THE PACES OF THE HORSE
As a completion of the studies we have just been making, some notions
relative to the paces of the horse seem to us to be absolutely
indicated.
Let it be permitted to us to remind the reader in this connection that
we have already been for twenty-one years occupied with this question,
and that by means of an articulated figure, a sort of movable mannikin,
we have endeavoured to demonstrate to artists the differences which
characterize the various paces of the horse.[69] The arrangement then
employed cannot, evidently, be used in the present volume, but we will
inspire ourselves, in the preparation of the present chapter, with the
elements of demonstration which we have employed, and which, in the
course of our teaching, we have had the satisfaction of seeing
favourably received.
[69] Edouard Cuyer, 'Les Allures du Cheval,' demonstrated with the aid
of a coloured, separable, and articulated table, Paris, 1883.
This table was the subject of a note communicated to the Academy
of Sciences by Professor Marey ('Comptes rendus de l'Academie de
Sciences') at the meeting of June 26, 1882. On the other hand, it
has been the subject of a presentation which we have had the
honour of being permitted to make to the Academy of Fine Arts at
the meeting of November 4, 1882.
The fasciculus in question has been since united with a more
complete whole as regards the study of the horse. E. Cuyer and E.
Alex, 'Le Cheval: Exterieur, Structure et Fonctions, Races,' avec
26 planches coloriees, decoupees et superposees, Paris, 1886.
The progressive movements by which an individual transports himself
from one place to another do not operate according to a unique method
and with a constantly uniform velocity. These various modes of
progression are designated under the name of _paces_.
It is extremely difficult to analyze, by simple observation, the
movements which characterize these gaits. Let us, for example, examine
the displacements made by the limbs of a horse during that of walking;
if we have no notion of these displacements, it will be, so to speak,
impossible to determine in what order they are executed. The sight of
the imprints left on the ground by the hoofs is not a sufficient means
of demonstration, especially for artists. The noise made by the blows of
these limbs, or by the little bells of different timbre suspended from
them, are absolutely in the same case.
Processes enabling us to fix or to register the paces are in every way
preferable. Such really exist; they are: instantaneous photography and
those which constitute the graphic method of Professor Marey. The
results given by the photograph are certainly appreciable; but, from the
didactic point of view, we give the preference to the graphic method,
the general characters and the mode of application of which we now
proceed to analyze.[70]
[70] We cannot too strongly recommend the reading of the excellent
works which Professor Marey has published, and which have for
their object the study of movements, as well as the exhibition of
the procedures which he has employed. E. J. Marey, 'La Machine
Animale,' Paris, 1873; 'La Methode graphique dans les Sciences
experimentales,' Paris, 1884; 'Le Vol des Oiseaux,' Paris, 1890;
'Le Mouvement,' Paris, 1894.
It is necessary to understand first of all, in this connection, that
which relates to a man's walking pace.
The method of Professor Marey rests on the following principle: Suppose
two rubber globes connected with one another by a tube. If we compress
one of these globes, the air which it contains will be driven into the
other, and will afterwards return when the pressure has ceased. Nothing
more simple, evidently; but it is necessary to describe it in detail in
order the better to comprehend that which follows: The walker who is the
subject of experiment is furnished with special shoes (Fig. 115), having
thick indiarubber soles, hollowed in the interior, so that the whole
thus constituted forms a sort of hollow cushion which is compressed
under the influence of the pressure of the foot on the ground. A tube
which is attached to a registering apparatus, which the person who is
walking carries in his hand, communicates with this cavity (Fig. 116).
This apparatus is formed of a metal drum, which is closed at its upper
part by a flexible membrane. Each time that one of the man's feet
presses on the ground, the air contained in the cavity of the sole of
the shoe is driven into the drum, which we have just mentioned, and the
flexible membrane of this drum is elevated. To this membrane is attached
a vertical rod which supports a horizontal style.
[Illustration: FIG. 115.--EXPERIMENTAL SHOES, INTENDED TO RECORD THE
PRESSURE OF THE FOOT ON THE GROUND.]
