This eminent architect was one of those illustrious men, who, having
conceived and matured a grand design, proceed, cool, calm, and
indefatigable, to put it in execution, undismayed by obstacles that seem
insuperable, by poverty, want, and what is worse, the jeers of men whose
capacities are too limited to comprehend their sublime conceptions. The
world is apt to term such men enthusiasts, madmen, or fools, till their
glorious achievements stamp them almost divinely inspired.
Brunelleschi was nobly descended on his mother's side, she being a
member of the Spini family, which, according to Bottari, became extinct
towards the middle of the last century. His ancestors on his father's
side were also learned and distinguished men--his father was a notary,
his grandfather "a very learned man," and his great-grandfather "a
famous physician in those times." Filippo's father, though poor,
educated him for the legal or medical profession; but such was his
passion for art and mechanics, that his father, greatly against his
will, was compelled to allow him to follow the bent of his genius: he
accordingly placed him, at a proper age, in the Guild of the Goldsmiths,
that he might acquire the art of design. Filippo soon became a
proficient in the setting of precious stones, which he did much better
than any old artists in the vocation. He also wrought in niello, and
executed several figures which were highly commended, particularly two
figures of Prophets, for an altar in the Cathedral of Pistoja. Filippo
next turned his attention to sculpture, and executed works in
basso-relievo, which showed an extraordinary genius. Subsequently,
having made the acquaintance of several learned men, he began to turn
his attention to the computation of the divisions of time, the
adjustment of weights, the movement of wheels, etc. He next bent his
thoughts to the study of perspective, to which, before his time, so
little attention was paid by artists, that the figures often appeared to
be slipping off the canvas, and the buildings had not a true point of
view. He was one of the first who revived the Greek practice of
rendering the precepts of geometry subservient to the painter; for this
purpose, he studied with the famous geometrician Toscanelli, who was
also the instructor, friend, and counsellor of Columbus. Filippo pursued
his investigations until he brought perspective to great perfection; he
was the first who discovered a perfectly correct method of taking the
ground plan and sections of buildings, by means of intersecting
lines--"a truly ingenious thing," says Vasari, "and of great utility to
the arts of design." Filippo freely communicated his discoveries to his
brother artists. He was imitated in mosaic by Benedetto da Macano, and
in painting by Masaccio, who were his pupils. Vasari says Brunelleschi
was a man of such exalted genius, that "we may truly declare him to have
been given to us by Heaven, for the purpose of imparting a new spirit to
architecture, which for hundreds of years had been lost; for the men of
those times had badly expended great treasures in the erection of
buildings without order, constructed in a most wretched manner, after
deplorable designs, with fantastic inventions, labored graces, and worse
decorations. But it then pleased Heaven, the earth having been for so
many years destitute of any distinguished mind and divine genius, that
Filippo Brunelleschi should leave to the world, the most noble, vast,
and beautiful edifice that had ever been constructed in modern times, or
even in those of the ancients; giving proof that the talent of the
Tuscan artists, although lost for a time, was not extinguished. He was,
moreover, adorned by the most excellent qualities, among which was that
of kindliness, insomuch that there never was a man of more benign and
amicable disposition; in judgment he was calm and dispassionate, and
laid aside all thought of his own interest and even that of his friends,
whenever he perceived the merits and talents of others to demand that he
should do so. He knew himself, instructed many from the stores of his
genius, and was ever ready to succor his neighbor in all his
necessities; he declared himself the confirmed enemy of all vice, and
the friend of those who labored in the cause of virtue. Never did he
spend his moments vainly, but, although constantly occupied in his own
works, in assisting those of others, or administering to their
necessities, he had yet always time to bestow on his friends, for whom
his aid was ever ready."
In the meantime, Brunelleschi had studied architecture, and made such
progress that he had already conceived two grand projects--the one was
the revival of the good manner of ancient architecture, which was then
extinct, and the other was to discover a method for constructing the
cupola of the church of Santa Maria del Fiore, in Florence, the
difficulties of which were so great that, after the death of Arnolfo di
Lapi, no architect had been found of sufficient courage and capacity to
attempt the vaulting of that cupola.[1] If he could accomplish one or
both of these designs, he believed that he would not only immortalize
his own name, but confer a lasting benefit on mankind. Filippo, having
resolved to devote himself entirely to architecture in future, set out
for Rome in company with his friend Donatello, without imparting his
purpose to any one. Here his mind became so absorbed that he labored
incessantly, scarcely allowing himself the rest which nature required.
He examined, measured, and made careful drawings of all the edifices,
ruins, arches, and vaults of antiquity; to these he devoted perpetual
study, and if by chance he found fragments of capitals, columns,
cornices, or basements of buildings, partly buried in the earth, he set
laborers at work to lay them open to view. One day, Filippo and
Donatello found an earthen vase full of ancient coins, which caused a
report to be spread about Rome that the artists were _treasure-seekers_,
and this name they often heard, as they passed along the streets,
negligently clothed, the people believing them to be men who studied
geomancy, for the discovery of treasures. Donatello soon returned to
Florence, but Filippo pursued his studies with unremitting diligence.
