of truth and gravity, I proceed now to consider the third piece of
morality which he mentions, that is, justice, _Whatsoever things are
just_,—think on these things; let these be the objects of your
meditation and of your practice.
And here if I should entertain you in two discourses with this single
subject of justice, I hope I shall not exceed the limits of your
patience: For it is what the apostle frequently insists upon as a glory
to christianity, that those that profess it be just or righteous. You
who have fixed your hope on the grace of God, and have a design to
honour the gospel, to you I would recommend this great duty of the law,
and that in this method:
I. I shall endeavour to shew what is the general nature of this justice,
and lay down the universal rule of it.—II. Discover in various special
instances what those things are, which are just, or wherein our justice
or righteousness must appear.—III. I shall give some proof of this great
duty of justice or righteousness by the light of nature, and according
to the law of reason.—IV. Shew what forcible influence the gospel of
Christ has to recommend justice to your meditation and practice.—V.
Propose a few directions how to guard yourselves against temptations to
injustice, or rather point out some of the chief springs of injustice,
that you may avoid them.
And while I proceed in this work, you will rejoice inwardly if you find
your own consciences sincerely answering to the characters of this
virtue in any good measure: And if there be any shall find himself a
guilty sinner, and very deficient in this practice, let him be reproved,
ashamed, and amend.
First then, Let us consider the nature of this justice, and what is the
most universal rule of it.
In general, justice consists in giving to every one their due. According
to the stations in which God has placed us, and according to the several
relations in which providence has joined us to our fellow-creatures,
every person we converse with hath something due to him; and this we are
bound to pay as men, and much more as christians. But since cases and
circumstances are infinite, and it is impossible for any book to
contain, or any man to receive and remember so many special rules for
justice, as there may be occurring circumstances in the world, which
require the practice of it; our Lord Jesus Christ has therefore given us
one short rule whereby to judge what is due to every man, and fitted it
to every purpose: Mat. vii. 12. _All things whatsoever ye would that men
should do unto you, do ye even so to them; For this is the law and the
prophets._
I confess there may happen in human affairs some cases of such exceeding
intricacy and difficulty, that very few persons have skill enough to
determine precisely what is due, or what would be strictly just and
righteous: Nor will this rule infallibly lead us into the perfect
knowledge of it; but even in such cases, a sincere honest man consulting
his own conscience, and asking, what he thought reasonable that his
neighbour, in the like case, should do to him, would seldom wander far
from strict justice; and by practising agreeably to this general law,
would approve his conduct both in the sight of God and men.
Thus our blessed Saviour hath set up a court of equity in the breast of
every man. This rule is easy to be understood, and ready to be applied
upon every occasion. The meanest of them may learn and practise it, and
the highest are bound to obey it. This is that divine and comprehensive
rule of justice or righteousness, by which you must regulate all your
actions, and give every one their due: “Do to others, as you would have
them do to you:” Not as an unreasonable self-love would wish to receive
from others, but as your own conscience would think it reasonable others
should do to you, as I have explained it at large in a sermon on that
text.[29]
The second thing proposed, was to discover in various instances what
those things are which are just, or wherein our righteousness must
appear.
Here it is necessary to distinguish justice into that which belongs to
magistrates, and that which belongs to private persons.
That which belongs to magistrates is called distributive justice,
because it divides and distributes such rewards and punishments as are
due to every one, according to the merit or demerit of the person; and
this is done either by the law and light of nature, or by the laws of
the land in which we dwell. Now in this sort of justice the general rule
of our Saviour, of which we have been speaking, is of excellent and
constant use. Let a prince or a magistrate place himself in the room of
a subject or inferior, and ask what is equitable and just that his
governor should practise toward him, and let that be the measure of his
own conduct toward his subjects or inferiors: Let him exercise his
authority according to this sacred rule of righteousness.