When the membrane, as we have just seen, is elevated, the style is
lifted, and then descends when the pressure of the foot ceases. It
traces these displacements on a leaf of paper, the surface of which is
covered with a thin layer of lamp-black, which it removes by its
contact; different parts of this surface are successively presented to
it, the paper being rolled round a cylinder which is turned on its axis
by means of a clockwork movement. It is necessary to add that the
inscription is made, in the study of the walk of man, by means of two
styles, each corresponding to one of the feet.
The tracings thus obtained, which are read from left to right, are
sufficiently simple; but to understand them properly, it is necessary to
remember that the style undergoes a movement of ascensional displacement
during each pressure of a foot, and that, on the other hand, it
descends when the latter is separated from the ground. We also see, on
the tracing which it leaves, a line which ascends and then descends; the
meaning of this is that first the foot presses on the ground, and is
afterwards raised from it.
[Illustration: FIG. 116.--RUNNER FURNISHED WITH THE EXPLORATORY AND
REGISTERING APPARATUS OF THE VARIOUS PACES.]
On the tracing (Fig. 117), the line D relates to the right foot; the
line G, which is dotted so that it may not be confused with the
preceding, corresponds to the left foot. The line G first ascends; the
meaning of which is that the left foot presses on the ground; afterwards
it descends: this indicates that the pressure of the foot has ceased. It
is the same for the right foot. As we see, the pressures succeed each
other; when the left foot touches the ground, the right is separated
from it; when the latter presses the ground, it is the left which no
longer rests there.
The line O is related to the movements of the body, as indicated by the
oscillations of the head. We will neglect these.
But this tracing, which serves us for an example, is not, it must indeed
be said, of very easy reading; it would be still less so if the paces of
a horse were registered, for there would then be four lines, the
entanglement of which would cause greater complication.
These difficulties of reading need be no longer feared, if we transform
the tracing into a notation by means of the following diagram.
There are drawn (Fig. 118) below the graphic tracing two horizontal
lines (1, 2). From the point where the line D rises (commencement of the
pressure of the right foot), and from the point where this same line
descends (end of the same pressure), we let fall two vertical lines
joining the two horizontal ones mentioned above. At this plane, and
between the two vertical lines, we mark a broad white one (_a, b_). This
expresses, by its length, the duration of the period of pressure of the
right foot. In doing the same for the line G, we obtain for the
indication of a pressure of the left foot an interval of the same kind,
in which are marked cross-lines, or which is tinted gray, in order to
avoid all confusion with the preceding tracing.
[Illustration: FIG. 117.--TRACING OF THE RUNNING OF A MAN (AFTER
PROFESSOR MAREY.)
D, Pressures and elevations of the right foot; G, pressures and
elevations of the left foot.]
This notation can, with sufficient exactitude, be compared to that which
is employed in the musical scale. The horizontal lines 1 and 2 represent
the _compass_. We there also see _notes_; these are the bars indicating
the pressure, of which the value--that is to say, the duration--is
represented by the length of these bars. It is the same with regard to
the intervals of _silence_: these are expressed by the intervals which
separate the pressures, and correspond to the moments in which, during
certain paces, such as running, the body is raised from the ground.
Besides, we see intervals of this kind on the notation reproduced (Fig.
118) relative to the running of man.
[Illustration: FIG. 118.]
[Illustration: FIG. 119.]
In order to make the signification of these tracings still better
understood, we reproduce four varieties of them (Fig. 119).
The first notation is that of ordinary walking. The pressures succeed
each other regularly.
The second shows what takes place during the ascent of a staircase. At a
certain moment, the weight of the body is upon both feet at the same
time, one of them not quitting the lower step, until the other is
already in contact with the step above. Accordingly, there is thus
produced an overriding of the pressures.
The third is relative to running, and has already been represented in
Fig. 118. The pressures of the feet are separated by the times of
suspension.
The fourth also represents running, but in this case more rapid and
characterized by the shorter pressures, the slightly longer periods of
suspension intervals, and the quicker succession of movements.
Before putting aside the indications relating to the walking movements
of man--indications which it was necessary to give in order to render
intelligible those which are connected with the paces of the horse--we
have yet to fix the value of that which we call 'a step.'