Having exhausted his means, although he lived in the most frugal manner,
he contrived to supply his wants, says Milizia, by pawning his jewels,
but Vasari with greater probability, by setting precious stones for the
goldsmiths, who were his friends. "Nor did he rest," says Vasari, "until
he had drawn every description of fabric--temples, round, square, or
octagon; basilicas, aqueducts, baths, arches, the Colosseum,
amphitheatres, and every church built of bricks, of which he examined
all the modes of binding and clamping, as well as the turning of the
vaults and arches; he took note, likewise, of all the methods used for
uniting the stones, as well as of the means used for securing the
equilibrium and close conjunction of all the parts; and having found
that in all the larger stones there was a hole, formed exactly in the
centre of each on the under side, he discovered that this was for the
insertion of the iron instrument with which the stones are drawn up, and
which is called by us the mason's clamps (_la ulivella_), an invention,
the use of which he restored, and ever afterwards put in practice. The
different orders were next divided by his cares, each order, the Doric,
Ionic, or Corinthian being placed apart; and such was the effect of his
zeal in that study, that he became capable of entirely reconstructing
the city in his imagination, and of beholding Rome as she had been
before she was ruined. But in the year 1407 the air of the place caused
Filippo some slight indisposition, when he was advised by his friends to
try change of air. He consequently returned to Florence, where many
buildings had suffered by his absence, and for these he made many
drawings and gave numerous counsels on his return.
"In the same year an assemblage of architects and engineers was gathered
in Florence, by the Superintendents of the works of Santa Maria del
Fiore, and by the Syndics of the Guild of wool-workers, to consult on
the means by which the cupola might be raised. Among these appeared
Filippo, who gave it as his opinion that the edifice above the roof must
be constructed, not after the design of Arnolfo, but that a frieze,
fifteen braccia high, must be erected, with a large window in each of
its sides: since not only would this take the weight off the piers of
the tribune, but would also permit the cupola itself to be more easily
raised."
The obstacles appeared so insuperable to the Superintendents and the
Syndics, that they delayed the execution of the cupola for several
years. In the meantime, Filippo secretly made models and designs for his
cupola, which perpetually occupied his thoughts. He boldly asserted that
the project was not only practicable, but that it could be done with
much less difficulty and at less expense than was believed. At length,
his boldness, genius, and powerful arguments, brought many of the
citizens to his opinion, though he refused to show his models, because
he knew the powerful opposition and influences he would have to
encounter, and the almost certain loss of the honor of building the
cupola, which he coveted above everything else. Vasari thus continues
his admirable history: "But one morning the fancy took him, hearing that
there was some talk of providing engineers for the construction of the
cupola, of returning to Rome, thinking that he would have more
reputation and be more sought for from abroad, than if he remained in
Florence. When Filippo had returned to Rome accordingly, the acuteness
of his genius and his readiness of resource were taken into
consideration, when it was remembered that in his discourses he had
showed a confidence and courage that had not been found in any of the
other architects, who stood confounded, together with the builders,
having lost all power of proceeding; for they were convinced that no
method of constructing the cupola would ever be found, nor any beams
that would make a scaffold strong enough to support the framework and
weight of so vast an edifice. The Superintendents were therefore
resolved to have an end of the matter, and wrote to Filippo in Rome,
entreating him to repair to Florence, when he, who desired nothing
better, returned very readily. The wardens of Santa Maria del Fiore and
the syndics of the Guild of Woolworkers, having assembled on his
arrival, set before him all the difficulties, from the greatest to the
smallest, which had been made by the masters, who were present, together
with himself, at the audience: whereupon Filippo replied in these
words--'Gentlemen Superintendents, there is no doubt that great
undertakings always present difficulties in their execution; and if none
ever did so before, this of yours does it to an extent of which you are
not perhaps even yet fully aware, for I do not know that even the
ancients ever raised so enormous a vault as this will be. I, who have
many times reflected on the scaffoldings required, both within and
without, and on the method to be pursued for working securely at this
erection, have never been able to come to a decision; and I am
confounded, no less by the breadth than the height of the edifice. Now,
if the cupola could be arched in a circular form, we might pursue the
method adopted by the Romans in erecting the Pantheon of Rome; that is,
the Rotunda. But here we must follow the eight sides of the building,
dove-tailing, and, so to speak, enchaining the stones, which will be a
very difficult thing. Yet, remembering that this is a temple consecrated
to God and the Virgin, I confidently trust, that for a work executed to
their honor, they will not fail to infuse knowledge where it is now
wanting, and will bestow strength, wisdom, and genius on him who shall
be the author of such a project. But how can I help you in the matter,
seeing that the work is not mine? I tell you plainly, that if it
belonged to me, my courage and power would beyond all doubt suffice to
discover means whereby the work might be effected without so many
difficulties; but as yet I have not reflected on the matter to any
extent, and you would have me tell you by what method it is to be
accomplished. But even if your worships should determine that the cupola
shall be raised, you will be compelled not only to make trial of me, who
do not consider myself capable of being the sole adviser in so important
a matter, but also to expend money, and to command that within a year,
and on a fixed day, many architects shall assemble in Florence; not
Tuscans and Italians only, but Germans, French, and of every other
nation: to them it is that such an undertaking should be proposed, to
the end that having discussed the matter and decided among so many
masters, the work may be commenced and entrusted to him who shall give
the best evidence of capacity, or shall display the best method and
judgment for the execution of so great a charge. I am not able to offer
you other counsel, or to propose a better arrangement than this.'
"The proposal and plan of Filippo pleased the Syndics and Wardens of the
works, but they would have liked that he should meanwhile prepare a
model, on which they might have decided. But he showed himself to have
no such intention, and taking leave of them, declared that he was
solicited by letters to return to Rome. The syndics then perceiving that
their request and those of the wardens did not suffice to detain him,
caused several of his friends to entreat his stay; but Filippo not
yielding to these prayers, the wardens, one morning, ordered him a
present of money; this was on the 26th of May, 1417, and the sum is to
be seen among the expenses of Filippo, in the books of the works. All
this was done to render him favorable to their wishes; but, firm to his
resolution, he departed nevertheless from Florence and returned to Rome,
where he continued the unremitting study of the same subject, making
various arrangements and preparing himself for the completion of that
work, being convinced, as was the truth, that no other than himself
could conduct such an undertaking to its conclusion. Nor had Filippo
advised the syndics to call new architects for any other reason, than
was furnished by his desire that those masters should be the witnesses
of his own superior genius: he by no means expected that they could or
would receive the commission for vaulting that tribune, or would
undertake the charge, which he believed to be altogether too difficult
for them. Much time was meanwhile consumed, before the architects, whom
the syndics had caused to be summoned from afar, could arrive from their
different countries. Orders had been given to the Florentine merchants
resident in France, Germany, England, and Spain, who were authorized to
spend large sums of money for the purpose of sending them, and were
commanded to obtain from the sovereigns of each realm the most
experienced and distinguished masters of the respective countries.
