THE FARMHOUSE AND THE FARMER
The farmers in the early days had few conveniences and comforts
and were largely dependent for the supply of their wants upon the
products of their farms. But little food was purchased. At the
outset domestic animals were too valuable to be killed for food but
deer and other wild game were plentiful. When this no longer became
necessary and an animal was killed by a farmer, it was the custom to
lend pieces of the meat to the neighbors, to be repaid in kind when
animals were killed by them. In this way the fresh meat supply was
kept up for a long time by the killing of one animal. Other parts
of the meat were salted and kept for a number of months before all
was eaten. Nearly every family had a beef and a pork barrel (called
a "powdering tub"), from which most of the meat used in summer was
taken. Meat was not found upon the table every day.
The chimney in the farmhouse was of great size, occupying relatively
a large amount of the space inside the house. The kitchen fireplace
usually was large enough to accommodate logs four feet in length,
oftentimes even larger. In making a fire a backlog, a foot or
more in diameter, was placed against the back of the fireplace; a
forestick was then placed across the andirons in front, and wood
piled between, producing a hot fire, and giving the kitchen a very
cheerful appearance. Large stones were sometimes used instead of a
backlog, and an iron bar was laid on the andirons in front of the
forestick. Ample ventilation was had by the constant current of air
that passed up the chimney.
In sitting before an open fire it was often complained that while
one was roasted in front he was frozen in the back and this led to
the use in nearly every family of a long seat made of boards called
a "settle," with a high back to keep off the wind from behind,
which, when placed before the fire, was usually occupied by the
older members of the family.
At night, any fire that remained was carefully covered with ashes
and was expected to keep until morning to kindle for the next day.
This was called "raking up the fire," and calculation was made to
have enough fire to cover up every night, so it need not be lost.
If the fire didn't keep over, some one would go with a fire pan to
a neighbor, if one lived near, and borrow some fire. But if this
was inconvenient, resort was then had to the tinder box. Tinder
was made by charring cotton or linen rags. The box containing this
was usually kept in a niche made in the side of the fireplace,
by leaving out a couple of bricks. By striking fire with flint
and steel, the tinder was ignited. Homemade matches, which had
been dipped in melted brimstone, were set on fire by touching the
burning tinder and in this way a fire was obtained. Sometimes fire
was kindled by flashing powder in the pan of a flint-lock musket,
thereby setting paper on fire. Friction matches did not come into
use until about 1832.
The cooking was done over and before the open fire. Boiling was
done by suspending kettles from pot hooks which were upon the crane
and of different lengths to accommodate the height of the fire. An
adjustable hook which was called a "trammel" was not infrequently
used. Meat was roasted by passing through it an iron rod called a
spit and this was rested on brackets on the back of the andirons in
front of the fire and by repeated turning and exposing on all sides,
the meat was evenly cooked. Another method was to suspend the meat
or poultry by a line before the fire. By twisting the line hard
it would slowly unwind. Of course some one had to be in frequent
attendance to twist the cords and usually it was a child. A dish
placed underneath caught the drippings from the roast. Sometimes
the line would burn off, and have to be replaced before the cooking
could be completed.
Potatoes and eggs were roasted in the ashes by wrapping them in wet
leaves or paper, and then covering with hot coals. In half an hour
or so the potatoes would be well cooked.
At first bread and other things were baked in a Dutch oven. It was
a shallow cast-iron kettle with long legs and a cover of the same
material, having a raised edge. The cover was filled with live
coals, and then the oven was suspended from a pot hook or stood
in the hot coals. It was used for both baking and frying. Indian
bannock, made from corn meal mixed with water and spread about an
inch thick on a board or wooden trencher, was baked before the fire
by setting it on an incline against a sad-iron or skillet, the top a
couple of inches back from the bottom, and when baked and made into
milk toast it was considered a dish fit to be "set before a king"!
The brick oven was in the chimney of nearly every well-built house.
The opening was inside the fireplace and was closed by a wooden
door. In heating the oven dry pine wood, which had been spilt and
seasoned out of doors for a short time and then housed, was a
necessity for the best results. The oven was considered hot enough
for a baking when the black was burned off the roof and the whole
inside had assumed a uniform light color. The coals and ashes inside
the oven were then removed with a "peel," a long-handled iron
shovel made for the purpose. The bottom of the oven was then swept
clean with a broom made of hemlock or other boughs. The process of
removing the fire and getting it ready for use was called "clearing
the oven."