It is generally admitted that a step is constituted by the series of
movements which are produced between the corresponding phases of the
action of one foot and that of the other--for example, between the
moment at which the right foot commences its pressure on the ground and
that at which the left foot commences its own. It is necessary to adopt
here another method of looking at it, and to regard the preceding as
being but a _half-step_. The step should then be defined as being
constituted by the series of movements which are executed between two
similar positions of the same foot--as, for example, between the
commencement of a pressure of the right foot and the similar phase of
the following pressure of the same foot. We shall soon understand the
importance of this definition.
Before entering on the details of the paces of the horse, it is
necessary to see how the limbs of the latter oscillate during the period
of a complete step; or, which is the same thing, to determine what the
displacements are which a limb executes between two similar positions of
its foot.
If we examine one of the limbs during a forward movement of the animal,
we see that this limb passes through two principal phases: (1) It is
raised from the ground; (2) it resumes contact with the ground. Each of
these phases is divided into three periods of time, which we proceed to
analyze in connection with the anterior limb.
[Illustration: FIG. 120.--SWING OF THE RAISED ANTERIOR LIMB (AFTER G.
COLIN).[71]
C, Lifting; B, suspension; A, placing.]
[71] G. Colin, 'Traite de Physiologie Comparee des Animaux,' third
edition, Paris, 1886.
The foot quits the ground (Fig. 120, C); this may be called _lifting_;
the limb is oblique in direction downwards and backwards. This same limb
is flexed and carried forward (Fig. 120, B), and, as it is supported by
the action of its flexors, this is the period named _suspension_; the
hoof is vertical. Then the limb is carried still further forward,
becoming extended (Fig. 120, A); the heel is lowered, and the foot,
being oblique, is directed towards the ground; this is the _placing_.
Then takes place pressure (Fig. 121). The foot has just been placed on
the ground; the limb is oblique in direction downwards and forwards;
this we call _commencement of the pressure_ (Fig. 121, A). Then the
body, being carried forward, whilst the hoof, D, is fixed on the ground,
the limb becomes vertical: this stage is _mid-pressure_ (Fig. 121, B).
Finally, the progression of the body continuing, the limb becomes
oblique downwards and backwards; it is now at the _termination of
pressure_ (Fig. 121, C), and proceeds to lift itself anew if another
step is to be made.
In conclusion, the inferior extremity of the limb describes, from its
elevation to its being placed on the ground, an arc of a circle around
its superior extremity (Fig. 121, D); whilst, during the pressure, it is
its superior extremity which describes one around its inferior
extremity, then fixed on the ground (Fig. 121, D).
[Illustration: FIG. 121.--SWING OF THE ANTERIOR LIMB ON THE POINT OF
PRESSURE (AFTER G. COLIN).
A, Commencement of the pressure; B, centre of the pressure; C,
termination of the pressure.]
If we simultaneously examine the two fore-limbs, we remark that when one
of them begins its pressure the other ends it, and _vice versa_.
As to the hind-limbs, the oscillations are similar to those of the fore
ones. In the second half of the pressure--that is, when they are passing
from the vertical direction (Fig. 122, A) to extreme obliquity backwards
(Fig. 122, C)--the effect of their action is to give propulsion to the
body.
The fore and hind limbs make the same number of steps, and the steps
have the same length.
The limbs of any quadruped--but we make special allusion to those of
the horse--are divided into groups in the following manner:
The anterior pair constitutes the _anterior biped_. The _posterior
biped_ is that formed by the posterior limbs.
The name of _lateral biped_ serves to designate the whole formed by the
two limbs of the same side. The right fore-limb and the right hind-limb
form the _right lateral biped_. The two others form the _left lateral
biped_.
[Illustration: FIG. 122.--POSTERIOR LIMB, GIVING THE IMPULSE (AFTER G.
COLIN).
A, Commencement of pressure; B, centre of pressure; C, termination of
pressure.]
A fore-limb and hind-limb belonging to the opposite side form a
_diagonal biped_, which also takes the name of the fore-limb which forms
a part of it. Thus, _the right diagonal biped_ is formed by the
association of the right fore-limb and the left hind one. The _left
diagonal biped_ is, consequently, the inverse.
It is necessary to remember well these preliminary indications; it is
the only means of comprehending with facility that which is about to
follow.