"In the year 1420, all these foreign masters were at length assembled in
Florence, with those of Tuscany, and all the best Florentine artists in
design. Filippo likewise then returned from Rome. They all assembled,
therefore, in the hall of the wardens of Santa Maria del Fiore, the
Syndics and Superintendents, together with a select number of the most
capable and ingenious citizens being present, to the end that having
heard the opinion of each on the subject, they might at length decide on
the method to be adopted for vaulting the tribune. Being called into the
audience, the opinions of all were heard one after another, and each
architect declared the method which he had thought of adopting. And a
fine thing it was to hear the strange and various notions then
propounded on that matter: for one said that columns must be raised from
the ground up, and that on these they must turn the arches, whereon the
woodwork for supporting the weight must rest. Others affirmed that the
vault should be turned in cysteolite or sponge-stone (spugna), thereby
to diminish the weight; and several of the masters agreed in the opinion
that a column must be erected in the centre, and the cupola raised in
the form of a pavilion, like that of San Giovanni in Florence. Nay,
there were not wanting those who maintained that it would be a good plan
to fill the space with earth, among which small coins (quatrini) should
be mingled, that when the cupola should be raised, they might then give
permission that whoever should desire the soil might go and fetch it,
when the people would immediately carry it away without expense. Filippo
alone declared that the cupola might be erected without so great a mass
of woodwork, without a column in the centre, and without the mound of
earth; at a much lighter expense than would be caused by so many arches,
and very easily, without any framework whatever.
"Hearing this, the syndics, who were listening in the expectation of
hearing some fine method, felt convinced that Filippo had talked like a
mere simpleton, as did the superintendents, and all the other citizens;
they derided him therefore, laughing at him, and turning away; they bade
him discourse of something else, for that this was the talk of a fool or
madman, as he was. Therefore Filippo, thinking he had cause of offence,
replied, 'But consider, gentlemen, that it is not possible to raise the
cupola in any other manner than this of mine, and although you laugh at
me, yet you will be obliged to admit (if you do not mean to be
obstinate), that it neither must nor can be done in any other manner;
and if it be erected after the method that I propose, it must be turned
in the manner of the pointed arch, and must be double--the one vaulting
within, the other without, in such sort that a passage should be formed
between the two. At the angles of the eight walls, the building must be
strengthened by the dove-tailing of the stones, and in like manner the
walls themselves must be girt around by strong beams of oak. We must
also provide for the lights, the staircases, and the conduits by which
the rain-water may be carried off. And none of you have remembered that
we must prepare supports within, for the execution of the mosaics, with
many other difficult arrangements; but I, who see the cupola raised, I
have reflected on all these things, and I know that there is no other
mode of accomplishing them, than that of which I have spoken.' Becoming
heated as he proceeded, the more Filippo sought to make his views clear
to his hearers, that they might comprehend and agree with him, the more
he awakened their doubts, and the less they confided in him, so that,
instead of giving him their faith, they held him to be a fool and a
babbler. Whereupon, being more than once dismissed, and finally refusing
to go, they caused him to be carried forcibly from the audience by the
servants of the place, considering him to be altogether mad. This
contemptuous treatment caused Filippo at a later period to say, that he
dared not at that time pass through any part of the city, lest some one
should say, 'See, where goes that fool!' The syndics and others forming
the assembly remained confounded, first, by the difficult methods
proposed by the other masters, and next by that of Filippo, which
appeared to them stark nonsense. He appeared to them to render the
enterprise impossible by his two propositions--first, by that of making
the cupola double, whereby the great weight to be sustained would be
rendered altogether unmanageable, and next by the proposal of building
without a framework. Filippo, on the other hand, who had spent so many
years in close study to prepare himself for this work, knew not to what
course to betake himself, and was many times on the point of leaving
Florence. Still, if he desired to conquer, it was necessary to arm
himself with patience, and he had seen enough to know that the heads of
the city seldom remained long fixed to one resolution. He might easily
have shown them a small model which he had secretly made, but he would
not do so, knowing the imperfect intelligence of the syndics, the envy
of the artists, and the instability of the citizens, who favored now one
and now another, as each chanced to please them. And I do not wonder at
this, because every one in Florence professes to know as much of these
matters, as do the most experienced masters, although there are very few
who really understand them; a truth which we may be permitted to affirm
without offence to those who are well informed on the subject. What
Filippo therefore could not effect before the tribunal, he began to
attempt with individuals, and talking apart now with a syndic, now with
a warden, and again with different citizens, showing moreover certain
parts of his design; he thus brought them at length to resolve on
confiding the conduct of this work, either to him or to one of the
foreign architects. Hereupon, the syndics, the wardens, and the
citizens, selected to be judges in the matter, having regained courage,
gathered together once again, and the architects disputed respecting the
matter before them; but all were put down and vanquished on sufficient
grounds by Filippo, and here it is said that the dispute of the egg
arose, in the manner following. The other architects desired that
Filippo should explain his purpose minutely, and show his model, as they
had shown theirs. This he would not do, but proposed to all the masters,
foreigners and compatriots, that he who could make an egg stand upright
on a piece of smooth marble, should be appointed to build the cupola,
since in doing that, his genius would be made manifest. They took an egg
accordingly, and all those masters did their best to make it stand
upright, but none discovered the method of doing so. Wherefore, Filippo,
being told that he might make it stand himself, took it daintily into
his hand, gave the end of it a blow on the plane of the marble, and made
it stand upright.[2] Beholding this, the artists loudly protested,
exclaiming that they could all have done the same; but Filippo replied,
laughing, that they might also know how to construct the cupola, if they
had seen the model and design. It was thus at length resolved that
Filippo should receive the charge of conducting the work, but was told
that he must furnish the syndics and wardens with more exact
information.
