formerly le Brabaner, Angwin, for Angevin,

Flinders, a perversion of Flanders, Barry, which is sometimes for

Berri, and others which can be identified by everybody.

Among towns we have Allenson, Alençon, Amyas, Amiens, Ainger, Angers,

Aris, Arras, Bevis, Beauvais, Bullen, Boulogne, Bloss, Blois, Bursell,

Brussels, Callis and Challis, Calais, Challen, from one of the French

towns called Chalon or Chalons, Chaworth, Cahors, Druce, Dreux, Gaunt,

Gand (Ghent), Luck, Luick (Liege), Loving, Louvain, Malins, Malines

(Mechlin), Raynes, Rennes and Rheims, Roan, Rouen, Sessions, Soissons,

Stamp, Old Fr. Estampes (ttampes), Turney, Tournay, etc. The name de

Verdun is common enough in old records for us to connect with it both

the fascinating Dolly and the illustrious Harry. [Footnote added by

scanner: Some modern readers might not realise that Weekley was

referring to Harry Vardon, a famous golfer of the late nineteenth and

early twentieth century. Dolly Varden was a character in Dickens'

"Barnaby Rudge", a pretty girl in flowered hats and skirts. Her name

was borrowed for various clothing styles, breeds of flowers, shows,

theatres and even angling fishes among other things. There seem to

have been several references to "the fascinating Dolly Varden", though

the expression does not occur in the book.] To the above may be

added, among German towns, Cullen, Cologne, and Lubbock, Luebeck, and,

from Italy, Janes, Gênes (Genoa), Janaway or Janways, i.e. Genoese,

and Lombard or Lombard. Familiar names of foreign towns were often

anglicized. Thus we find Hamburg called Hamborough, Bruges Bridges,

and Tours Towers.

To the town of Angers we sometimes owe, besides Ainger, the forbidding

names Anger and Danger. In many local names of foreign origin the

preposition de has been incorporated, e.g. Dalmain, d'Allemagne,

sometimes corrupted into Dallman and Dollman, though these are also

for Doleman, from the East Anglian dole, a boundary, Dallison, d'Alenç

on, Danvers, d'Anvers, Antwerp, Devereux, d'Évreux, Daubeney, Dabney,

d'Aubigny, Disney, d'Isigny, etc. Doyle is a later form of Doyley, or

Dolley, for d'Ouilli, and Darcy and Durfey were once d'Arcy and

d'Urfé. Dew is sometimes for de Eu. Sir John de Grey, justice of

Chester, had in 1246 two Alice in Wonderland clerks named Henry de Eu

and William de Ho. A familiar example, which has been much disputed,

is the Cambridgeshire name Death, which some of its possessors prefer

to write D'Aeth or De Ath. Bardsley rejects this, without, I think,

sufficient reason. It is true that it occurs as de Dethe in the

Hundred Rolls, but this is not a serious argument, for we find also de

Daubeney (Chapter XI), the original de having already been absorbed at

the time the Rolls were compiled. This retention of the de is also

common in names derived from spots which have not become recognized

place-names; see Chapter XIV.

But to derive a name of obviously native origin from a place in France

is a snobbish, if harmless, delusion. There are quite enough moor

leys in England without explaining Morley by Morlaix. To connect the

Mid. English nickname Longfellow with Longueville, or the patronymic

Hansom (Chapter III) with Anceaumville, betrays the same belief in

phonetic epilepsy that inspires the derivation of Barber from the

chapelry of Sainte-Barbe. The fact that there are at least three

places, in England called Carrington has not prevented one writer from

seeking the origin of that name in the appropriate locality of

Charenton.

CHAPTER XII. SPOT NAMES

"In ford, in ham, in ley and tun

The most of English surnames run"

(VERSTEGAN).

Verstegan's couplet, even if it be not strictly true, makes a very

good text for a discourse on our local names. The ham, or home, and

the ton, or town, originally an enclosure (cf. Ger. Zaun, hedge),

were, at any rate in a great part of England, the regular nucleus of

the village, which in some cases has become the great town and in

others has decayed away and disappeared from the map. In an age when

wool was our great export, flock keeping was naturally a most

important calling, and the ley, or meadow land, would be quickly taken

up and associated with human activity. When bridges were scarce,

fords were important, and it is easy to see how the inn, the smithy,

the cartwright's booth, etc., would naturally plant themselves at such

a spot and form the commencement of a hamlet.

ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES

Each of these four words exists by itself as a specific place-name and

also as a surname. In fact Lee and Ford are among our commonest local

surnames. In the same way the local origin of such names as Clay and

Chalk may be specific as well as general. But I do not propose to

deal here with the vast subject of our English village names, but only

with the essential elements of which they are composed, elements which

were often used for surnominal purposes long before the spot itself

had developed into a village. [Footnote: A good general account of

our village names will be found in the Appendix to Isaac Taylor's

Names and their Histories. It is reprinted as chapter xi of the same

author's Words and Places (Everyman Library). See also Johnston's

Place-names of England and Wales, a glossary of selected names with a

comprehensive introduction. There are many modern books on the

village names of various counties, e.g. Bedfordshire, Berkshire,

Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Suffolk (Skeat),

Oxfordshire (Alexander), Lancashire (Wyld and Hirst), West Riding of

Yorkshire (Moorman), Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire

(Duignan), Nottinghamshire (Mutschmann), Gloucestershire (Baddeley),

Herefordshire (Bannister), Wiltshire (Elsblom), S.W. Yorkshire

(Goodall), Sussex (Roberts), Lancashire (Sephton), Derbyshire

(Walker), Northumberland and Durham (Mawer).] Thus the name Oakley

must generally have been borne by a man who lived on meadow land which

was surrounded or dotted with oak-trees. But I should be shy of

explaining a given village called Oakley in the same way, because the

student of place-names might be able to show from early records that

the place was originally an ey, or island, and that the first syllable

is the disguised name of a medieval churl. These four simple etymons

themselves may also become perverted. Thus -ham is sometimes confused

with -holm (Chapter XII), -ley, as I have just suggested, may in some

cases contain -ey, -ton occasionally interchanges with -don and

-stone, and -lord with the French -fort (Chapter XIV).

In this chapter will be found a summary of the various words applied

by our ancestors to the natural features of the land they lived on.

To avoid too lengthy a catalogue, I have classified them under the

three headings--

(1) Hill and Dale,

(2) Plain and Woodland,

(3) Water and Waterside,

reserving for the next chapter the names due to man's interference

with the scenery, e.g. roads, buildings, enclosures, etc.

They are mostly Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian, the Celtic name remaining

as the appellation of the individual hill, stream, etc. (Helvellyn,

Avon, etc.). The simple word has in almost all cases given a fairly

common surname, but compounds are of course numerous, the first

element being descriptive of the second, e.g. Bradley, broad lea,

Radley and Ridley, red lea, Brockley, brook lea or badger lea (Chapter

XXIII), Beverley, beaver lea, Cleverley, clover lea, Hawley, hedge

lea, Rawnsley, raven's lea, and so ad infinitum. In the oldest

records spot names are generally preceded by the preposition at,

whence such names as Attewell, Atwood, but other prepositions occur,

as in Bythesea, Underwood and the hybrid Suttees, on Tees. Cf. such

French names as Doutrepont, from beyond the bridge.

One curious phenomenon, of which I can offer no explanation, is that

while many spot names occur indifferently with or without -s, e.g.

Bridge, Bridges; Brook, Brooks; Platt, Plaits, in others we find a

regular preference either for the singular or plural form. [Footnote:

In some cases no doubt a plural, in others a kind of genitive due to

the influence of personal names, such as Wills, Perkins, etc.]

Compare the following couples:

Field Meadows

Lake Rivers

Pool Mears (metes)

Spying Wells

House Coates (P, 133)

Marsh Myers (mires)

[Footnote: Myers is very often a Jewish name, from the very common

Ger. Meyer, for which see Chapter IV.]

to which many more might be added. So we find regularly Nokes but

Nash (Chapter III), Beech but Willows. The general tendency is

certainly towards the -s forms in the case of monosyllables, e.g.

Banks, Foulds, Hayes, Stubbs, Thwaites, etc., but we naturally find

the singular in compounds, e.g. Windebank (winding), Nettlefold,

Roundhay, etc.

