WEIGHING AND BULKING OF INDIAN TEAS AT CUSTOM HOUSE.
One misapprehension with some exists on this head. The _weighing_ is
done by the Customs to ascertain the amount for duty. The _bulking_ is
done at the request of the vendor, the broker who is to sell it, or the
purchaser, and it has to be paid for.
Two distinct injuries are inflicted on the producer by the present
Custom House system--
1. The Tea is much damaged by exposure.
2. The quantity found is _always_ less than the actual.
Now as to No. 1. When we consider how damp the London atmosphere is
at the best, how in foggy days it teems with moisture, is it not very
certain that Teas exposed to it, often for days, deteriorate? What
care we take in India heating before packing--carefully with lead
and solder, excluding all air--and then the Teas on arrival here are
treated as above! It is simply monstrous.
The following extract from a letter to _Home and Colonial Mail_ sets
out the case forcibly:--
The blame ought not entirely to be laid upon the planter, however,
for certain facts have come to our knowledge during the present week
as regards the manner in which Indian Teas are bulked at some of
the London warehouses, which somewhat explains how depreciation in
quality comes about. We bought several breaks of Tea in the sales
this week, which were stated to be bulked and ready for sampling six
days before the sale; and yet we know for a fact that some of those
very Teas were not put back into the chest till the day after the
sale, if even then. More or less moisture is always to be found in
the London atmosphere, particularly in rainy weather, and there can
be no question that incalculable injury would be done to a fine Tea
by seven days’ exposure on the floor of a warehouse. The damage and
loss falls entirely on the buyer. The effects of it are not seen at
once, but there can be little doubt that a gradual depreciation sets
in, consequent on the absorption of moisture. No redrying process
follows; the Tea is simply filled back into the chests when seven
days of neglect have done what mischief is possible. Is it to be
wondered at that samples drawn from such a break of Tea a few months
after it has been bulked in London will have lost all their freshness
and malty smell?
J. C. TAYLOR AND COLMAN.
I have no reason to think the delay above is very unusual, and I must
add to the above, that when the chests are closed no attempt is made
even to cover the top with lead, much less to resolder it. Some paper
on top is all attempted. I need say no more to prove that the quality
of Indian Teas is _most_ seriously damaged at the Custom House.
Now as to No. 2. The loss in quantity to producer.
The following article, which I wrote to the _Indian Tea Gazette_ in
1881, shows how invariable the loss must be:--
The loss of Tea by the mode adopted at the Custom House in England is
great.
When Teas are sold at Calcutta, though the English Custom House
regulations do not then affect us immediately, they do so indirectly.
If purchasers in Calcutta gain by our Teas, they will bid more; if
they lose, they will bid less. Besides, many Teas are sold in London.
To understand what follows, it is necessary to remember that--
Garden Invoices _never_ go to Custom House. Custom House arrives at
weight of Tea by weighing the package for “gross,” and then turning
out Tea, weighing box, lead, nails, iron hooping, in fact all but
Tea, for “tare;” gross weight, minus tare, is the weight of Tea they
demand duty on, and the weight so found by Custom House is all the
producer or importer gets paid for.[106] It follows, therefore, that
the less Tea declared by Customs means a loss to producer and a gain
to buyer. To the latter in two ways, _viz._, less Tea to pay for
than is really there, and a saving of 6d. per lb. duty! But to show,
now, how the loss occurs. When weighing for gross, the fractions of
a pound are discarded; when weighing for tares, the pounds above the
actual weight are written. The _greatest_ loss that can occur by
this method, on one package, is 1 pound 14 ounces of Tea. It (this
greatest loss) _must_ always occur when the gross is 1 ounce short of
a pound, and the tare 1 ounce more than the pound.
NO. 1 EXAMPLE.
Gross and tare can be put at any figures as to pounds. It will always
come out the same. Say, therefore,
lbs. oz.
Gross 132 15} actual weights taken at
Tare (deducted) 37 1} Custom House.
----------
Actual Tea in chest 95 14
By rule quoted the gross and tare weights are set down at Custom
House--
lbs.
Gross 132
Tare (deducted) 38
-----
Actual Tea thus paid for = 94 pounds--on which duty is also paid.
Therefore the loss on the chest is 1 pound 14 ounces.
The _least_ loss that can take place (when ounces occur in gross and
tare) is 2 ounces. To insure this the gross must be 1 ounce more than
the pound, and the tare 1 ounce below.
NO. 2 EXAMPLE.
Say any figures in pounds.
lbs. oz.
Gross 133 1} actual weights taken at
Tare (deducted) 36 15} Custom House.
--------
Actual Tea in chest 96 2
========
But again, by rule quoted, it is written by Customs--
lbs.
Gross 133
Tare (deducted) 37
-----
Actual Tea paid for 96 pounds, on which duty is also paid.
=====
Therefore the loss on chest is 2 ounces only.