Let us first return to the grouping of the limbs. The denominations
_anterior_ and _posterior bipeds_ render clearly perceptible the
comparison which consists in regarding a horse when walking as capable
of being represented by two men marching one behind the other, and
making the same number of steps. According as they move the legs of the
same side at the same time in 'covering the step,' or march in
contretemps step, we find reproduced all the rhythms which characterize
the different paces of the horse.
[Illustration: FIG. 123.--NOTATION OF THE AMBLING GAIT IN THE HORSE
(AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY).]
Professor Marey has studied these paces by a similar method to that
which he adopted for the walking of man, and which we have already
described. He employed hollow balls fixed under the hoofs, and a
registering apparatus with four styles, each corresponding to one of the
limbs. The tracing obtained is rather complicated, since two sets of
lines are found marked. But a notation similar to that of which we have
spoken can be discovered, and its exact signification should now be
determined. For this purpose, we have selected the most simple (see Fig.
123). We there see, placed in two superimposed lines, the pressure
markings of the right feet (white bands), and of the left feet (gray
bands). On the upper line are found those related to the fore-legs; the
lower lines contain those associated with the hind-legs. It is, in
brief, the superposition of two notations of the human walking
movements. And seeing that, as we have previously pointed out, we may
make a comparison between a quadruped and two men placed one behind the
other, it is easy to understand the significance of the superimposed
notations, if we accustom ourselves to look on them as the notations of
two bipeds.
To read these notations--that is, to learn to know what occurs at each
of the movements of the pace--it is necessary, indeed, to remember that
they should be examined in vertical sections; it is to each of these
sections--of these vertical divisions--that each of the movements which
we more particularly wish to analyze corresponds.
We proceed to study first the pace of ambling, because it is the most
simple; we shall then consider the trot, and, finally, we shall examine
that which is the most complicated, viz., the step.
[Illustration: FIG. 124.--THE AMBLE: RIGHT LATERAL PRESSURE.[72]]
[72] The figures which, in the present study, reproduce the different
paces, have been made from our articulated horse (see the note on
p. 282).
=The Amble.=--To give an exact idea of the general character of the
amble, let us fancy the two men whom we discussed above marching one
behind the other and walking in step--that is, moving the legs of the
same side simultaneously. They will thus represent the amble, which,
indeed, results from the alternate displacements of the lateral bipeds;
the limbs of the same side (right or left) execute the same movements in
the same time.
This is what the notation indicates (Fig. 123). We there see that the
pressures of the right fore-foot, marked by the white bands in the upper
range, are exactly superposed on those of the right hind one, which are
marked by a similar band on the lower line; this means that the
pressures took place in the same time. We there see also a similar
arrangement of the gray bands, which has a similar significance for the
left fore and hind feet.
And if we recollect the three phases of pressure (see p. 289, and Figs.
121, 122), we shall comprehend, in looking at the diagrams, that, at the
initial stage (A), the limbs are commencing their pressure, and are
oblique downwards and forwards; that afterwards (B) the two limbs are
vertical, since they are at the middle of the pressure stage; and that
finally (C) they are oblique downwards and backwards, for it is then the
termination of their pressure (Fig. 124).
[Illustration: FIG. 125.--NOTATION OF THE GAIT OF THE TROT IN THE HORSE
(AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY).]
During the time that the right limbs are pressing (notation, white
bands) the left limbs are raised; afterwards these latter take up the
pressure (gray bands), and then the right limbs are raised in their
turn.
During the pace of ambling the weight of the body, which is wholly
sustained by the limbs of one side only, is not in equilibrium, so that
the limbs which are raised return by a brisk movement to the position of
support in order to re-establish it.
=The Trot.=--We have just seen that, in order to represent the amble,
the two marchers moved their right limbs simultaneously, and then their
left ones.
Let us suppose now that the hinder man anticipated by half a pace the
movement of the front one, then will be found realized the association
and the nature of the displacements of the limbs during the pace of the
trot.
By this anticipation of a half-step (we have defined, p. 288, what is to
be understood by the word _step_), it follows that when the marcher who
is in front advances his right leg it is the left leg of the marcher who
follows him that is carried in the same direction. We should thus
conclude from this that the trot is characterized by a succession of
displacements of the diagonal bipeds.