There is also a further problem offered by names in -er. We know that

a Waller was a mason or wall-builder, but was a Bridger really a

Pontifex, [Footnote: An example of a Latinized name. Cf. Sutor,

Faber, and the barbarous Sartorius, for sartor, a tailor. Pontifex

may also be the latinized form of Pope or Bishop. It is not known why

this title, bridge-builder, was given to high-priests.] did he merely

live near the bridge, or was he the same as a Bridgman, and what was

the latter? Did Sam Weller's ancestor sink wells, possess a well, or

live near someone else's well? Probably all explanations may be

correct, for the suffix may have differed in meaning according to

locality, but I fancy that in most cases proximity alone is implied.

The same applies to many cases of names in -man, such as Hillman,

Dickman (dyke), Parkman.

Many of the words in the following paragraphs are obsolete or survive

only in local usage. Some of them also vary considerably in meaning,

according to the region in which they are found. I have included many

which, in their simple form, seem too obvious to need explanation,

because the compounds are not always equally clear.

HILL AND DALE

We have a fair number of Celtic words connected with natural scenery,

but they do not as a rule form compounds, and as surnames are usually

found in their simple form. Such are Cairn, a stony hill, Crag,

Craig, and the related Carrick and Creagh, Glen or Glynn, and Lynn, a

cascade. Two words, however, of Celtic origin, don, or down, a hill,

and combe, a hollow in the hills, were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons and

enter into many compounds. Thus we find Kingdon, whence the imitative

Kingdom, Brandon, from the name Brand (Chapter VII), Ashdown, etc.

The simple Donne or Dunne is sometimes the Anglo-Saxon name Dunna,

whence Dunning, or a colour nickname, while Down and Downing may

represent the Anglo-Sax. Duna and Duning (Chapter VII). From Combe,

used especially in the west of England, we have Compton, and such

compounds as Acomb, at combe, Addiscombe, Battiscombe, etc. But

Newcomb is for Newcome (Chapter II). See also Slocomb (Chapter XXI).

HILLS

The simple Hill and Dale are among our common surnames. Hill also

appears as Hull and is easily disguised in compounds, e.g. Brummel for

broom-hill, Tootell and Tuttle for Toothill, a name found in many

localities and meaning a hill on which a watch was kept. It is

connected with the verb to tout, originally to look out

"David dwellide in the tote hil" (Wyc, 2 Sam. v. 9).

We have Dale and its cognate Dell in Swindell (swine), Tindall (Tyne),

Twaddell, Tweddell (Tweed), etc.--

"Mr. H. T. Twaddle announced the change of his name to Tweeddale in

the Times, January 4, 1890" (Bardsley).

Other names for a hill are Fell (Scand.), found in the lake country,

whence Grenfell; and Hough or How (Scand.), as in the north country

names Greenhow, Birchenough.

This is often reduced to -o, as in Clitheroe, Shafto, and is easily

confused with scough, a wood (Scand.), as in Briscoe (birch), Ayscough

(ash).

In the north hills were also called Law and Low, with such compounds

as Bradlaugh, Whitelaw, and Harlow. To these must be added Barrow,

often confused with the related borough (Chapter XIII). Both belong

to the Anglo-Sax. beorgan, to protect, cover. The name Leatherbarrow

means the hill, perhaps the burial mound, of Leather, Anglo-Sax.

Hlothere, cognate with Lothair and Luther.

A hill-top was Cope or Copp. Chaucer uses it of the tip of the

Miller's nose

"Upon the cope right of his nose he hade

A werte, and thereon stood a toft of herys."

(A. 554.)

Another name for a hill-top appears in Peak, Pike, Peck, or Pick, but

the many compounds in Pick-, e.g. Pickbourne, Pickford, Pickwick,

etc., suggest a personal name Pick of which we have the dim. in

Pickett (cf. Fr. Picot) and the softened Piggot. Peak may be in some

cases from the Derbyshire Peak, which has, however, no connection with

the common noun peak. A mere hillock or knoll has given the names

Knapp, Knollys or Knowles, Knock, and Knott. But Knapp may also be

for Mid. Eng. nape, cognate with knave and with Low Ger. Knappe,

squire--

"Wer wagt es, Rittersmann oder Knapp'.

Zu tauchen in diesen Schlund?"

(Schiller, Der Taucher, 1. I.)