Now did weights turn out the same in London that they were on the
garden, we could, by doing as in last example, insure only the above
trifling 2 ounce loss. But it is _not_ so. The wood dries and thus
makes both the gross and tare less. The loss then comes out anything
between 2 ounces and 1 pound 14 ounces.
I find the following simple rule will give the exact loss on each and
every weight of both gross and tare.
_Rule._--Add the ounces above a pound in the gross to the ounces
short of a pound in the tare. The sum of the two, in ounces, will be
the loss of Tea on the package.
This is only part of the article. I break off here to add a few remarks
more appropriate now than what I then wrote.
There are means by which this varying loss, of which the maximum is
1 pound 14 ounces, can be reduced to 4 ounces only on each and every
chest.
I admit the procedure is scarcely practical, but as nothing can
demonstrate better the absurdity of the system as pursued at the
Customs, I give it here.
How can we insure the _least_ loss, taking into consideration the fact
that the weights of both the gross and tare, because of the wood drying
and lightening in transit, can never come out the same at the Custom
House in London as they were on the garden.
We can do it thus: the Tea if well packed in a chest in no way
alters in weight during transit. If dry, when put up, it cannot
become lighter; if the leaden covering is air-tight, it can absorb
no moisture, which would of course make it heavier. I therefore beg
the question that it is a _fixed_ quantity, for it must be so if well
packed.
We have therefore only to consider the gross and the tare, and, as
shown, the loss in Tea, varying from 2 ounces to 1 pound 14 ounces,
depends entirely on the weights these are found to be at the Custom
House. In other words, if we can insure the gross there being but
little over any even number of pounds, and the tare there being but
little below any other even number of pounds, we attain (approximately)
the least loss we can be mulcted in.
Begging the question that we can add to, or detract from, the gross
weight of each chest in the Custom House (before it is put into the
scales by the officer there) by the addition or subtraction of a few
nails if the weight is nearly what we want, or pieces of hoop iron if
the actual varies much from the desired weight--I say, if we can do
this, we can insure approximately the minimum of loss. I go to show how
this is to be done.
Pack the Tea in the usual way, but whatever the quantity it is desired
to put into the chest (it can be varied with each class, for it matters
not what the weight is in pounds) add to it 4 ounces, and be very
careful that the whole weight of Tea is exactly the number of pounds
required, plus 4 ounces--for the whole success of the plan depends on
this weight being exact. Nothing more is required to be done at the
Factory than has been done hitherto, for it matters not one straw,
as regards the success of the plan, what the gross and tare of each
package is, nor what the weight of Tea is, as long as exactly 4 ounces
above an even number of pounds is there; neither does it signify how
much the wood lightens in transit, and thus decreases the weights which
were found at Factory for gross and tare.
The next step must be taken at the Custom House in London. Let the
importer or the producer’s agent attend and weigh each package himself
nicely, any time before the weights are to be taken by the Customs.
Then let him _make_ each package 2 ounces above the even number of
pounds. This will be easy enough, by the addition or subtraction of
a few nails or hoop iron. For instance, suppose the chest to weigh
140 pounds 6 ounces, he would take away nails or hoop iron weighing
4 ounces. If it weighed 140 pounds 13 ounces, he would, by adding 5
ounces more nails or hoop iron, make it 141 pounds 2 ounces. All would
then be finished, and each and every package so treated would give a
loss in Tea of 4 ounces only.
If my plan could be carried out (as the minimum loss otherwise is 2
ounces, and the maximum 1 pound 14 ounces the mean is one pound),
we save a loss of the said pound on _each_ chest, minus the loss we
compound for, _viz._, 4 ounces. That is to say, we gain 12 ounces on
each package which, in a break of 2 or 3 hundred chests, means a good
deal to the producer or Customs!
I will give one example in figures. Any other possible figures can be
tried: it will always come out the same, _if_ the weight of Tea is
exactly 4 ounces above any given number of pounds.
NO. 3. EXAMPLE.
lbs. oz.
Results at Garden. Tea, any number of pounds
with 4 ounces added (say) 100 4
Tare (any figure) (say) 43 6
-------
Gross at Garden 143 10
-------
The wood lightens in transit any amount (it is immaterial),
say 15 ounces.
lbs. oz.
The weights at the Custom House {Gross 142 11
then become {Tare 42 7
-------
Weight Tea as before 100 4
-------
At Custom House (as detailed) by adding 7 ounces
of nails or hoop iron make lbs. oz.
Gross 143 2
The tare will thereby necessarily be}
increased 7 oz. and become } Tare 42 14
-------
Weight tea as before 100 4
-------
lbs.
These weights are written at {Gross 143
Custom House {Tare 43
----
Weight of Tea found by Customs is 100 pounds
which is a loss of 4 ounces only as stated.