[Illustration: FIG. 126.--THE TROT; RIGHT DIAGONAL PRESSURE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 127.--THE TROT; TIME OF SUSPENSION.]
Indeed, if we examine the notation of this gait (Fig. 125), we see that
with the pressure of the right fore-foot is found associated the
pressure of the left hind-foot. It is, accordingly, a typical diagonal
biped (Fig. 126).
[Illustration: FIG. 128.--NOTATION OF THE PACE OF STEPPING IN THE HORSE
(AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY).
L, Right lateral pressure; D, right diagonal pressure; L', left lateral
pressure; D', left diagonal pressure.]
But it is necessary to add that these groups of pressures do not succeed
one another without interruption, except in the slow trot. In the
ordinary trot, or in that in which the animal's strides are very long,
the body between each of the double pressures which we have just been
considering is projected forward with such force that it remains for an
instant separated from the ground. This is what we designate by the name
of _time of suspension_ (Fig. 127). The notation in this case would be
slightly different from that which we reproduce above, in this sense:
that between the diagonal pressures there then would be found an
interval, since during the time the body is suspended none of the feet
can produce a pressure-mark (see, with regard to these intervals, the
notations of the running of a man, Fig. 118, and Fig. 119, 3, 4).
=The Walk.=--Although slow, a feature which would seem to make it
possible to permit its analysis in a horse when walking, this pace is
difficult to comprehend without sufficient preliminary study.
[Illustration: FIG. 129.--THE STEP: RIGHT LATERAL PRESSURE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE STEP: RIGHT DIAGONAL PRESSURE.]
We saw above that in order to represent the amble the marchers had to
move the legs of the same side simultaneously. We have also just seen
that in order to represent the trot the marcher at the back had to
anticipate by a half-step. Suppose, now, that this same marcher
anticipates the man in front by a quarter-step only, or by a
half-pressure period, and thus will be found realized the order of
succession of the limbs in the gait or pace called the _walk_. The feet
meet the ground one after the other, since they are each in advance by
half the duration of a pressure. The strokes are four in number during
the period of a step of this pace; in the amble and in the trot they do
not exceed two, for then the limbs strike the ground in lateral diagonal
pairs.
[Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE GALLOP: FIRST PERIOD.]
[Illustration: FIG. 132.--THE GALLOP: SECOND PERIOD.]
[Illustration: FIG. 133.--THE GALLOP: THIRD PERIOD.]
[Illustration: FIG. 134.--THE GALLOP: TIME OF SUSPENSION.]
If we examine the notation of the pace of walking (Fig. 128), we see
that the right fore-foot commences its pressure when the right
hind-foot is in the middle of its own, and that the hinder left begins
in the middle of that of the right fore-foot, and that it is itself at
the midst of its pressure when the left fore-foot touches the ground,
etc. In a word, the foot-fallings occur in the following order and at
regular intervals--the fore right foot is here considered as acting
first: right fore, left hind, left fore, right hind, and so on in
succession.
[Illustration: FIG. 135.--NOTATION OF THE GALLOP DIVIDED INTO THREE
PERIODS OF TIME (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY).
1, First period; 2, second period; 3, third period.]
As to the nature of the bipeds which succeed one another, it is easy to
understand them by means of the notation. In reading this from left to
right, we see that the associations of pressure are first made by the
two right feet, then by a right foot and a left one, then by two left
feet, and, finally, by a left and right. It is, accordingly, a
succession this time of lateral and diagonal pressures.
[Illustration: FIG. 136.--NOTATION OF THE GALLOP OF FOUR PERIODS IN THE
HORSE (AFTER PROFESSOR MAREY).
1, First period; 2, second period; 3, third period; 4, fourth period.]
Thus, we find at the start a right lateral pressure (Fig. 129), next a
right diagonal (Fig. 130), then a left lateral; finally, a left diagonal
pressure. It is thus that the initial letters L, D, L', D' further
indicate the notations represented in Fig. 128.
=The Gallop.=--The ordinary gallop is a pace of three phases. The first
is characterized by the fact that one hind-limb alone rests on the
ground (Fig. 131); in the second the animal is on a diagonal support
(Fig. 132); in the third it comes down on a fore-limb (Fig. 133). The
body is then raised (Fig. 134), and to this period of suspension succeed
anew the three modes of pressure indicated above.