But in our separate assemblies we have very little need to speak of the
duty of magistrates, or of distributive justice, since there are very
few of that rank and order of men among our hearers. We have reason to
give hearty thanks to our present governors, who distribute so much
justice to us, as to give us the liberty of worshipping God in a manner
that differs from theirs.
I apply myself therefore immediately to consider that justice which
belongs chiefly to private persons, and which is their duty to practise.
This is called commutative justice. This is that equity of dealing, that
mutual exchange of benefits, and rendering to every one their due, which
is necessary between man and man, in order to the common welfare of each
other. This is that justice that is due from every person toward his
neighbour, whether he be superior, inferior, or equal: And I think the
following instances which I shall mention, will comprehend most of the
cases wherein the practice of justice is required:
I. It is just that we honour, reverence and respect those who are our
superiors in any kind; whether parents, masters, magistrates, ministers,
or teachers, or whatsoever other character of superiority there be in
the natural, the civil, or the religious life; otherwise we do not pay
them their due.
Honour and obedience are due to parents. It is the first command of the
second table. _Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be
long in the land. Children obey your parents, for this is right in the
Lord._ Manifest your affectionate duty toward them. Pay all due
submission to their commands, and all honourable regard to their advice.
_Honour the king as supreme_, and other ministers of justice as
subordinate to him, and submit to them in all the just executions of
their authority: This is due from subjects to princes. _Servants, be
obedient to them that are your masters according to the flesh, in
singleness of heart as unto Christ, with good-will, doing service as to
the Lord, and not to men._ Your faithful, diligent, and cheerful service
is their due. _Let those that labour in the word and doctrine be counted
worthy of double honour_, that is, of respect and maintenance: It is due
to them in the church where they are set as elders, if they rule well. I
mention these hints but very briefly, and for the most part in the
language of scripture, as instances wherein these characters of
superiority demand honour and duty from inferiors.
I grant there may be other obligations to respect and honour our
superiors in some of these cases, besides the mere law of justice: but
this law of commutative justice that I am now treating of, obliges us to
it. The light of nature and scripture both suppose and oblige parents to
take care of their children, to advise and instruct, nourish and provide
for them; therefore obedience and honour becomes their due. The command
of submission given to subjects, supposes and obliges princes and rulers
to protect and defend them from all injury. The precept of chearful and
willing obedience given to servants, supposes and obliges _masters to do
the same things unto them_; that is, to treat them with good-will, and
chearfully give them their food and clothing, or their wages and hire;
Eph. vi. 9. Nature and scripture suppose ministers and teachers to be
capable and willing to give good advice, counsel, and instruction to
those who are younger, or who accept of their preaching; therefore let
respect and honour be paid where it is due.
It is the foundation and rule of commutative justice in all these
instances, that whilst inferiors are obliged to pay due regards to those
that are above them, the superiors are equally obliged to confer those
benefits on persons of a lower character, which the law of God, and the
light of nature require; but some of the cases I have mentioned, will
fall in naturally under the following particulars.
II. Another instance of commutative justice, is the particular kindness
that is due to near relations. This is a very beautiful and a pleasant
part of life, where it is well managed, this affectionate and delightful
exchange of good turns one for another.
Now that it is due to near relatives, according to the appointment of
God, will be made evident in this manner:
God, the great Creator of all things, could have produced all men
immediately by his own power, and have made them arise up in several
successions of time, without such a propagation or dependance one upon
another, if he had pleased; and then there would have been none of these
tender and engaging relations of father, son, and brother. But the wise
Creator hath ordained otherwise; he hath appointed such methods for the
building of families, and continuing mankind in the world, as bind every
soul of us by the ties of nature to one another; Acts xvii. 26. _Of one
blood hath God made all the nations of the earth._ And those that are
nearer a-kin to one another, especially in the same family, as brethren
and sisters, ought to look upon themselves under more peculiar and
mutual obligations to do kindnesses for each other in the first place,
according to their capacity. The obligation lies on each party, because
it lies upon the other. My brother is bound to love and help me,
therefore it is my duty to help and love my brother: For _a brother is
born for adversity_; Prov. xvii. 17. It is the sovereign will of Heaven,
that there should be such near relations, who should be bound by the law
of creation and duty to protect, to support, and assist one another in a
time of adversity: This is the design of God the Creator, in the course
of his providence, in his subdivision and propagation of all the
families of the earth.