Were the plan feasible, the gain to the Indian planters would be
large. Say this year (1883), fifty-seven million pounds are imported,
and ninety pounds per chest is taken as the average, this gives over
600,000 chests, and 12 ounces saved on each = 450,000 pounds, of Tea,
which at 12 annas per pound, Rs. 3,37,000.
The gain to the Customs would be 450,000 sixpences = £11,250.
This increase to the Customs would be attained by simply (though still
keeping under the actual weight of Tea in each chest) taking the
contents more correctly.
The above shows, if figures will show anything, that a great loss to
both the producer and Customs takes place by the system in vogue. As
the only object of the Customs _should_ be to arrive at the true weight
of Tea in the most expeditious and simple way, how very absurd is the
system pursued! What the _tare_ is can in no way signify to them; all
they really want is the weight of the Tea. The absurdity of the system
is proved by the fact (demonstrated) that the results to both producer
and Customs _can_ be altered by the addition or subtraction in the
Custom-house of a few nails! How easy to weigh the Tea itself! What
possible objection can exist?
The Indian Tea Districts Association having failed to move the Customs,
have quite lately addressed the following Memorial to the Secretary of
State for India:--
TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL OF KIMBERLEY, HER MAJESTY’S
SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA.
The Petition of the Indian Tea Districts Association sheweth--
That your Petitioners are a body representing the interests connected
with the cultivation of Tea in British India, in which enterprise
British capital to the extent of over fifteen millions sterling has
been invested.
That the industry dates from the year 1838, when the first
consignment of Indian Tea, consisting of 456 lbs., reached the London
market.
That the imports of Indian Tea for the year ending 30th June,
1882, were 49,503,000 lbs., having a value of more than £3,300,000
sterling; while the estimated importation for the current season
is upwards of 55,000,000 lbs., or fully one-third of the entire
consumption of the United Kingdom for the year.
That the contribution to the Revenue accruing from Customs’ import
duty on the above quantity of Tea will exceed a million and a quarter
sterling.
That the whole of this large quantity is manufactured and packed on
between 2,700 and 2,800 separate estates, situated on various parts
of H.M.’s Indian dominions.
That the boxes in which the Teas are packed are in great part made
of such wood as can be obtained on the several estates, or purchased
from the neighbouring Forest Department, and it is very important on
economic grounds, as also in the manifest interests of the districts,
that this should be exclusively the case.
That it has been found, under these conditions, practically
impossible to meet the imperative Custom-house standard of close
uniformity of tare weight when the chests reach the Bonded Warehouses
here.
That your Petitioners have reason to complain of the system of
weighing the Teas in the said warehouses for the purpose of levying
the duty.
That the present system of weighing is to weigh each package in the
gross, then to turn out the contents, weigh the empty case, and thus
arrive at the nett weight of the contents.
That the only exception to this rule is when the package, _i.e._, the
empty cases, in a Break closely approximate in weight.
That by the said system of weighing, two serious injuries are
inflicted on the grower and importer of Indian Tea, viz.:--
In the first place, a loss of weight is sustained by the fractions
over the even pound in both gross and tare being given against the
seller, and in favour of the buyer, amounting, it may be, to 1 lb.
15 oz., or an average of about 1 lb. in every package weighing over
28 lbs. gross, in addition to the usual trade allowance of 1 lb. per
package.
Secondly, and by far the more serious grievance, very great injury
is caused to the Teas by the process of turning them out of the
packages, in which they arrive hermetically sealed, for the purpose
of weighing the empty packages. The Teas are thus exposed to the
atmosphere, the humidity of which they readily absorb, and sustain
further serious injury and depreciation by breakage from rough
handling in the process of repacking: the lead linings also are so
torn in the process as to be rendered comparatively useless for the
purpose for which they were intended, eliciting loud complaints from
the trade of the rapid loss of condition of the Teas.
That the concession of this Petition, by rendering it unnecessary to
turn out more than a small percentage of the chests to test the correct
weight of contents, would admit of the Teas being bulked in India;
and while it would free the industry from an injurious and vexatious
restriction, and admit of the Teas reaching the consumer in a purer and
sounder condition, it would also greatly simplify and reduce the work
of the Customs.
That the foregoing statistics significantly demonstrate the importance
of the Indian Tea industry to both England and India, and constitute a
claim to the favourable consideration of both Governments, especially
that of India, on the ground of the benefit accruing to the districts
in which it is conducted, and the increment of State revenue to which
it has directly and indirectly conduced.
That having regard to the existing close and hardening competition
with China, Japan, and other Tea producing countries, your Petitioners
naturally feel aggrieved that the important industry they represent
should be hampered in the contest by the restrictive and superfluous
impediment forming the subject of their petition.
That your Petitioners have unsuccessfully urged on the Commissioners
of Her Majesty’s Customs the adoption of this change of system, and
therefore venture to address your Lordship.
That your Petitioners beg to refer to the accompanying copies of
correspondence between the Association and the Commissioners of Her
Majesty’s Customs annexed to this Petition.