Redknap, the name of a Richmond boat-builder, is probably a nickname,

like Redhead. A Knapper may have lived on a "knap," or may have been

one of the Suffolk flint-knappers, who still prepare gun-flints for

weapons to be retailed to the heathen.

Knock and Knocker are both Kentish names, and there is a reef off

Margate known as the Kentish Knock. We have the plural Knox (cf. Bax,

Settlements and Enclosures, Chapter XIII). Knott is sometimes for

Cnut, or Canute, which generally becomes Nutt. Both have got mixed

with the nickname Nott.

A green knoll was also called Toft (Scand.), whence Langtoft, and the

name was used later for a homestead. From Cliff we have Clift,

[Footnote: This may also be from Mid. Eng, clift, a cleft.] with

excrescent -t, and the cognates Cleeve and Clive. Compounds of

Cliff are Radcliffe (red), Sutcliffe (south), Wyclif (white). The

c- sometimes disappears in compounds, e.g. Cunliffe, earlier Cunde-clive,

and Topliff; but Ayliffe is for AElfgifu or AEthelgifu and Goodliffe

from Godleof (cf. Ger. Gottlieb). The older form of Stone appears in

Staines, Stanhope, Stanton, etc. Wheatstone is either for "white

stone" or for the local Whetstone (Middlesex). In Balderstone,

Johnston, Edmondstone, Livingstone, the suffix is -ton, though the

frequence of Johnston points to corruption from Johnson, just as in

Nottingham we have the converse case of Beeson from the local Beeston.

In Hailstone the first element may be Mid. Eng, half, holy. Another

Mid. English name for a stone appears in Hone, now used only of a

whetstone.

A hollow or valley in the hillside was called in the north Clough,

also spelt Clow, Cleugh (Clim o' the Cleugh), and Clew. The compound

Fairclough is found corrupted into Faircloth. Another obscure

northern name for a glen was Hope, whence Allsop, Blenkinsop, the

first element in each being perhaps the name of the first settler, and

Burnup, Hartopp, (hart), Harrap (hare), Heslop (hazel).

Gill (Scand.), a ravine, has given Fothergill, Pickersgill, and

Gaskell, from Gaisgill (Westmorland). These, like most of our names

connected with mountain scenery, are naturally found almost

exclusively in the north. Other surnames which belong more or less to

the hill country are Hole, found also as Holl, Hoole, and Hoyle, but

perhaps meaning merely a depression in the land, Ridge, and its

northern form Rigg, with their compounds Doddridge, Langridge,

Brownrigg, Hazelrigg, etc. Ridge, Rigg, also appear as Rudge, Rugg.

From Mid. Eng. raike, a path, a sheep-track (Scand.), we get Raikes

and perhaps Greatorex, found earlier as Greatrakes, the name of a

famous faith-healer of the seventeenth century.

WOODLAND AND PLAIN

The compounds of Wood itself are very numerous, e.g. Braidwood,

Harwood, Norwood, Sherrard and Sherratt (Sherwood). But, in

considering the frequency of the simple Wood, it must be remembered

that we find people described as le wode, i.e. mad (cf. Ger. Wut,

frenzy), and that mad and madman are found as medieval names

"Thou told'st me they were stolen unto this wood;

And here am I, and wode within this wood,

Because I cannot meet my Hermia."

(Midsummer Night's Dream, ii. 1.)

As a suffix -wood is sometimes a corruption of -ward, e.g. Haywood is

occasionally for Hayward, and Allwood, Elwood are for Aylward,

Anglo-Sax. AEthelweard. Another name for a wood was Holt, cognate

with Ger. Holz--

"But right so as thise holtes and thise hayis,

That han in winter dede ben and dreye,

Revesten hem in grene whan that May is."

(Troilus and Criseyde, iii. 351.)

Hurst or Hirst means a wooded hill (cf. Ger. Horst), and Shaw was once

almost as common a word as wood itself--

"Wher rydestow under this grene-wode shawe?"

(D, 1386.)