And as it is a piece of justice to confer this mutual help which is due
to near relations, so there is something of justice too in our
distinguishing acts of kindness and assistance according to difference
of necessity, and according to difference of merit. I cannot believe I
am bound to love or serve every brother, or every sister, with equal
degree of affection and kindness, whatsoever their character be, whether
virtuous or vicious: Nor to bestow equal benefits upon them, where there
is not equal necessity: this can never be of a divine appointment. And
though there is some duty, some kindness, some assistance always due to
those that are our near relatives, yet this very rule of justice obliges
us to give more respect or love to those that are in themselves more
honourable and worthy, and those who merit more at our hands, may
reasonably expect it. This will farther appear from the next particular.
III. Another instance of justice is, love to those that love us, and
gratitude to those that have done us good. Those that have been
serviceable to us in the concerns of our souls, or our bodies, demand
kindness from us, and returns of service, according to their benefits,
and our capacity.
Let us first take notice of the gratitude that is due for spiritual
benefits. The christian Galatians, who were converted from idolatry and
heathenism, and reconciled to God by the preaching of St. Paul, had such
a powerful and penetrating sense of their obligations to him, that if it
were possible, saith the apostle, _I bear you record, ye would have
plucked out your own eyes, and given them to me_; Gal. iv. 15. And when
the same apostle writes to Philemon, who was converted to the faith by
his ministry, he gently insinuates the obligations he was under; though
I do not think proper to tell thee, saith he, _how thou owest unto me
even thine own self_; ver. 19. St. Paul speaks upon this principle in
many places of his epistle; 1 Cor. ix. 11. _If we have sown unto you
spiritual things, is it a great thing if we should reap your carnal
things?_ And when he gives an account of the contribution which the
christians of Macedonia and Achaia made for the poor saints at
Jerusalem, he expresses himself thus: _It hath pleased them verily to
make this contribution, and their debtors they are. For if the Gentiles
have been made partakers of their spiritual things, their duty is also
to minister unto them in carnal things_; because it was from the Jews
that the gospel first came forth, and was preached among the Gentiles;
Rom. xv. 27.
There is some sort of gratitude due also to those who by their writings,
or more especially by their conversation or instructions, have improved
our understandings, and added to our knowledge in things natural or
moral, as well as divine. There are some persons in the world, who have
advanced their intellectuals in a very sensible manner, by the company
of their friends, but they have so much of pride and self reigning in
them, that they refuse to acknowledge it: They would fain have the world
believe that it is the rich soil of their own understanding has produced
this harvest of itself: They are ambitious and fond to have it thought
that their notions are all their own. Though they plumed themselves with
borrowed feathers, they are unwilling to confess whence they received
them, and pretend they are owing to nature only. But pride is a secret
vice, and a cursed spring of injustice in more instances than one, as I
shall shew hereafter.
After the benefits bestowed on our souls, we ought to consider what is
due to those that have served our bodies, or our natural life. Those
that have healed our diseases, that have saved us from imminent dangers
and calamities, or present death; those that have fed or clothed us, or
supported life when we were poor and destitute: All these deserve
particular kinds of remembrance, and due returns of service. Those that
have either vindicated our honour, or increased our reputation, and
spread our good name in the world, stand entitled also to some agreeable
returns of benefit.
Do not let us imagine then, that gratitude is a mere heroic virtue, that
we may pay or not pay at our pleasure; for nature dictates it to us, as
a piece of strict commutative justice, and equity of dealing between man
and man. We may be very properly said to treat our neighbour unjustly,
if we refuse to serve him again, who hath first served us, when his
distressed circumstances shall require our assistance.