That the accompanying Memorial signed by the leading mercantile firms
and others in Calcutta, interested in the growth and export of Indian
Tea, is an illustration of the feeling in India on the subject of this
Petition.
Your Petitioners therefore pray--
That your Lordship will kindly take such steps as may be necessary to
secure for your Petitioners the relief sought for.
And your Petitioners will ever pray, &c.
T. D. FORSYTH,
Chairman of the Association.
ERNEST TYE,
Secretary.
The following reply was received:--
INDIA OFFICE, S.W.,
28th February, 1883.
SIR,--I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council
to acknowledge the receipt of the Memorial addressed to the EARL
OF KIMBERLEY by the Indian Tea Districts Association, respecting
the method of weighing Indian Tea at the Custom House. In reply, I
am to inform you that the Memorial has been forwarded to the Lords
Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, with the expression of LORD
KIMBERLEY’S hope that whatever is practicable may be done to remedy
the grievance complained of by the memorialists in the interests of
the Indian Tea trade.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
(Signed) J. K. CROSS.
The Secretary, Indian Tea Districts Association.
It is possible, therefore, that some improvement will now be
accomplished.[107]
But at the CRUTCHED FRIARS Warehouse (belonging to the East and West
India Docks) a great advance has already been made. The Tea there is
now bulked, and re-packed by machinery. The Directors most kindly
invited me to come and witness the process. I went, and was more than
pleased with what I saw. The machinery, and all connected with the
process, is so well described in an article in the _Home and Colonial
Mail_, I cannot do better than give it here:--
TEA BULKING AT THE EAST AND WEST INDIA DOCK COMPANY’S WAREHOUSES, IN
CRUTCHED FRIARS.
It is not a little strange that the importance of effecting
improvements in the present system of Tea bulking, which has
exercised the minds of Tea growers and importers so much of late,
should have hitherto been neglected or ignored by the proprietors of
the various bonded warehouses in London wherein the Tea is bulked
and stored. That Tea may be, and only too commonly is, bulked by an
antiquated and unsatisfactory process is a fact which is well known
to all who are interested in the matter. How this result is arrived
at will be seen later on; at present we desire to show that at least
at one warehouse the question has received the attention which it
deserves, and to explain, so far as may be possible, the steps which
have been taken in the matter.
It is, then, that old and powerful body, the East and West India Dock
Company, who have taken up the matter. At the instance of Mr. Du Plat
Taylor, the able and energetic secretary of the company, supported
by the equally energetic warehouse superintendent, Mr. Robert Adams,
the arrangements for bulking Tea at the warehouse of the Company have
been very greatly improved. More than this; there has been invented
and set up a special and very ingenious machine for the bulking of
Tea in a manner which avoids all the failings of the old system. What
this machine is, and what its peculiar merits are, will best, and
perhaps only, be clearly understood by a brief description of the
two systems as we lately saw them in operation at the warehouses of
the company in Crutched Friars, which we may mention are nearer than
any others to Mincing-lane, an advantage securing to planters and
importers the certainty that their Teas will be sampled by the trade
generally.
Under the old system, then, each chest of a break, after having been
subjected to certain preliminary formalities, is opened, and the
Tea turned out in a heap on the floor of the warehouse. When this
is done the Tea is bulked by means of wooden spades, each spadeful
being thrown to the top of the central heap, so that it falls over
and on all sides. Here the Tea lies until it is placed back again in
the chests after they are tared, there being a considerable interval
at some of the London warehouses between the bulking and refilling.
The refilling is thus accomplished. The Tea is first put into bags
and weighed on a machine at the side of the bulk. The bag and chest
are then taken off the weighing machine and the contents of the bag
are emptied into the chest. The Tea, however, requires some pressure
to force it into the chest, and this pressure is obtained by an
expedient of a very primitive kind. When the chest is partly filled
a man gets in and presses down the Tea by treading on it. So soon as
the Tea is all in the chest the package is properly secured, and the
operation is completed.
Now the serious faults of this plan are at once apparent. In the
first place the Tea, being in heaps on the floor of the warehouse
with a large surface exposed to the atmosphere, runs the risk of
losing a great deal of its freshness and aroma, this risk being
largely increased by the doors of the warehouse being kept open in
order to discharge or to receive merchandise in all weathers. No
atmospheric influences are calculated to benefit Tea. Then, again,
the shovelling of the Tea by means of wooden spades, and the treading
into the chests, can hardly do otherwise than injure the Tea--the
filling in a minor degree and the treading to a more serious extent,
the result being, of course, that the Tea is depreciated.