Hurst belongs especially to the south and west, though Hirst is very

common in Yorkshire; Shaw is found in the north and Holt in the east

and south. We have compounds of Shaw in Bradshaw, Crashaw (crow),

Hearnshaw (heron), Earnshaw (Mid. Eng, earn, eagle), Renshaw (raven)

[Footnote: It is obvious that this may also be for raven's haw

(Chapter XIII). Raven was a common personal name and is the first

element in Ramsbottom (Chapter XII), Ramsden.], etc., of Hurst in

Buckhurst (beech), Brockhurst (badger), and of Holt in Oakshott.

We have earlier forms of Grove in Greaves--

"And with his stremes dryeth in the greves

The silver dropes, hangynge on the leves"

(A. 1495)--

and Graves, the latter being thus no more funereal than Tombs, from

Thomas (cf. Timbs from Timothy). But Greaves and Graves may also be

variants of the official Grieves (Chapter XIX), or may come from Mid.

Eng. graefe, a trench, quarry. Compounds are Hargreave (hare),

Redgrave, Stangrave, the two latter probably referring to an

excavation. From Mid. Eng, strope, a small wood, appear to come

Strode and Stroud, compound Bulstrode, while Struthers is the cognate

strother, marsh, still in dialect use. Weald and wold, the cognates

of Ger. Wald, were applied rather to wild country in general than to

land covered with trees. They are probably connected with wild.

Similarly the Late Lat. foresta, whence our forest, means only what is

outside, Lat, foris, the town jurisdiction. From the Mid. Eng. waeld

we have the names Weld and Weale, the latter with the not uncommon

loss of final -d. Scroggs (Scand.) and Scrubbs suggest their meaning

of brushwood. Scroggins, from its form, is a patronymic, and probably

represents Scoggins with intrusive _r_. This is perhaps from Scogin,

a name borne by a poet who was contemporary with Chaucer and by a

court-fool of the fifteenth century--

"The same Sir John, the very same. I saw him break Skogan's head at

the court gate, when he was a crack, not thus high." (2 Henry IV.,

iii. 2.)

With Scrubb of cloudy ammonia fame we may compare Wormwood Scrubbs.

Shrubb is the same word, and Shropshire is for Anglo-Sax. scrob-scire.

FOREST CLEARINGS

The two northern names for a clearing in the wood were Royd and

Thwaite (Scand.). The former is cognate with the second part of

Baireut and Wernigerode, and with the Rütli, the small plateau on

which the Swiss patriots took their famous oath. It was so called--

"Weil dort die Waldung ausgerodet ward."

(SCHILLER, Wilhelm Tell.)

Among its compounds are Ackroyd (oak), Grindrod (green), Murgatroyd

(Margaret), Learoyd (lea), Ormerod, etc. We also find the name Rodd,

which may belong here or to Rudd (Chapter VII), and both these names

may also be for Rood, equivalent to Cross or Crouch (Chapter II), as

in Holyrood. Ridding is also related to Royd. Hacking may be a dim.

of Hack (Chapter VII), but we find also de le hacking, which suggests

a forest clearing.

Thwaite, from Anglo-Sax. þwitan, to cut, is found chiefly in

Cumberland and the adjacent region in such compounds as Braithwaite

(broad), Hebbelthwaite, Postlethwaite, Satterthwaite. The second of

these is sometimes corrupted into Ablewhite as Cowperthwaite is into

Copperwheat, for "this suffix has ever been too big a mouthful in the

south" (Bardsley). A glade or valley in the wood was called a Dean,

Dene, Denne, cognate with den. The compounds are numerous, e.g.

Borden (boar), Dibden (deep), Sugden (Mid. Eng. suge, sow), Hazeldean

or Heseltine. From the fact that swine were pastured in these glades

the names Denman and Denyer have been explained as equivalent to

swineherd. As a suffix -den is often confused with -don (Chapter

XII). At the foot of Horsenden Hill, near Harrow, two boards announce

Horsendon Farm and Horsenden Golf-links. An opening in the wood was

also called Slade--

"And when he came to Barnesdale,

Great heavinesse there hee hadd;

He found two of his fellowes

Were slain both in a Slade."

(Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne.)

The maps still show Pond Slade in Richmond Park, The compound Hertslet

may be for hart-Slade.

Acre, a field, cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. ager, occurs

in Goodacre, Hardacre, Linacre, Whittaker, etc., and Field itself

gives numerous compounds, including Butterfield (bittern, Chapter

XXIII), Schofield (school), Streatfeild (street), Whitfield.