The gallop is said to be from either right or left. In the gallop from
the right, the right fore-leg is the more frequently in advance of its
neighbour; it is the last to be placed on the ground. The left foot of
the posterior biped is the one which commences the action.
An entirely opposite arrangement characterizes the gallop from the left.
[Illustration: FIG. 137.--LEAP OF THE HARE (AFTER G. COLIN).]
The notation reproduced in Fig. 135 corresponds to the gallop from the
right. It is there seen, as we pointed out above, that in the first
phase the exclusive support of the left hind-foot takes place (1); that
afterwards, in the second, commence simultaneously, the pressures of the
left fore and the right hind foot (2); this is the left diagonal
support; and that finally, in the third, the body comes down on a
fore-limb, which is then the right (3); and that for a moment it is on
this limb alone that the animal rests.
To these three phases on the notation succeeds an interval; this is the
period of suspension.
The gallop of four phases only differs from the preceding in that the
foot-fallings of each diagonal biped occur at slight intervals, and give
distinct sounds. The notation is reproduced in Fig. 136.
[Illustration: FIG. 138.--THE LEAP.]
[Illustration: FIG. 139.--THE LEAP.]
[Illustration: FIG. 140.--THE LEAP.]
[Illustration: FIG. 141.--THE LEAP.]
=The Leap.=--The leap is an act by which the body is wholly raised from
the ground and projected upwards and forwards to a greater or less
distance.
It is prepared for by the flexing of the hind-limbs, which, by being
suddenly extended, project the body, and thus enable it to pass over an
obstacle.
This preparatory arrangement is very remarkable in the leap of the lion,
the cat, and the panther, which execute springs of great length; in the
horse, in which the leap is not an habitual mode of progression, this
flexion of the hinder limbs is less marked. With this animal the leap is
generally associated with the gallop; nevertheless, it is sometimes made
from a stationary position. In observing the hare or the rabbit, in
which the leap is habitual, we notice (Fig. 137) that the hind-limbs,
being extremely flexed, rest on the ground as far as the calcaneum, are
then straightened by the action of their extensors, become vertical and
then oblique backwards at the moment the body is thrown forward into
space by the sudden extension of these limbs.
The action of the extensors is energetic and instantaneous, and their
energy is greater than in ordinary progression, for it is required to
lift the body and to project it forcibly a more or less considerable
distance. It is the extreme rapidity of this action which enables the
animal to clear an obstacle, for without this condition the body would
be raised, but not separated from the ground.
First of all, in reaching the obstacle to be cleared, the horse prepares
to leap by taking the attitude of rearing; the hind-limbs are flexed and
carried under the body, the fore-quarters are raised, and the different
segments of the fore-limbs are flexed (Fig. 138).
[Illustration: FIG. 142.--THE LEAP.]
[Illustration: FIG. 143.--THE LEAP.]
One sudden trigger action produced by the violent contraction of the
extensors of the hind-legs then takes place, and the animal is projected
forwards, while he flexes the fore-legs more and more (Fig. 139). He
has then risen above the obstacle (Fig. 140). Then while he makes the
downward and forward balancing movement, and points his fore-limbs in
the same direction, he flexes the hind ones (Fig. 141). Whilst the
latter are further flexed, in order to pass the obstacle in their turn,
the fore-limbs which are extended come into contact with the ground
(Fig. 142). Finally, in the last phase of the leap, the animal, raising
himself in front, after the impact of his hind-feet has taken place
(Fig. 143), prepares to continue the pace at which he progressed before
meeting the obstacle which he had to clear.