The food to be cooked was then put in the oven: brown bread made
from rye and Indian meal, drop cakes made with milk and eggs and
wheat flour, which were placed directly upon the bricks and when
baked and eaten hot with butter, were considered a great luxury.
Beans, meats, potatoes, pies, and many other things were cooked in
the brick oven at the same time.
Families in good circumstances, made it a rule to heat the oven
daily, but Saturday was generally reserved for the week's baking.
The skins of animals killed on the farm were tanned by some local
tanner and a year or more was required by the old process, but it
produced an excellent quality of leather.
The utmost economy was practiced. Nearly all the young people and
some of the older ones went barefoot during the summer. In going to
meeting on Sunday the girls and young women often walked a number
of miles. They wore heavy shoes or went barefooted, carrying their
light shoes in their hands to save wear until near the meeting house.
In the early years following the settlement, all clothing or
materials were brought from overseas but in time, flax and wool were
produced on many farms, and the women of the family were capable of
taking the wool as it came from the sheep, cleansing, carding and
spinning it into yarn, and then weaving it into cloth, from which
they cut and made the clothes for the family. The carding was done
with hand cards similar to those used for carding cattle, only a
little larger and of finer mesh. The carded rolls were spun into
yarn upon the hand wheel. Five skeins was considered a good day's
work.
The yarn was woven into cloth on the hand loom, which was a
ponderous affair and occupied a great deal of room. Not every family
possessed a loom, but there were weavers in every locality. The yarn
which went lengthwise of the cloth had to be drawn into the harness
by hand; that which went the other way came from the shuttle. The
yarn which was in the shuttle was wound upon short quills, which
were pieces of elder three inches in length with the pitch punched
out, and these quills were wound on a wheel called a "quill wheel"
which made a great deal of noise. This work was usually done by
children or some helper, while the woman of the house was weaving.
Weaving was hard work and five or six yards was considered a good
day's work. Cotton was sometimes bought and worked in about the same
manner as wool. When the yarn was to be knitted, it was generally
colored before using. The dye pot was of earthenware and had its
place in the chimney corner just inside the fireplace. It was
covered with a piece of board or plank on which the children often
sat. The dye was made of indigo dissolved in urine. Into this the
yarn was put and remained until it was colored. When the yarn was
wrung out, or the contents disturbed, the odor that arose had no
resemblance to the balmy breezes from "Araby the blest."
The cloth for men's wear was called "fulled cloth." After it was
woven it was taken to the clothier, where it was fulled, dyed,
sheared, and pressed. That worn by women was simply dyed and
pressed, and was called pressed cloth. Baize without any filling or
napping was woven for women's use.
Flax was grown on the farm. It was pulled in the fall and placed
upon the ground, where it remained a number of months until the
woody portion was rotted and the fiber became pliable. When at
the right stage it was broken by a clumsy implement called a
"flax brake," which rid the fiber of the woody parts. It was then
"swingled," which was done by beating it with a wooden paddle called
a "swingling knife," which prepared it for the comb or "hatchel"
made of nail rods. Its teeth were pointed and about six inches
longer, seven rows with twelve in each row. The combing took out the
short and broken pieces which was called tow and spun into wrapping
twine, small ropes and bagging. When the flax had been combed
sufficiently it was put upon the distaff and spun.
The linen wheel was about twenty inches in diameter and was operated
by the foot resting upon a treadle. The wheel had two grooves in
the circumference, one to receive a band to drive "the fliers,"
the other to drive the spool with a quicker motion to take up the
threads. The thread when spun and woven into cloth, was made up
into shirts, sheets, table covers, dresses, handkerchiefs, strainer
cloths, etc. Ropes used about the farm were often home-made of linen
and tow. In the summer men wore tow and linen clothes. A cloth made
of cotton and linen was called fustian.
Cider mills were found on a great many farms where the apples, which
were mostly natural fruit, were made into cider. This was a common
drink and found a place upon the table three times a day with each
meal, and was carried into the fields to quench thirst forenoon
and afternoon. The men of those days assumed to be unable to labor
without a liberal supply of cider, as water seldom agreed with them.