Pasture-land is represented above all by Lea, for which see Chapter

III. It is cognate with Hohenlohe and Waterloo, while Mead and Medd

are cognate with Zermatt (at the mead). Brinsmead thus means the same

as Brinsley.

MARSHES

Marshy land has given the names Carr or Kerr (Scand.) and Marsh,

originally an adjective, merisc, from mer, mere. The doublet Marris

has usually become Morris. The compounds Tidmarsh and Titchmarsh

contain the Anglo-Saxon names Tidda and Ticca. Moor also originally

had the meaning morass (e.g. in Sedgemoor), as Ger. Moor still has, so

that Fenimore is pleonastic. The northern form is Muir, as in

Muirhead. Moss was similarly used in the north; cf. moss-trooper and

Solway Moss, but the surname Moss is generally for Moses (Chapter IX).

From slough we get the names Slow, Slowley, and Sloman (also perhaps a

nickname), with which we may compare Moorman and Mossman. This seems

to be also the most usual meaning of Slack or Slagg, also used of a

gap in the hills

"The first horse that he rode upon,

For he was raven black,

He bore him far, and very far,

But failed in a slack."

(Ballad of Lady Maisry.)

Tye means common land. Platt is a piece, or plot, of level country--

"Oft on a plat of rising ground

I hear the far-off curfew sound"

(Penseroso, 1. 73);

and shape is expressed by Gore, a triangular piece of land (cf.

Kensington Gore), of which the older form Gare, Geare, also survives.

In Lowndes we have laund or lound--

"And to the laund he rideth hym ful right,

For thider was the hart wont have his flight

(A. 1691)--

a piece of heath land, the origin of the modern word lawn. In Lund

and Lunn it has become confused with the Old Norse lundr, a sacred

grove.

Laund itself is of French origin--

"Lande, a land, or laund; a wild, untilled, shrubbie, or bushie

plaine"

(Cotgrave).

Its relation to land is uncertain, and it is not possible to

distinguish them in such compounds as Acland (Chapter XII), Buckland,

Cleveland, etc. The name Lander or Launder is unconnected with these

(see p.186). Flack is Mid. Eng. flagge, turf. Snape is a dialect

word for boggy ground, and Wong means a meadow.

A rather uncouth-looking set of names, which occur chiefly on the

border of Cheshire and Lancashire, are compounded from bottom or

botham, a wide shallow valley suited for agriculture. Hotspur,

dissatisfied with his fellow-conspirators' map-drawing, expresses his

intention of damming the Trent so that

"It shall not wind with such a deep indent

To rob me of so rich a bottom here."

(1 Henry IV, iii. 1.)

Familiar compounds are Higginbottom, Rowbotham, Sidebottom. The first

element of Shufflebotham is, in the Lancashire Assize Rolls

(1176-1285), spelt Schyppewalle- and Schyppewelle-, where schyppe is

for sheep, still so pronounced in dialect. Tarbottom, earlier

Tarbutton, is corrupted from Tarbolton (Ayrshire).

WATER AND WATERSIDE

RIVERS

Very few surnames are taken, in any language, from the names of

rivers. This is quite natural, for just as the man who lived on a

hill became known as Hill, Peake, etc., and not as Skiddaw or Wrekin,

so the man who lived by the waterside would be known as Bywater,

Rivers, etc. No Londoner talks of going on the Thames, and the

country-dweller also usually refers to his local stream as the river

or the water, and not by its geographical name. Another reason for

the absence of such surnames is probably to be found in the fact that

our river (and mountain) names are almost exclusively Celtic, and had

no connotation for the English population. We have many apparent

river names, but most of them are susceptible of another explanation.

Dee may be for Day as Deakin is for Dakin, i.e. David, Derwent looks

like Darwin (Chapter VII) or the local Darwen with excrescent -t

(Chapter III), Humber is Humbert, a French name corresponding to the

Anglo-Sax, Hunbeorht, Medway may be merely "mid-way," and Trent is a

place in Somerset. This view as to river surnames is supported by the

fact that we do not appear to have a single mountain surname, the

apparent exception, Snowdon, being for Snowden (see den, Dean, Dene,

Denne). [Footnote: But see my Surnames, Chapter XVI.]