There are some cases indeed wherein the person who is obliged by his
neighbour’s kindness, cannot possibly make a return equal to the benefit
received, without ruining himself and his family, or exposing himself
much more than his neighbour did to serve him. There are cases wherein
the person who hath obliged us, may over-rate his kindness, and
undervalue all our acknowledgments: He may require most unreasonable
returns, and think he is never sufficiently recompensed. There are cases
also wherein the benefactor may repent of his past services, may
endeavour to take away the benefit bestowed, may without reason commence
a resolute enmity, and do what in him lies to cancel all former
obligations: In such circumstances as these, the obligation of gratitude
may be diminished, and perhaps may cease altogether. And though
sometimes, in these very cases, there may be high and heavy charges of
ingratitude brought by the first benefactor against a person of a very
grateful mind; yet these accusations may be utterly unjust in the sight
of God, who knoweth and weigheth all circumstances in a righteous
balance. But where no such bars are laid in the way, it is evident that
the practice of gratitude, and a mutual return of benefits, is but a
piece of natural justice. The very _publicans and sinners do good to
those, that do good to them_: Mat. v. 46. Luke viii. 32.
IV. Another piece of justice is, the payment of the full due to those
whom we bargain or deal with, whether the contract be made formally in
words, or implied in the nature of things, according to the customs of
mankind. And under this head, not only those who buy and sell, who lend
and borrow; but all ranks and degrees of mankind, who have any commerce
with each other, are included, from the prince upon the throne, to the
day-labourer in the high-ways and hedges.
The very notion of commutative justice implies the giving one good thing
in barter of exchange for another. And all commerce amongst men was
originally carried on this way, _viz._ the husbandman gave corn, the
grazier cattle; the draper gave cloth; the artificers and labourers
their skill and work; the prince and rich man gave food and protection;
the poor and the subject gave their attendance and service: And thus
mankind lived by an exchange of benefits. But when they found many
inconveniences arise from this manner of dealing, they contrived another
way of exchanges, and that is by money, which by universal agreement is
made the common measure of all things in contract: And since that time,
skill and labour, attendance and services are exchanged for money, as
well as goods and merchandizes. Now herein consists the practice of
justice, that every one render to his neighbour that which is due upon
the account of any of these benefits or conveniencies of life he
receives from him.
Let us give the first place to kings and rulers in this discourse, as
justice requires. Though the distribution of special rewards and
punishments may have something in it of a distinct nature, yet the
common protection which they owe all their subjects, and the obedience
and tribute which their subjects owe them upon that account, are
properly a part of commutative justice. By their oath of magistracy, and
by our engagements of allegiance expressed or implied, we bargain with
them for protection, and we ought to pay them tribute. They accept of a
high and heavy charge, and agree to execute the laws of the land for the
good of the people: Therefore not only the purses, but the consciences
of the people are under obligations to pay taxes to the magistrate for
the support of his governing power, and the maintenance of his honour
and authority, that he may the better fulfil the glorious and useful
work. This is what the apostle insists upon, and argues in that known
place, the xiii. chapter to the Romans; _Rulers are ordained of God, not
for a terror to good works, but to the evil_. The ruler is the _minister
of God to thee for good, and he beareth not the sword in vain; he is an
avenger to execute wrath upon him that doth evil_. Wherefore ye must
needs be subject, not only for wrath, that is, for fear of his anger:
but for conscience sake, as a matter of justice and duty: And for this
cause also pay tribute. And it is to be noted, the apostle puts our duty
in this respect upon the foot of justice; ver. 7. _Render therefore to
all their dues_; that is, whatsoever things are just, perform to them;
render _tribute to whom tribute is due, custom to whom custom, fear to
whom fear, honour to whom honour_.