THE END
_London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 8, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden,
W.C._
THE
ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS
[Illustration]
SECTIONAL INDEX
PAGE
=Generalities of Comparative Anatomy= 1
OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY
=The Trunk:=
_Vertebral Column_ 4
Sacrum 10
Coccygeal vertebrae 11
Direction and form of the vertebral column 11
_Thorax_ 12
Sternum 14
Ribs and costal cartilages 14
=The Anterior Limbs:=
_Shoulder_ 20
Scapula 21
Clavicle 25
_Arm_ 28
Humerus 28
General view of the form of the forearm and hand 34
Forearm 38
Hand 44
=The Anterior Limbs in Certain Animals:=
_Plantigrades_: Bear 49
_Digitigrades_: Cat, dog 51
_Unguligrades_: Pig 57
Sheep, Ox 60
Horse 64
Proportions of the arm, the forearm, and metacarpus 70
Articulations of the anterior limbs 71
Scapulo-humeral articulation 72
Humero-ulnar articulation, or elbow 74
Radio-ulnar articulation 75
Articulation of the wrist 75
Metacarpo-phalangeal articulations 76
Interphalangeal articulations 77
=The Posterior Limbs:=
_Pelvis_ 78
Iliac bone 78
_The Thigh_ 83
Femur 83
Knee-cap 85
_The Leg_ 85
Tibia 86
Fibula 87
_The Foot_ 87
=The Posterior Limbs in Some Animals:=
_Plantigrades_: Bear 90
_Digitigrades_: Cat, dog 91
_Unguligrades_: Pig 94
Sheep, ox 95
Horse 99
Articulations of the posterior limbs 105
Coxo-femoral articulation 105
Femoro-tibial articulation, or knee 106
Tibio-tarsal articulation, and of the bones of the tarsus 107
=The Head in General, and in Some Animals in Particular:=
Direction of the head 109
The skull 112
The face 118
The skull of birds 127
MYOLOGY
=Muscles of the Trunk:=
Pectoralis major 131
Pectoralis minor 133
Serratus magnus 134
=Muscles of the Abdomen:=
External oblique 136
Internal oblique 137
Transversalis abdominis 138
Rectus abdominis 138
Pyramidalis abdominis 139
=Muscles of the Back:=
Trapezius 140
Latissimus dorsi 142
Rhomboid 144
=The Cutaneous Muscle of the Trunk= 147
=The Coccygeal Region:=
Ischio-coccygeal muscle 149
Superior sacro-coccygeal muscle 150
Lateral sacro-coccygeal muscle 150
Inferior sacro-coccygeal muscle 150
=Muscles of the Neck:=
Mastoido-humeralis 150
Sterno-mastoid 153
Omo-trachelian 155
Levator anguli scapulae 156
Splenius 158
=Infrahyoid Muscles:=
Sterno-thyroid and sterno-hyoid 160
Omo-hyoid 160
=Suprahyoid Muscles:=
Mylo-hyoid 161
Digastric 161
=Panniculus of the Neck= 162
=Muscles of the Anterior Limbs:=
_Muscles of the Shoulder_ 162
Deltoid 162
Subscapularis 163
Supraspinatus 164
Infraspinatus 165
Teres minor 166
Teres major 166
Panniculus muscle of the shoulder 167
_Muscles of the Arm_ 168
Anterior region 169
Biceps 169
Brachialis anticus 170
Coraco-brachialis 170
Posterior region 171
Triceps 171
_Supplemental or Accessory Muscle of the Latissimus Dorsi_ 173
_Muscles of the Forearm_ 174
Anterior and external region 176
Supinator longus 176
First and second external radial 176
Supinator brevis 179
Extensor communis digitorum 179
Extensor minimi digiti 183
Posterior ulnar 185
Anconeus 185
Long abductor of the thumb 186
Short extensor of the thumb 187
Long extensor of the thumb 187
Proper extensor of the index 187
Internal and posterior region 188
Pronator teres 188
Flexor carpi radialis 189
Palmaris longus 189
Anterior ulnar 191
Superficial flexor of the digits 193
Long proper flexor of the thumb 197
Pronator quadratus 198
_Muscles of the Hand_ 199
=Muscles of the Posterior Limbs:=
_Muscles of the Pelvis_ 200
Gluteus medius 200
Gluteus maximus 201
_Muscles of the Thigh_ 204
Muscles of the posterior region 205
Biceps 205
Semi-tendinosus 206
Semi-membranosus 207
Muscles of the anterior region 210
Triceps 210
Tensor fascia lata 211
Sartorius 211
Muscles of the internal region 213
Gracilis 213
_Muscles of the Leg_ 213
Muscles of the anterior region 214
Tibialis anticus 214
Extensor proprius pollicis 219
Extensor longus digitorum 219
Peroneus tertius 224
Muscles of the external region 224
Peroneus longus 224