The East and West India Dock Company have made the best of this
primitive method of Tea bulking. In the first place it is insisted
on in their warehouses that previous to trampling the Tea into the
chests, a cloth shall be placed over it to preserve it from the dirt
of the man’s boots, and to some extent from injury--a precaution
which, strange as it may seem, is not taken in every bonded
warehouse. Then, again, Mr. Adams, the warehouse superintendent--who
could hardly have the interests of planters and importers more at
heart were he “in Tea” himself--uses his best endeavours to refill
the boxes with as little delay as possible, and thus to prevent it
from being injured by undue exposure to the atmosphere. He also keeps
the floors of the warehouse as clean as practicable. But feeling
that the best efforts, however well devised, and however strenuously
carried out, must necessarily be attended with but partial success,
the East and West India Dock Company have erected--as has already
been mentioned--a Tea bulking machine, a device which is ingenious
and meritorious, and which seems to be, so far as it has been tried,
a great success.
This machine, designed by Mr. Tydeman, of the company’s engineering
staff, and constructed under his supervision, consists, firstly, of
a large hollow revolving drum weighing nearly two and a-half tons,
and of sufficient capacity to thoroughly bulk about 50 chests of Tea.
The drum is made to hold about 100 chests of Tea, which leaves ample
space for the bulking of the above quantity. Inside this drum are
frames fitted at intervals with iron rods, and extending at varying
angles from the axle of the drum to its extremity. Externally the
drum has two openings for the reception of the Tea, and two smaller
ones for its discharge. In a line with the axle of the drum, some
height from the floor, is a platform to which the chests are conveyed
by a double lift which simultaneously ascends with a full chest and
brings down an empty one. Adjuncts to the machine are a weighing
machine, a presser, and four beaters--of the two latter the nature
and object will be immediately apparent. The process of bulking
as effected by this machine is briefly as follows: The drum being
revolved till its receiving openings are level with the platform,
a chest of Tea is raised, as before explained, and the contents
examined on the door of the drum, which falls back into a horizontal
position for that purpose, then by closing the tray or door the Tea
is passed into the drum. The lift then brings up another full chest
and takes down the emptied one, which is at once taken to a scale for
taring purposes, and so the process is continued till the break is
exhausted. This filling process can be carried on at both sides of a
drum at once, as there are two openings and two lifts. The Tea being
in, the drum is made to revolve, when the iron frames thoroughly mix
the Tea in a very few revolutions--three would suffice.
The drum has now to be emptied, and this operation is effected in
the following manner:--The revolution of the drum is stopped when
the openings through which the Tea is released are brought over the
weighing machines--there are two for greater expedition--on which are
placed the chests ready to receive it. The delivery doors (worked
by levers) being opened, the Tea is allowed to descend till the
chest is about half full, when the presser and beaters are brought
into play by hydraulic pressure. The presser is a piece of flat
iron about an inch in thickness, removable at pleasure, and varies
in size to fit either a chest or a box. The beaters are four pieces
of the same metal, which support the chest so soon as it is on the
weighing machine. When the chest is partly filled, the beaters are
released, and, by the action of a wheel, are made to strike all four
sides of the chest, and thus shake the Tea down. The presser is
also brought down to press the Tea in. The action of both of these
agents can be regulated to any required degree of force. Thus by
degrees the chest is filled, and (the supporting beaters having been
released and the presser raised) is weighed and ultimately removed.
Such, in brief, is the action of the new Tea bulking machine. One
or two points, however, remain to be mentioned. The power by which
the machine is actuated is hydraulic. The presser will not injure
the Tea. The beaters serve the triple purpose of holding the chest
in position on the weighing machine, of supporting it should it be
of weak construction, and of materially assisting the repacking of
the Tea. The beating action does not in any way injure the chests.
Our readers will also be pleased to know that certain very marked
improvements even upon the above described are already in hand by
this Dock Company--improvements which will greatly increase the value
and usefulness of their machinery for bulking Teas.
To descant on the advantages over the old system of bulking which are
possessed by the machine which has been described would be little
better than a waste of time. Yet some few points may be briefly
referred to. First, cleanliness is secured, for from first to last
the Tea is never touched by hand or foot. Again, the Tea cannot be
injured, nor can it lose its aroma, for it is never exposed to the
atmosphere at all. Instead of being allowed to lie on the floor
of the warehouse for any period, the entire process of bulking is
completed without break or delay. The Directors of the East and West
India Dock Company are not, of course, so sanguine as to imagine that
the old system of bulking will be at once abandoned; indeed, they
have, as has been mentioned, taken steps to improve that system;
they do, however, think that it should be abandoned, and to that end
have adopted the Tea Bulking Machinery as an alternative, and an
immeasurably superior process. That they are justified in this view
there can be no doubt in the minds of those who have witnessed both
the systems in operation.
The said machinery is at the CRUTCHED FRIARS Warehouse alone, and it
is, of course, very desirable the machinery should be adopted in all
Tea warehouses. This end will be quickly brought about if those who
send their Tea home, and the importers here, insist on their Tea being
sent to this one warehouse that has the machinery.