The drawing and putting the cider upon the table usually fell to
the younger members of the family and was generally considered an
irksome task. In some cases it was made the rule that the one who
got up the latest in the morning should draw the cider for the day.
Cider which had been drawn for a little time and had become warm
was not considered fit to drink. Any that remained in the mug was
emptied into a barrel kept for the purpose in the cellar and was
soon converted into vinegar. In this way the family supply was made
and kept up, and it generally was of the best quality.
When David Cummings of Topsfield died in 1761, he provided by will
that his wife Sarah should be supplied annually with five barrels of
cider, in fact, it was common among farmers to so provide for their
widows, together with a horse to ride to meeting, and a certain
number of bushels of vegetables, corn, rye, etc., etc.
The tallow candle was used for light in the evening. When this was
supplemented by a blazing fire in the fireplace it gave the room a
cheerful appearance. Most of the candles were "dips," although a few
were run in moulds made for the purpose. All the tallow that came
from the animals killed on the farm was carefully saved and tried
out and rendered by heating. The liquid thus obtained was put in
pans to cool and when enough had been accumulated it was placed in
a large kettle and melted. The candle wicking was made of cotton,
and was bought at the shops in town. It came in balls. The wicking
was cut twice the length of the candle and doubled over a stick made
for the purpose and then twisted together. These sticks were two
feet in length and half an inch in diameter. Six wicks were placed
upon each stick, and as many used as would hold all the candles to
be made at one time. Two sticks six or eight feet in length, often
old rake handles, were used for supports. These were placed upon
two chairs and about eighteen inches apart. On these the sticks
were placed with the wicks hanging down. By taking a couple of the
sticks in the hands the wicks were placed in the hot tallow until
they were soaked. When all had been thus treated dipping began. Each
time a little tallow adhered, which was allowed to cool, care being
taken not to allow the dips to remain in the hot tallow long enough
to melt off what had already cooled. While the dipping was going on
the candles were suspended where a draft of air would pass over
and cause them to cool quickly. Care was also taken not to have the
candles touch each other.
The dipping continued until the candles were large enough for use.
If the tallow in the kettle became too cool to work well, some
boiling water was put in which went to the bottom and kept the
tallow above warm enough to work. The tallow candle made a dim,
disagreeable light, as it smoked considerably and required constant
snuffing or cutting off of the burnt portions of the wick. Snuffers
were used for this purpose, in which the portions of the wick cut
off were retained, and this was emptied from time to time as the
receptacle became filled.
Nearly every family made the soft soap used in washing clothes and
floors. Ashes were carefully saved and stored in a dry place. In
the spring the mash tub, holding sixty or seventy gallons, was set
up, and on the bottom a row of bricks were set on edge. On them a
framework was placed which was covered with hemlock boughs or straw,
over which a porous cloth was placed. The tub was then filled with
ashes. If any doubt existed as to the strength of the lye, thus
produced, a little lime was put in. Boiling water was then poured on
in small quantities, at frequent intervals and this was allowed to
settle. When no more water would be taken it was left to stand an
hour or more, when the first lye was drawn off. If an egg dropped
into the lye floated, all was well and good luck with the soap was
certain.
Ashes from any wood except pine and beech were considered good
and used with confidence. Grease that had accumulated during the
year and been saved for this purpose was then placed in a kettle
with some of the lye, and when boiled, if it did not separate when
cooled, soft soap was the result. Most farmers' wives dreaded soap
making. It was one of the hardest day's work of the year. Usually it
was made a point to have the soap making precede the spring cleaning.
Men generally rode horseback to meeting and elsewhere, and when a
woman went along she rode behind on a pillion, which was a small
cushion attached to the rear of the saddle with a narrow board
suspended from the cushion--a support for the women's feet. To
assist in mounting and dismounting horse blocks were used at the
meetinghouse and in other public places. Small articles were carried
in saddle-bags, balanced one on each side of the horse. Grain was
carried to mill laid across the horse's back, half in each end of
the sack.