"He returned, therefore, to his house, and stated his whole purpose on a
sheet of paper, as clearly as he could possibly express it, when it was
given to the tribunal in the following terms:--'The difficulties of this
erection being well considered, magnificent signors and wardens, I find
that it cannot by any means be constructed in a perfect circle, since
the extent of the upper part, where the lantern has to be placed, would
be so vast, that when a weight was laid thereon, it would soon give way.
Now it appears to me that those architects who do not aim at giving
perpetual duration to their fabrics, cannot have any regard for the
durability of the memorial, nor do they even know what they are doing. I
have therefore determined to turn the inner part of this vault in
angles, according to the form of the walls, adopting the proportions and
manner of the pointed arch, this being a form which displays a rapid
tendency to ascend, and when loaded with the lantern, each part will
help to give stability to the other. The thickness of the vault at the
base must be three braccia and three-quarters; it must then rise in the
form of a pyramid, decreasing from without up to the point where it
closes, and where the lantern has to be placed, and at this junction the
thickness must be one braccia and a quarter. A second vault shall then
be constructed outside the first, to preserve the latter from the rain,
and this must be two braccia and a half thick at the base, also
diminishing proportionally in the form of a pyramid, in such a manner
that the parts shall have their junction at the commencement of the
lantern, as did the other, and at the highest point it must have
two-thirds of the thickness of the base. There must be a buttress at
each angle, which will be eight in all, and between the angles, in the
face of each wall, there shall be two, sixteen in all; and these sixteen
buttresses on the inner and outer side of each wall must each have the
breadth of four braccia at the base. These two vaults, built in the form
of a pyramid, shall rise together in equal proportion to the height of
the round window closed by the lantern. There will thus be constructed
twenty-four buttresses with the said vaults built around, and six strong
high arches of a hard stone (macigno), well clamped and bound with iron
fastenings, which must be covered with tin, and over these stones shall
be cramping irons, by which the vaults shall be bound to the buttresses.
The masonry must be solid, and must leave no vacant space up to the
height of five braccia and a quarter; the buttresses being then
continued, the arches will be separated. The first and second courses
from the base must be strengthened everywhere by long plates of
_macigno_ laid crosswise, in such sort that both vaults of the cupola
shall rest on these stones. Throughout the whole height, at every ninth
braccia there shall be small arches constructed in the vaults between
the buttresses, with strong cramps of oak, whereby the buttresses by
which the inner vault is supported will be bound and strengthened; these
fastenings of oak shall then be covered with plates of iron, on account
of the staircases. The buttresses are all to be built of _macigno_, or
other hard stone, and the walls of the cupola are, in like manner, to be
all of solid stone bound to the buttresses to the height of twenty-four
braccia, and thence upward they shall be constructed of brick or of
spongite (spugne), as shall be determined on by the masters who build
it, they using that which they consider lightest. On the outside, a
passage or gallery shall be made above the windows, which below shall
form a terrace, with an open parapet or balustrade two braccia high,
after the manner of those of the lower tribunes, and forming two
galleries, one over the other, placed on a richly decorated cornice, the
upper gallery being covered. The rain-water shall be carried off the
cupola by means of a marble channel, one third of an ell broad, the
water being discharged at an outlet to be constructed of hard stone
(pietra forte), beneath the channel. Eight ribs of marble shall be
formed on the angles of the external surface of the cupola, of such
thickness as may be requisite; these shall rise to the height of one
braccia above the cupola, with cornices projecting in the manner of a
roof, two braccia broad, that the summit may be complete, and
sufficiently furnished with eaves and channels on every side; and these
must have the form of the pyramid, from their base, or point of
junction, to their extremity. Thus the cupola shall be constructed after
the method described above, and without framework, to the height of
thirty braccia, and from that height upwards, it may be continued after
such manner as shall be determined on by the masters who may have to
build it, since practice teaches us by what methods to proceed.'
"When Filippo had written the above, he repaired in the morning to the
tribunal, and gave his paper to the syndics and wardens, who took the
whole of it into their consideration; and, although they were not able
to understand it all, yet seeing the confidence of Filippo, and finding
that the other architects gave no evidence of having better ground to
proceed on,--he moreover showing a manifest security, by constantly
repeating the same things in such a manner that he had all the
appearance of having vaulted ten cupolas:--the Syndics, seeing all this,
retired apart, and finally resolved to give him the work; they would
have liked to see some example of the manner in which he meant to turn
this vault without framework, but to all the rest they gave their
approbation. And fortune was favorable to this desire: Bartolomeo
Barbadori having determined to build a chapel in Santa Felicita, and
having spoken concerning it with Filippo, the latter had commenced the
work, and caused the chapel, which is on the right of the entrance,
where is also the holy water vase (likewise by the hand of Filippo), to
be vaulted without any framework. At the same time he constructed
another, in like manner, for Stiatta Ridolfi, in the church of Santo
Jacopo sopr' Arno; that, namely, beside the chapel of the High Altar;
and these works obtained him more credit than was given to his words.