What an advantage to owners and managers of Tea estates is the fact
that Tea bulked by machinery at CRUTCHED FRIARS is not exposed to the
changeable English atmosphere, or at least not for more than a few
minutes, and consequently is not so likely to be classed as “flat.”
How many planters are there who, after taking especial care in the
manufacture of their crop, find to their chagrin that on arrival in
London (and after exposure probably for some days), the shipment is
described as “flat,” and worth so many pence per lb. less than if the
atmospheric exposure had not occurred.
It appears to me that very little, added to the help this new machinery
gives, would now do away with _all_ the injury the producer and the Tea
has hitherto borne in the Customs. So much has now been accomplished
by this machinery, the Tea is well bulked, and _receives no injury
whatever thereby_. But two further improvements are required:--
1. That the actual weight of Tea in each chest (discarding ounces)
be recorded, and that thus the loss to the producer and the Customs,
detailed above, be avoided.
2. That the lead at top of the Tea be carefully replaced and
resoldered, so that every chest shall leave the Custom House in as
good condition as it entered it.
Very little addition to the machinery detailed above would accomplish
the first. The chest ready to receive the Tea, plus the lid and top
lead (which should have been carefully removed), might be weighed on
the platform at the side of the big drum (by simply making the said
platform a weighing machine) and weighed again when filled, with the
lid and lead laid on it. The difference of the two weights would, of
course, be the weight of the Tea.
The second is a question of expense; it would not be great if done
systematically. The chest should be carefully opened, and the top lead
removed in a square piece _nearly the size of the box_. When replaced,
a narrow strip of lead, soldered down on either side, would make the
covering complete.
Justice will not be done to Indian Teas till this last is accomplished.
Who should bear the expense? The chests are received into the Customs
for the benefit of the Revenue, and who can doubt, were the question
tried in a Court of Law, that they are bound to return them in as good
condition as they were received. They do _not_, and have never done
so, and I only wonder the trade has stood it so long, and has not sued
them. Were the course I advise followed out, there would remain no
cause of complaint, and the trifling cost of soldering on the lid again
should doubtless, therefore, be borne by the Customs.
But in reality the Customs would sustain no loss--in fact, the other
way. I have shown clearly at page 278 _that were the weight of Tea
correctly recorded, the Customs would receive in duty upwards of
£11,000 each year from Indian Tea more than it does now_. To re-solder
the lids on the boxes would cost nothing like that; and highly as
Indian Tea is thought of now, how much higher still would it stand were
it not injured to the frightful extent it is in passing through the
Customs.
CONCLUSION.
I lit on the following in the _Home and Colonial Mail_ just before
going to press, and it is too pertinent to much in preceding pages to
omit:--
THE CHINA TEA TRADE.
The influence of the expansion of the Indian Tea enterprise on the
trade in China is being felt. We have more than once adverted to the
fact that the growing use of the well-flavoured Teas of India would
diminish the consumption of the better grades of China Tea, and that
the effect of the competition between the two countries would be
first seen in the falling off in the demand for so-called fine China
Tea.
The following letter, which appeared in the _Times_ Money article
lately, confirms this view, and refers to the present unsound
condition of the China Tea trade:--
“Sir,--In view of the opening of the Tea season in China, a few
remarks upon the present position and future prospects of this
important trade may not be inopportune.
“It is no secret that for some years past the losses of merchants
have been serious, and that while most of the wealthy firms so long
known as connected with China have either entirely ceased to import
Tea, or have reduced their operations to a very small compass,
the trade has been carried on by new houses possessing but little
capital, who are enabled, by the competition of the banks, to do a
large business by drawing bills on China, not only for the whole
cost of the Teas purchased, but also for their commissions on these
purchases--that is to say, for an unrivalled profit of 3 per cent.
The question, Who has so far paid the losses of the past two years?
is one that greatly exercises the minds of the trade. Many suppose
that large balances are being carried over in the books of some of
the banks, or by the Chinese, and that it is the hope of recouping
a portion of this loss that induces the banks or the Chinamen to
support those who would otherwise be obliged to relinquish the
trade. The Chinese have also a further inducement to support such
firms, since it is partly through them that those high prices are
established in China at the opening of the season which entail so
much loss afterwards. As a result of these prices, about 30 per cent.
more fine Congou is produced than (on account of the competition of
the Indian growth) can be consumed except at the price of medium Tea.
How large the excess is may be gathered from the fact that, although
5,000,000 lbs. of this class of Tea was lost last July in the
‘Moskwa’ and the ‘Fleurs Castle,’ yet stocks in Russia have increased
by about 30,000 half-chests, and there is still so large a quantity
on this market that it can only be realized at a loss of from 5_d._
to 6_d._ per lb. on the China cost; thus some Teas, said to have cost
in Hankow 1_s._ 8_d._ to 1_s._ 9_d._, have been recently sold as low
as 1_s._ 3_d._, and others costing 1_s._ 7_d._ in Foochow, have been
sold at 1_s._ 1_d._ per lb.