Among names for streams we have Beck, [Footnote: The simple Beck is

generally a German name of modern introduction (see pecch).] cognate

with Ger. Bach; Bourne, [Footnote: Distinct from bourne, a boundary,

Fr. borne.] or Burn, cognate with Ger. Brunnen; Brook, related to

break; Crick, a creek; Fleet, a creek, cognate with Flood; and Syke, a

trench or rill. In Beckett and Brockett the suffix is head (Chapter

XIII). Troutbeck, Birkbeck explain themselves. In Colbeck we have

cold, and Holbrook contains hollow, but in some names -brook has been

substituted for -borough, -burgh. We find Brook latinized as Torrens.

Aborn is for atte bourne, and there are probably many places called

Blackburn and Otterburn.

Firth, an estuary, cognate with fjord, often becomes Frith, but this

surname usually comes from frith, a park or game preserve (Chapter

XIII).

Another word for a creek, wick or wick (Scand.), cannot be

distinguished from wick, a settlement. Pond, a doublet of Pound

(Chapter XIII), means a piece of water enclosed by a dam, while

natural sheets of water are Lake, or Lack, not limited originally to a

large expanse, Mere, whence Mears and such compounds as Cranmer

(crane), Bulmer (bull), etc., and Pool, also spelt Pull and Pole. We

have compounds of the latter in Poulton (Chapter I), Claypole, and

Glasspool.

In Kent a small pond is called Sole, whence Nethersole. The bank of a

river or lake was called Over, cognate with Ger. Ufer, whence Overend,

Overall (see below), Overbury, Overland. The surname Shore, for atte

shore, may refer to the sea-shore, but the word sewer was once

regularly so pronounced and the name was applied to large drains in

the fen country (cf. Gott, Water, Chapter XIII). Beach is a word of

late appearance and doubtful origin, and as a surname is usually

identical with Beech.

Spits of land by the waterside were called Hook (cf. Hook of Holland

and Sandy Hook) and Hoe or Hoo, as in Plymouth Hoe, or the Hundred of

Hoo, between the Thames and the Medway. From Hook comes Hooker, where

it does not mean a maker of hooks, while Homan and Hooman sometimes

belong to the second. Alluvial land by a stream was called halgh,

haugh, whence sometimes Hawes. Its dative case gives Hale and Heal.

These often become -hall, -all, in place-names. Compounds are

Greenhalgh, Greenall and Featherstonehaugh, perhaps our longest

surname.

Ing, a low-lying meadow, Mid. Eng. eng, survives in Greening, Fenning,

Wilding, and probably sometimes in England (Chapter XI). But Inge and

Ings, the latter the name of one of the Cato Street conspirators, also

represent an Anglo-Saxon personal name. Cf. Ingall and Ingle, from

Ingwulf, or Ingold, whence Ingoldsby.

ISLANDS

Ey, an island, [Footnote: Isle of Sheppey, Mersea Island, etc, are

pleonasms.]survives as the last element of many names, and is not

always to be distinguished from hey (hay, Settlements, Chapter III)

and ley. Bill Nye's ancestor lived atten ey (Chapter III). Dowdney

or Dudeney has been explained from the Anglo-Saxon name Duda, but it

more probably represents the very common French name Dieudonné,

corresponding to Lat. Deodatus. In the north a river island was

commonly called Holm (Scand.), also pronounced Home, Hulme, and Hume,

in compounds easily confused with -ham, e.g. Durham was once

Dun-holmr, hill island. The very common Holmes is probably in most

cases a tree-name (Chapter XII). In Chisholm the first element may

mean pebble; cf. Chesil Beach. The names Bent, whence Broadbent, and

Crook probably also belong sometimes to the river, but may have arisen

from a turn in a road or valley. But Bent was also applied to a tract

covered with bents, or rushes, and Crook is generally a nickname

(Chapter XXII). Lastly, the crossing of the unbridged stream has

given us Ford or Forth whence Stratford, Strafford (street), Stanford,

Stamford, Staniforth (stone), etc. The alternative name was Wade,

whence the compound Grimwade. The cognate wath (Scand.) has been

confused with with (Scand.), a wood, whence the name Wythe and the

compound Askwith or Asquith. Both -wath and -with have been often

replaced by -worth and -wood.

TREE NAMES