The consuls and wardens feeling at length assured, by the writing he had
given them, and by the works which they had seen, entrusted the cupola
to his care, and he was made principal master of the works by a majority
of votes. They would nevertheless not commission him to proceed beyond
the height of twelve braccia, telling him that they desired to see how
the work would succeed, but that if it proceeded as successfully as he
expected, they would not fail to give him the appointment for the
remainder. The sight of so much obstinacy and distrust in the syndics
and wardens was so surprising to Filippo, that if he had not known
himself to be the only person capable of conducting the work, he would
not have laid a hand upon it; but desiring, as he did, to secure the
glory of its completion, he accepted the terms, and pledged himself to
conduct the undertaking perfectly to the end. The writing Filippo had
given was copied into a book wherein the purveyor kept the accounts of
the works in wood and marble, together with the obligation into which
Filippo had entered as above said. An allowance was then made to him,
conformably with what had at other times been given to other masters of
the works.
"When the commission given to Filippo became known to the artists and
citizens, some thought well of it, and others ill, as always is the
case with a matter which calls forth the opinions of the populace, the
thoughtless, and the envious. Whilst the preparation of materials for
beginning to build was making, a party was formed among the artists and
citizens; and these men proceeding to the syndics and wardens, declared
that the matter had been concluded too hastily, and that such a work
ought not to be executed according to the opinion of one man only; they
added, that if the syndics and wardens had been destitute of
distinguished men, instead of being furnished with such in abundance,
they would have been excusable, but that what was now done was not
likely to redound to the honor of the citizens, seeing, that if any
accident should happen, they would incur blame, as persons who had
conferred too great a charge on one man, without considering the losses
and disgrace that might result to the public. All this considered, it
would be well to give Filippo a colleague, who might restrain his
impetuosity (furore).
"Lorenzo Ghiberti had at that time attained to high credit by the
evidence of his genius, which he had given in the doors of San Giovanni;
and that he was much beloved by certain persons who were very powerful
in the government was now proved with sufficient clearness, since,
perceiving the glory of Filippo to increase so greatly, they labored in
such a manner with the syndics and wardens, under the pretext of care
and anxiety for the building, that Ghiberti was united with Filippo in
the work. The bitter vexation of Filippo, the despair into which he
fell, when he heard what the wardens had done, may be understood by the
fact that he was on the point of flying from Florence; and had it not
been that Donato and Luca della Robbia comforted and encouraged him, he
would have gone out of his senses. A truly wicked and cruel rage is that
of those men, who, blinded by envy, endanger the honors and noble works
of others in the base strife of ambition: it was not the fault of these
men that Filippo did not break in pieces the models, set fire to the
designs, and in one half hour destroy all the labors so long endured,
and ruin the hopes of so many years. The wardens excused themselves at
first to Filippo, encouraging him to proceed, reminding him that the
inventor and author of so noble a fabric was still himself, and no
other; but they, nevertheless, gave Lorenzo a stipend equal to that of
Filippo. The work was then continued with but little pleasure on the
part of Filippo, who knew that he must endure all the labors connected
therewith, and would then have to divide the honor and fame equally with
Lorenzo. Taking courage, nevertheless, from the thought that he should
find a method of preventing the latter from remaining very long attached
to that undertaking, he continued to proceed after the manner laid down
in the writing given to the wardens. Meanwhile the thought occurred to
the mind of Filippo of constructing a complete model, which, as yet, had
never been done. This he commenced forthwith, causing the parts to be
made by a certain Bartolomeo, a joiner, who dwelt near his studio. In
this model (the measurements of which were in strict accordance with
those of the building itself, the difference being of size only), all
the difficult parts of the structure were shown as they were to be when
completed; as, for example, staircases lighted and dark, with every
other kind of light, with the buttresses and other inventions for giving
strength to the building, the doors, and even a portion of the gallery.
Lorenzo, having heard of this model, desired to see it, but Filippo
refusing, he became angry, and made preparations for constructing a
model of his own, that he might not appear to be receiving his salary
for nothing, but that he also might seem to count for something in the
matter. For these models Filippo received fifty lire and fifteen soldi,
as we find by an order in the book of Migliore di Tommaso, under date of
the 3d October, 1419, while Lorenzo was paid three hundred lire for the
labor and cost of his model, a difference occasioned by the partiality
and favor shown to him, rather than merited by any utility or benefit
secured to the building by the model which he had constructed.
"This vexatious state of things continued beneath the eyes of Filippo
until the year 1426,[3] the friends of Lorenzo calling him the inventor
of the work, equally with Filippo, and this caused so violent a
commotion in the mind of the latter, that he lived in the utmost
disquietude. Various improvements and new inventions were, besides,
presenting themselves to his thoughts, and he resolved to rid himself of
his colleague at all hazards, knowing of how little use he was to the
work. Filippo had already raised the walls of the cupola to the height
of twelve braccia in both vaults, but the works, whether in wood or
stone, that were to give strength to the fabric, had still to be
executed, and as this was a matter of difficulty, he determined to speak
with Lorenzo respecting it, that he might ascertain whether the latter
had taken it into consideration. But Lorenzo was so far from having
thought of this exigency, and so entirely unprepared for it, that he
replied by declaring that he would refer that to Filippo as the
inventor. The answer of Lorenzo pleased Filippo, who thought he here saw
the means of removing his colleague from the works, and of making it
manifest that he did not possess that degree of knowledge in the matter
that was attributed to him by his friends, and implied in the favor
which had placed him in the situation he held. All the builders were now
engaged in the work, and waited only for directions, to commence the
part above the twelve braccia, to raise the vaults, and render all
secure. The closing in of the cupola towards the top having commenced,
it was necessary to provide the scaffolding, that the masons and
laborers might work without danger, seeing that the height was such as
to make the most steady head turn giddy, and the firmest spirit shrink,
merely to look down from it. The masons and other masters were therefore
waiting in expectation of directions as to the manner in which the
chains were to be applied, and the scaffoldings erected; but, finding
there was nothing determined on either by Lorenzo or Filippo, there
arose a murmur among the masons and other builders, at not seeing the
work pursued with the solicitude previously shown; and as the workmen
were poor persons who lived by the labor of their hands, and who now
believed that neither one nor the other of the architects had courage
enough to proceed further with the undertaking, they went about the
building employing themselves as best they could in looking over and
furbishing up all that had been already executed.