In the early days baked pumpkin and milk was a favorite dish. A
hard-shelled pumpkin had a hole cut in the stem end large enough to
admit the hand. The seeds and inside tissue were carefully removed,
the piece cut out was replaced, and the pumpkin was then put in a
hot oven. When cooked it was filled with new milk and the contents
eaten with a spoon. When emptied the shells were often used as
receptacles for balls of yarn, remnants of cloth and other small
articles.
Bean porridge was another dish that was popular. In cold weather it
was often made in large quantities and considered to grow better
with age. Hence the old saying:
"Bean porridge hot;
Bean porridge cold;
Bean porridge in the pot,
Nine days old."
While iron shovels were brought in from England and in a limited way
were made by local blacksmiths, most shovels used by farmers were
made of oak, the edges shod with iron. Hay and manure forks were
made of iron by the blacksmith. They were heavy, had large tines
that bent easily, and were almost always loose in the handle. It
took a great deal of strength to use them. Hoes were made by the
blacksmiths, who also made axes, scythes, knives, etc.
When help was wanted on the farm, the son of some neighbor who was
not as well off, or who had not enough work to profitably employ
all his sons, could be hired. He became one of the family, took
an active interest in his employer's business, and in not a few
instances married his daughter, and later with his wife succeeded
to the ownership of the farm. If help was wanted in the house, some
girl in the neighborhood was willing to accept the place. She was
strong and ready, capable and honest, and in the absence of her
mistress was able to take the lead. She was not looked upon as a
servant, and often established herself permanently by becoming the
life partner of the son.
Clocks were seldom found in the farmhouse. Noon marks and sundials
answered the needs of the family and when the day was cloudy, one
must "guess." Because so many had no means of telling the time, it
was customary to make appointments for "early candlelight."
It was usual with most families to gather roots and herbs to be used
for medicinal purposes. Catnip, pennyroyal, sage, thoroughwort,
spearmint, tansy, elderblows, wormwood, and other plants were saved
to be used in case of sickness. Gold thread or yellow root was saved
and was a remedy for canker in the mouth. Many of the old women who
had reared families of children were skilful in the use of these
remedies, and were sent for in case of sickness, and would prescribe
teas made from some of these herbs, which were cut when in bloom and
tied in small bundles and suspended from the rafters on the garret
to dry, causing a pleasant aromatic smell in the upper part of the
house.
The well was usually at some distance from the farmhouse and often
located in an exposed and wind-swept position requiring much daily
travel over a snowy and slippery path in winter and through mud and
wet at other times. Convenience in the location of the well was in
too many cases overlooked. From the well all the water used for
domestic purposes was brought into the house in buckets. The water
in the well was usually drawn by means of a well-sweep.
In some towns the selectmen were chosen by "pricking." A number of
names were written upon a sheet of paper. This was passed around
and each man pricked a hole against the names of his choice. The
one having the most pin holes was chosen first selectman, the next
highest the second, and the next the third.
When a couple concluded to marry they made known their intention to
the town clerk, who posted a notice of their intended marriage in
the meetinghouse. This was called "being published." By law this
notice must be published three Sabbaths before the ceremony was
performed, so that any one who knew of any reason why such marriage
should not take place might appear and make objection. In addition
to the posting, the town clerk would rise in the meeting and read
the intention to marry.
Each landowner not only maintained his own fences around cultivated
fields, but also gave of his labor in building long ranges of
fencing about the common pasture lands in proportion to his interest
in the land. A law was enacted as early as 1633 requiring the
fencing of corn fields.
The earliest fences were usually made of five rails and must be up
by early in April when the cattle and hogs were turned out to roam
at large. The New England farmer, clearing his land for cultivation,
soon devised another form of fence where stones were plentiful and
by piling up these stones into walls divided off his fields and
gave them substantial protection. The well-built stone wall must
have a foundation of small stones laid in a trench to prevent its
being thrown by the frost and when carefully built it would last
for generations. Meanwhile the adjoining field had been cleared
of stones and made useful for cultivation. Hedge fences were also
in frequent use as in parts of England whence the settlers had
emigrated.
The roads outside the villages were seldom fenced. In fact, the
early roads were little more than ill-defined paths winding their
way across pastures and cultivated fields and whenever a dividing
farm was reached, there would be a gate or bars to be opened and
closed by the traveler.