“It is evident from the above that merchants as a rule do not realize
the immense change that has been brought about in the conditions
of the trade by the enormous increase in the use of Indian Tea,
which now forms about one-third of the entire home consumption, and
competes mostly with the finer qualities of China congou; nor the
fact that all engaged in the trade are becoming year by year more
averse to holding stock on account of the heavy charges involved,
and the risk of deterioration in quality. Yet, as the whole twelve
months’ supply of first crop Tea arrives within three months of
the opening of the season, it is plain that some one must hold the
balance, which can only be done with safety if the Tea be bought at
a very low price.
“The one remedy for the present condition of things is that the great
bulk of the so-called fine Teas should be bought in China at their
present value on this market--viz., at about 5_d._ to 6_d._ below the
prices given for them in recent years. With the large accumulated
stocks in Russia, and consequently reduced orders from that country,
the yearly-increasing supply of Indian Tea, and the present prices
here, one would think that such a course would at once be adopted.
Unfortunately, however, so much of the Tea is bought on commission,
and the Russian agents seem so reckless as to the prices which they
give, that any such prudent action can hardly be hoped for. It would,
therefore, be wise for holders of shares in Eastern banks, as well
as all who have been in the habit of intrusting orders to buying
agents in China, to ponder the foregoing facts, which can be easily
verified by a reference to any of the trade circulars lest their
money should be lost in the crash which must certainly take place if
the past policy of Tea buyers in China be continued.--I am, &c.,
“A. B.”
Will those warned be wise in time, and not swamp the Home Market with
China Teas certain to be sold at a loss? Who can say? But “A. B.” is
evidently master of the subject, and if his advice in not taken, the
China Tea “crash” he predicts will not be a small one.
When China Teas are _not_ sent home to realise a certain loss, our
Indian Teas will have fairer play.
I cannot conclude without acknowledging the great help I have derived
from the pages of the _Tea Gazette_ in writing these additions to my
Fourth Edition.
* * * * *
Since my remarks on Ceylon were printed, I have acquired much further
information regarding the Tea industry in that island, and the
prospects certainly seem very favourable. Anyhow, there seems to be no
doubt that Ceylon for Tea offers quite as good a field as any part of
India, always supposing that good sites are selected and the area to
choose from is large.
The future market for Tea is really, as regards Ceylon, the only
doubtful point, and consequently (as at page 183) I advise the planters
there to act with caution.
Where it is proposed to put coffee lands under Tea, of course one
great advantage in economy will be gained, inasmuch as there will be
no jungle clearing or previous cultivation. But here again caution is
necessary. Make sure the soil is not worn out, for Tea, though it will
grow, will not yield largely on such.
* * * * *
_June, 1883._
P.S.--The following are the new rules lately issued by the Customs
regarding the future treatment of Indian Teas.
The weight of Indian Tea for duty may, if desired by the importers,
be ascertained under the following regulations:--
1. The Tea on arrival to be weighed to ascertain the gross weight of
each package.
2. With each entry the importer to give an endorsement of the net
contents of each package.
3. To test the accuracy of this endorsement, 10 per cent. of each
break to be turned out and weighed net.
4. If the difference between the weight given of any package and the
weight found exceeds or is less than 3 lbs., the whole parcel should
be weighed net.
5. Duty to be charged on the average weight of the packages weighed
net, unless the importer elects to weigh the whole parcel in the
usual way.
6. When the average of the packages weighed net amounts to so many
pounds and a-half, an additional pound will be charged on each of the
whole parcel; when the fraction is less than half a pound it is to be
rejected.
7. The new system to come into operation on July the 1st next.
FOOTNOTES:
[106] If tares are nearly equal, and if Teas are well bulked in India,
only some packages (about 10 per cent.) are opened, and an average tare
struck. But this in no way saves the loss in _quantity_ of Tea, though,
of course, less Tea is thus _injured_.
[107] Since I wrote the above the Customs have framed new rules for
Indian Teas. The absurd tare system is done away with.
ADDENDA
_TO THE THIRD EDITION_.
The following from the _Indian Economist_, regarding Indian Teas in
general and Neilgherry Teas in particular, is not out of place here. At
the same time I do not agree with the writer, for I believe that in the
strength and pungency of Indian Teas consists their value:--
INDIAN TEA.