"But one morning, Filippo did not appear at the works: he tied up his
head, went to bed complaining bitterly, and causing plates and towels to
be heated with great haste and anxiety, pretending that he had an attack
of pleurisy. The builders who stood waiting directions to proceed with
their work, on hearing this, demanded orders of Lorenzo for what they
were to do; but he replied that the arrangement of the work belonged to
Filippo, and that they must wait for him. 'How?' said one of them, 'do
you not know what his intentions are?' 'Yes,' replied Lorenzo, 'but I
would not do anything without him.'" This he said by way of excusing
himself; for as he had not seen the model of Filippo, and had never
asked him what method he meant to pursue, that he might not appear
ignorant, so he now felt completely out of his depth, being thus
referred to his own judgment, and the more so as he knew that he was
employed in that undertaking against the will of Filippo. The illness of
the latter having already lasted more than two days, the purveyor of the
works, with many of the master-builders, went to see him, and repeatedly
asked him to tell them what they should do; but he constantly replied,
'You have Lorenzo, let him begin to do something for once.' Nor could
they obtain from him any other reply. When this became known, it caused
much discussion: great blame was thrown upon the undertaking, and many
adverse judgments were uttered. Some said that Filippo had taken to his
bed from grief, at finding that he had not power to accomplish the
erection of the Cupola, and that he was now repenting of having meddled
with the matter; but his friends defended him, declaring that his
vexation might arise from the wrong he had suffered in having Lorenzo
given to him as a colleague, but that his disorder was pleurisy,
brought on by his excessive labors for the work. In the midst of all
this tumult of tongues, the building was suspended, and almost all the
operations of the masons and stone-cutters came to a stand. These men
murmured against Lorenzo, and said, 'He is good enough at drawing the
salary, but when it comes to directing the manner in which we are to
proceed, he does nothing; if Filippo were not here, or if he should
remain long disabled, what can Lorenzo do? and if Filippo be ill, is
that his fault?' The wardens, perceiving the discredit that accrued to
them from this state of things, resolved to make Filippo a visit, and
having reached his house, they first condoled with him on his illness,
told him into what disorder the building had fallen, and described the
troubles which this malady had brought on them. Whereupon Filippo,
speaking with much heat, partly to keep up the feint of illness, but
also in part from his interest in the work, exclaimed, 'What! is not
Lorenzo there? why does not he do something? I cannot but wonder at your
complaints.' To this the wardens replied, 'He will not do anything
without you.' Whereunto Filippo made answer, 'But I could do it well
enough without him.' This acute and doubly significant reply sufficed to
the wardens, and they departed, having convinced themselves that Filippo
was sick of the desire to work alone; they therefore sent certain of his
friends to draw him from his bed, with the intention of removing
Lorenzo from the work. Filippo then returned to the building, but seeing
the power that Lorenzo possessed by means of the favor he enjoyed, and
that he desired to receive the salary without taking any share whatever
in the labor, he bethought himself of another method for disgracing him,
and making it publicly and fully evident that he had very little
knowledge of the matter in hand. He consequently made the following
discourse to the wardens (Operai) Lorenzo being present:--'Signori
Operai, if the time we have to live were as well secured to us as is the
certainty that we may very quickly die, there is no doubt whatever that
many works would be completed, which are now commenced and left
imperfect. The malady with which I have had the misfortune to be
attacked, might have deprived me of life, and put a stop to this work;
wherefore, lest I should again fall sick, or Lorenzo either, which God
forbid, I have considered that it would be better for each to execute
his own portion of the work: as your worships have divided the salary,
let us also divide the labor, to the end that each, being incited to
show what he knows and is capable of performing, may proceed with
confidence, to his own honor and benefit, as well as to that of the
republic. Now there are two difficult operations which must at this time
be put into course of execution--the one is the erection of scaffoldings
for enabling the builders to work in safety, and which must be prepared
both for the inside and outside of the fabric, where they will be
required to sustain the weight of the men, the stones and the mortar,
with space also for the crane to draw up the different materials, and
for other machines and tools of various kinds. The other difficulty is
the chain-work, which has to be constructed upon the twelve braccia
already erected, this being requisite to bind and secure the eight sides
of the cupola, and which must surround the fabric, enchaining the whole,
in such a manner that the weight which has hereafter to be laid on it
shall press equally on all sides, the parts mutually supporting each
other, so that no part of the edifice shall be too heavily pressed on or
overweighed, but that all shall rest firmly on its own basis. Let
Lorenzo then take one of these works, whichever he may think he can most
easily execute; I will take the other, and answer for bringing it to a
successful issue, that we may lose no more time.' Lorenzo having heard
this, was compelled, for the sake of his honor, to accept one or other
of these undertakings; and although he did it very unwillingly, he
resolved to take the chain work, thinking that he might rely on the
counsels of the builders, and remembering also that there was a
chain-work of stone in the vaulting of San Giovanni di Fiorenza, from
which he might take a part, if not the whole, of the arrangement. One
took the scaffolds in hand accordingly, and the other the chain-work, so
that both were put in progress. The scaffolds of Filippo were
constructed with so much ingenuity and judgment, that in this matter
the very contrary of what many had before expected was seen to have
happened, since the builders worked thereon with as much security as
they would have done on the ground beneath, drawing up all the requisite
weights and standing themselves in perfect safety. The models of these
scaffolds were deposited in the hall of the wardens. Lorenzo executed
the chain-work on one of the eight walls with the utmost difficulty, and
when it was finished the wardens caused Filippo to look at it. He said
nothing to them, but with some of his friends he held discourse on the
subject, declaring that the building required a very different work of
ligature and security to that one, laid in a manner altogether unlike
the method there adopted; for that this would not suffice to support the
weight which was to be laid on it, the pressure not being of sufficient
strength and firmness. He added that the sums paid to Lorenzo, with the
chain-work which he had caused to be constructed, were so much labor,
time, and money thrown away. The remarks of Filippo became known, and he
was called upon to show the manner that ought to be adopted for the
construction of such a chain-work; wherefore, having already prepared
his designs and models, he exhibited them immediately, and they were no
sooner examined by the wardens and other masters, than they perceived