Peroneus brevis 225
Muscles of the posterior region 227
Gastrocnemius 227
Soleus 228
Plantaris 228
Popliteus 228
Superficial flexor of the toes 229
Flexor longus digitorum 230
Tibialis posticus 230
Flexor longus pollicis 231
_Muscles of the Foot_ 231
Dorsalis pedis 231
_Muscles of the Head_ 232
Masticatory muscles 232
Masseter 232
Temporal muscle 234
Cutaneous muscles of the head 234
Occipito-frontalis 234
Orbicularis palpebrarum 234
Pyramidalis nasi 235
Corrugator supercilii 235
Zygomaticus major 235
Zygomaticus minor 236
Levator labii superioris proprius 237
Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi 238
Transversus nasi 239
Caninus 239
Orbicularis oris 240
Triangularis oris 240
Quadratus menti 240
Prominence of the chin 240
Buccinator 241
Maxillo-labialis 242
Zygomatico-auricularis 242
Temporo-auricularis externus 243
Scuto-auricularis externus 243
Cervico-auricular muscles 243
Cervico-auricularis superioris 244
Cervico-auricularis medius 244
Cervico-auricularis inferioris 244
Parotido-auricularis 244
Temporo-auricularis internus 244
Zygomatico-auricularis 245
EPIDERMIC PRODUCTS OF THE TERMINAL EXTREMITIES OF THE FORE AND
HIND LIMBS
Claws 247
Plantar tubercles 248
Hoofs of the solipeds 250
Hoofs of ox and pig 261
* * * * *
Proportions 262
Proportions of head of horse 273
(front view) 276
Paces of the horse 282
Amble 293
Trot 294
Walk 296
Gallop 300
Leap 364
ERRATA
P. 105, _Articulations_ of the Posterior Limbs.
P. 107, Tibio-tarsal _Articulation_.
THE END
_London: Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 8, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden,
W.C._
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| TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: |
| |
| Footnotes have been moved to underneath the paragraph, table or |
| illustration they refer to. |
| |
| Illustrations have been moved so as to not disrupt the flow of the |
| text. Page numbers in the List of Illustrations and in references |
| have not been changed, and are therefore not always correct. |
| |
| The Table of Contents and the Sectional Index are not complete and |
| contain slightly different wording than the names of sections in |
| the text. This has been left as in the original work. |
| |
| The Errata have already been changed in the text. |
| |
| The author uses the terms chromophotograph and chronophotograph |
| (and derivations of these words); these words have not been |
| changed. The correct term in these cases is chronophotograph. |
| |
| Page 143, Fig. 69: atlas is mentioned twice (nrs. 12 and 13); only |
| nr. 13 indicates the atlas. |
| |
| The text used is that of the original work, including |
| inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation and lay-out, and |
| differences between main text, footnotes and captions, except when |
| mentioned below. |
| |
| Changes made to the text: |
| Some minor obvious typographical errors have been corrected |
| silently. |
| Periods have been removed from some section headings for |
| consistency. |
| Page 2, footnote [2]: Mathias-Duval changed to Mathias Duval |
| (full name: Mathias-Marie Duval). |
| Page 23: _see_ replaced with see for consistency. |
| Page 44 (footnote 12): Edward Cuyer changed to Edouard Cuyer as |
| elsewhere. |
| Page 53, captions (2x): AA^1 changed to AA' as in drawing and |
| text. |
| Page 120, Fig. 63, caption: 14', malar bone added, 14 changed to |
| anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossae (as in previous|
| figures). |
| Page 216: tendo-Achilles changed to tendo-Achillis as elsewhere. |
| Page 234: Fig. 0, 92 changed to Fig. 90, 2. |
| Page 254, Fig. 98: epternal changed to external. |
| Page 269, last paragraph: one anchor to same footnote deleted. |
| Page 325: L, D, L', D' changed to L, D, L', D'. |
| Footnotes 13, 17: La Natura changed to La Nature. |
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End of Project Gutenberg's Artistic Anatomy of Animals, by Edouard Cuyer