As the payment of tribute and taxes to those who undertake our
protection, defence, and safety, is a necessary duty; so the payment of
a salary to a teacher, of wages to a servant, of money or merchandize to
a trader, of hire to the workman, are other parts of justice. Let not
the labourer that hath reaped down your fields, or wrought in your
service, go without his hire, which was a practice the apostle
reproached in his days; James v. 4. The law of Moses is very strict in
this matter; Deut. xxiv. 14, 15. _Thou shalt not oppress a hired servant
that is poor and needy, whether he be of thy brethren, or a stranger._
To express it in modern language; whether he be a christian or not, a
good man or an evil man, let him have his hire. If he is so poor that he
cannot tell how to provide for himself to answer the necessities of the
evening, then see that thou pay him the hire of the day, nor let the sun
go down upon it, for he is poor, and sets his heart, or depends upon it.
Trespass not upon his poverty by thy withholding his due so long as may
turn to his prejudice; let not his hire, which is detained by fraud, cry
against thee, for the Lord of hosts, the God of Justice will hear the
cry of the oppressed.
And not only in the case of a poor labourer, but in every other instance
make conscience of paying that which you have borrowed, or what you owe
to your neighbour, and that not only in full measure, but at the
appointed time of payment: The time is part of the contract as well as
the money. Do not say, “I intend to be honest, but I will not pay this
week, or this month.” Do not withhold what is due, and say to thy
neighbour, _Go, and come again, when thou hast it by thee; Withhold not
good from him to whom it is due, when it is in the power of thine hand
to do it_. This is forbid by the inspired preacher Solomon; Prov. iii.
27, 28. Nor is this agreeable to the golden rule of our Saviour, _Do to
others as ye would that others should do unto you_.
V. Help to our fellow-creatures in cases of great necessity, seems to be
another piece of human justice, even though they have never done any
thing actually for us. We are bound to defend our neighbour from
apparent injury, so far as is consistent with our own safety, and
sometimes farther too. It is our duty to direct him in the right way,
when he is wandering or uncertain. It is a piece of justice to warn him
of approaching danger, and to give him some assistance in case of sudden
calamity or distress attending him. When we see his soul, or his body,
or his estate in imminent hazard, we ought to give him notice of it; we
should put forth some efforts of kindness for his security, and pluck
him as a brand out of the fire. Our own conscience dictates this to us,
since we should think it a very reasonable thing to expect the same
kindness from our neighbour, when we are found in the like
circumstances.
Can we suppose that the law of God should appoint us to lift the ox or
the ass of our neighbour out of a pit, or to restore his sheep to him
when going astray; Deut. xxii. 1. and yet that we are not bound to
fulfil the same duty of love toward our neighbour himself? Nay, the
command of Moses reaches still farther; Ex. xxiii. 4. _If thou meet
thine enemy’s ox or his ass going astray, thou shalt surely bring it
back to him again._ How much more should this be practised toward the
soul or the body of a fellow-christian?
If the law of justice require us to secure the cattle or possessions of
our neighbour; surely then we are obliged to deal as kindly with his
reputation and good name, which in some cases is the best part of a
man’s estate, and is almost as dear to many as their health or life.
When we happen therefore into such company as give their tongues a loose
to scandal, and we hear our neighbour vilified and reproached, we ought
to ward off the calumny, and to refute the scandal, where we know that
our neighbour does not deserve it.
This piece of justice or duty, to assist a suffering neighbour, arises
from the social nature of man, who by the law of nature is so far born
for a social life, as to come into the world with this claim, and under
this sort of obligations; for a naked exposed infant may claim the
patronage and protection of every eye that beholds him. And where other
circumstances are equal, those who are most capable of affording help,
seem to be most obliged. Now if it be a work of human justice to
preserve such a helpless piece of human nature from death, surely every
infant grown up to any degrees of capacity and manhood, ought in like
manner to esteem himself obliged to afford some assistance to his
fellow-creatures, according to their distress, and his capacity well
considered and adjusted.