the error into which they had fallen by favoring Lorenzo. For this they
now resolved to make amends; and desiring to prove that they were
capable of distinguishing merit, they made Filippo chief and
superintendent of the whole fabric for life, commanding that nothing
should be done in the work but as he should direct. As a further mark of
approbation, they presented him moreover with a hundred florins, ordered
by the syndics and wardens, under date of August 13, 1423, through
Lorenzo Paoli, notary of the administration of the works, and signed by
Gherardo di Messer Filippo Corsini: they also voted him an allowance of
one hundred florins for life. Whereupon, having taken measures for the
future progress of the fabric, Filippo conducted the works with so much
solicitude and such minute attention, that there was not a stone placed
in the building which he had not examined. Lorenzo on the other hand,
finding himself vanquished and in a manner disgraced, was nevertheless
so powerfully assisted and favored by his friends, that he continued to
receive his salary, under the pretext that he could not be dismissed
until the expiration of three years from that time.[4]
"Drawings and models were meanwhile continually prepared by Filippo for
the most minute portions of the building, for the stages or scaffolds
for the workmen, and for the machines used in raising the materials.
There were nevertheless several malicious persons, friends of Lorenzo,
who did not cease to torment him by daily bringing forward models in
rivalry of those constructed by him, insomuch that one was made by
Maestro Antonio da Verzelli, and other masters who were favored and
brought into notice--now by one citizen and now by another, their
fickleness and mutability betraying the insufficiency of their knowledge
and the weakness of their judgment, since having perfection within their
reach, they perpetually brought forward the imperfect and useless.
"The chain-work was now completed around all the eight sides, and the
builders, animated by success, worked vigorously; but being pressed more
than usual by Filippo, and having received certain reprimands concerning
the masonry and in relation to other matters of daily occurrence,
discontents began to prevail. Moved by this circumstance and by their
envy, the chiefs among them drew together and got up a faction,
declaring that the work was a laborious and perilous undertaking, and
that they would not proceed with the vaulting of the cupola, but on
condition of receiving large payments, although their wages had already
been increased and were much higher than was usual: by these means they
hoped to injure Filippo and increase their own gains. This circumstance
displeased the wardens greatly, as it did Filippo also; but the latter,
having reflected on the matter, took his resolution, and one Saturday
evening he dismissed them all. The men seeing themselves thus sent about
their business, and not knowing how the affair would turn, were very
sullen; but on the following Monday Filippo set ten Lombards to work at
the building, and by remaining constantly present with them, and saying,
'do this here' and 'do that there,' he taught them so much in one day
that they were able to continue the work during many weeks. The masons,
seeing themselves thus disgraced as well as deprived of their
employment, and knowing that they would find no work equally profitable,
sent messengers to Filippo, declaring that they would willingly return,
and recommending themselves to his consideration. Filippo kept them for
several days in suspense, and seemed not inclined to admit them again;
they were afterwards reinstated, but with lower wages than they had
received at first: thus where they had thought to make gain they
suffered loss, and by seeking to revenge themselves on Filippo, they
brought injury and shame on their own heads.
"The tongues of the envious were now silenced, and when the building was
seen to proceed so happily, the genius of Filippo obtained its due
consideration; and, by all who judged dispassionately, he was already
held to have shown a boldness which has, perhaps, never before been
displayed in their works, by any architect, ancient or modern. This
opinion was confirmed by the fact that Filippo now brought out his
model, in which all might see the extraordinary amount of thought
bestowed on every detail of the building. The varied invention displayed
in the staircases, in the provision of lights, both within and without,
so that none might strike or injure themselves in the darkness, were all
made manifest, with the careful consideration evinced by the different
supports of iron which were placed to assist the footsteps wherever the
ascent was steep. In addition to all this, Filippo had even thought of
the irons for fixing scaffolds within the cupola, if ever they should be
required for the execution of mosaics or pictures; he had selected the
least dangerous positions for the places of the conduits, to be
afterwards constructed for carrying off the rain water, had shown where
these were to be covered and where uncovered; and had moreover contrived
different outlets and apertures, whereby the force of the winds should
be diminished, to the end that neither vapors nor the vibrations of the
earth, should have power to do injury to the building: all which proved
the extent to which he had profited by his studies, during the many
years of his residence in Rome. When in addition to these things, the
superintendents considered how much he had accomplished in the shaping,
fixing, uniting, and securing the stones of this immense pile, they were
almost awe-struck on perceiving that the mind of one man had been
capable of all that Filippo had now proved himself able to perform. His
powers and facilities continually increased, and that to such an extent,
that there was no operation, however difficult and complex, which he did
not render easy and simple; of this he gave proof in one instance among
others, by the employment of wheels and counterpoises to raise heavy
weights, so that one ox could draw more than six pairs could have moved
by the ordinary methods. The building had now reached such a height,
that when a man had once arrived at the summit, it was a very great
labor to descend to the ground, and the workmen lost much time in going
to their meals, and to drink; arrangements were therefore made by
Filippo, for opening wine-shops and eating-houses in the cupola; where
the required food being sold, none were compelled to leave their labor
until the evening, which was a relief and convenience to the men, as
well as a very important advantage to the work. Perceiving the building
to proceed rapidly, and finding all his undertakings happily successful,
the zeal and confidence of Filippo increased, and he labored
perpetually; he went himself to the ovens where the bricks were made,
examined the clay, proved the quality of the working, and when they were
baked he would select and set them apart, with his own hands. In like
manner, while the stones were under the hands of the stone-cutters, he
would look narrowly to see that they were hard and free from clefts; he
supplied the stone-cutters with models in wood or wax, or hastily cut on
the spot from turnips, to direct them in the shaping and junction of the
different masses; he did the same for the men who prepared the iron
work; Filippo likewise invented hook hinges, with the mode of fixing
them to the door-posts, and greatly facilitated the practice of
architecture, which was certainly brought by his labors to a perfection
that it would else perhaps never have attained among the Tuscans.
"In the year 1423, when the utmost rejoicing and festivity was
prevailing in Florence, Filippo was chosen one of the _Signori_ for the
district of San Giovanni, for the months of May and June; Lapo Niccolini
being chosen Gonfalonier for the district of Santa Croce: and if Filippo
be found registered in the Priorista as 'di Ser Brunellesce Lippi,' this
need not occasion surprise, since they called him so after his
grandfather, Lippo, instead of 'di Lapi,' as they ought to have done.
And this practice is seen to prevail in the Priorista, with respect to
many others, as is well known to all who have examined it, or who are
acquainted with the custom of those times. Filippo performed his
functions carefully in that office; and in others connected with the
magistracy of the city, to which he was subsequently appointed, he
constantly acquitted himself with the most judicious consideration.
"The two vaults of the cupola were now approaching their close, at the
circular window where the lantern was to begin, and there now remained
to Filippo, who had made various models in wood and clay, both of the
one and the other, in Rome and Florence, to decide finally as to which
of these he would put in execution, wherefore he resolved to complete
the gallery, and accordingly made different plans for it, which remained
in the hall of wardens after his death, but which by the neglect of
those officials have since been lost. But it was not until our own days
that even a fragment was executed on a part of one of the eight sides
(to the end that the building might be completed); but as it was not in
accordance with the plan of Filippo, it was removed by the advice of
Michael Angelo Buonarotti, and was not again attempted.
"Filippo also constructed a model for the lantern, with his own hand; it
had eight sides, the proportions were in harmony with those of the
cupola, and for the invention as well as variety and decoration, it was
certainly very beautiful. He did not omit the staircase for ascending to
the ball, which was an admirable thing; but as he had closed the
entrance with a morsel of wood fixed at the lower part, no one but
himself knew its position. Filippo was now highly renowned, but
notwithstanding this, and although he had already overcome the envy and
abated the arrogance of so many opponents, he could not yet escape the
vexation of finding that all the masters of Florence, when his model had
been seen, were setting themselves to make others in various manners;
nay, there was even a lady of the Gaddi family, who ventured to place
her knowledge in competition with that of Filippo. The latter,
meanwhile, could not refrain from laughing at the presumption of these
people, and when he was told by certain of his friends that he ought not
to show his model to any artist lest they should learn from it, he
replied that there was but one true model, and that the others were good
for nothing. Some of the other masters had used parts of Filippo's model
for their own, which, when the latter perceived, he remarked, 'The next
model made by this personage will be mine altogether.' The work of
Filippo was very highly praised, with the exception, that, not
perceiving the staircase by which the ball was to be attained, the model
was considered defective on that point. The superintendents determined,
nevertheless, to give him the commission for the work, but on condition
that he should show the staircase;[5] whereupon Filippo, removing the
morsel of wood which he had placed at the foot of the stair, showed it
constructed as it is now seen, within one of the piers, and presenting
the form of a hollow reed or blow-pipe, having a recess or groove on one
side, with bars of bronze, by means of which the summit was gradually
attained. Filippo was now at an age which rendered it impossible that he
should live to see the lantern completed; he therefore left directions,
by his will, that it should be built after the model here described, and
according to the rules which he had laid down in writing, affirming that
the fabric would otherwise be in danger of falling, since, being
constructed with the pointed arch, it required to be rendered secure by
means of the pressure of the weight to be thus added. But, though
Filippo could not complete the edifice before his death, he raised the
lantern to the height of several braccia, causing almost all the marbles
required for the completion of the building to be carefully prepared
and brought to the place. At the sight of these huge masses as they
arrived, the people stood amazed, marvelling that it should be possible
for Filippo to propose the laying of such a weight on the cupola. It
was, indeed, the opinion of many intelligent men that it could not
possibly support that weight. It appeared to them to be a piece of good
fortune that he had conducted it so far, and they considered the loading
it so heavy to be a tempting of Providence. Filippo constantly laughed
at these fears, and having prepared all the machines and instruments
required for the construction of the edifice, he ceased not to employ
all his time in taking thought for its future requirements, providing
and preparing all the minutiæ, even to guarding against the danger of
the marbles being chipped as they were drawn up: to which intent the
arches of the tabernacles were built within defences of woodwork; and
for all beside the master gave models and written directions, as we have
said.
"How beautiful this building is, it will itself bear testimony. With
respect to the height, from the level ground to the commencement of the
lantern, there are one hundred and fifty-four braccia;[6] the body of
the lanthorn is thirty-six braccia high; the copper ball four braccia;
the cross eight braccia; in all two hundred and two braccia. And it may
be confidently affirmed that the ancients never carried their buildings
to so vast a height, nor committed themselves to so great a risk as to
dare a competition with the heavens, which this structure verily appears
to do, seeing that it rears itself to such an elevation that the hills
around Florence do not appear to equal it. And of a truth it might seem
that the heavens were envious of its height, since their lightnings
perpetually strike it. While this work was in progress, Filippo
constructed many other fabrics."