“That the Teas of India have at length come to be fully appreciated
in England may be taken, we presume, as an admitted fact; and it
is of importance that planters should direct their attention to
modifying their methods of manufacture so as to suit the public
taste, and, if possible, turn out an article free from the objections
still advanced against the Indian leaf as a daily beverage. There
are, we know, those who argue that enough has been done, and that
consumers will acquire a taste for the produce of our gardens in
time; but we have daily evidence that in the most trivial matters
there is no greater tyrant than the public. It behoves those then who
cater for this tyrant to consult its taste and satisfy its demands,
however exacting and capricious they may be. The remarks we are about
to make are based on experiments and enquiries extending over some
years in this country and in England, and we leave those engaged in
the enterprise to estimate their value. All Teas grown in the plains
of India are known to the trade in London under the general name of
Assam, and are chiefly used for mixing, seldom reaching the consumer
in a pure state. When they do, the objections raised are that the
leaf is too pungent and rough for most palates; and purchasers are
in the habit of mixing it with Chinese to tone down those astringent
qualities. In other words, it wants the delicacy of flavour which
is the chief characteristic of the Chinese leaf, meaning of course
that vended by respectable houses, not the abominable trash that
formed part of the cargoes of the _Lalla Rookh_ and _Sarpedon_,
containing, according to Dr Letheby’s Analysis, ‘40 to 45 per
cent. of iron filings and 19 per cent. of silica.’ Nor is this lack
of delicacy of flavour to be lightly regarded, for the efforts of
our manufacturers have been directed unwittingly and indirectly
to foster the peculiarity, as the test of Indian Tea has hitherto
been its strength and pungency, to fit it for _salting_ weak, thin,
inferior sorts of Chinese. This is what the dealers have demanded,
and what, consequently, brokers in their turn have insisted on, with
the result that the out-turn of our Assam and Cachar plantations is
now, if anything, too powerful to suit public taste. Whether means
of manipulation may be hit upon by which aroma can be retained
without sacrificing strength, we leave those most interested to
determine; but it is worthy of note that this objection to strength
and roughness is almost confined to women, the sterner sex preferring
Assam unmixed, while the working classes of both sexes are unanimous
in favour of the unadulterated Indian article. Experiments were
further tried by substituting Neilgherry Tea, and after a short
interval the verdict of the majority was in its favour. We need
now only point out the difference in the manufacture between the
two Teas, leaving others to decide questions regarding the bearing
of climate or altitude. Up to the time of finishing rolling, the
manipulation of the leaf is identical, care being taken to retain the
juice; but that made on the hills instead of being almost immediately
placed over _choolas_ was spread out thinly on tables all night, in
a temperature of 54 deg., sustaining consequent loss of strength by
evaporation, but developing an aroma that established it at once in
favour. So successful has this Neilgherry Tea been at home, that
offers are now received by plantation proprietors for their produce
at half-a-crown per lb. free on board, in Madras. This would seem to
indicate that the aroma is generated by the action of cold upon the
damp leaf while in a state of ‘suspended fermentation;’ for, previous
to experimenting with consumers, the samples were submitted to
Mincing Lane brokers and pronounced sound, in corroboration of which
opinion the bulk from which they were taken sold at auction for 2_s._
2-1/2_d._, so that fermentation (_i.e._ sourness) had been carefully
avoided. We know that the climate of Assam and temperature of the
Tea-houses render the keeping of rolled leaf even for an hour fatal
to soundness; but should the development of this aroma be really due
to ‘suspension of fermentation’ is it not worth while adopting some
contrivance for cooling down a chamber set aside for the purpose of
spreading out the rolled leaf to the temperature required?
“The question whether delicacy is due to altitude alone and not
to manufacture might be ascertained by experiment. Let a quantity
of green leaf be sent _down_ from one of the Neilgherry gardens,
and worked up in the plains at the foot of the hills, and an equal
quantity sent _up_ from one of the Assam gardens, say to Shillong,
and manufactured on the Neilgherry principles there, and the result
then compared. This experiment would cost little and determine a not
unimportant question: for all engaged in Tea are interested in using
their best endeavours to fit it for public consumption, and to guard
it against Chinese in any shape or form whatever.”
_Note by the Author._--That “delicacy of flavour,” and “want
of strength” with it, _is_ due to altitude has long ago been
admitted, and any experiments on that head would, I think, be quite
unnecessary. The experiments as to manufacture on the Neilgherries
are interesting, and should be further looked into.
E. M.
I have at last completed experiments with a view to do away with the
use of charcoal in Tea manufacture, and I think with success.
The “Furnace Teas,” for so I purpose naming them, have in most cases
been pronounced by the Calcutta brokers to be superior to similar
samples of the same day’s leaf, made in the usual way over charcoal.
Nothing but the heat generated by _any_ fuel placed in furnaces sunk
under ground outside the Tea-house is used. No motive power of any
kind is employed. The apparatus is very simple. It is cheap to erect
and very durable in character.
As the apparatus with which the Teas up to the present time have been
made is a rude and imperfect one, having disadvantages which must
tell more or less on the excellence of the Teas so manufactured, and
as, even with these disadvantages, the Teas are pronounced by the
brokers _at least_ equal to charcoal-dried Teas, it is not too much
to hope that with a perfect apparatus (one of which will be erected
immediately) Teas will be improved in value by this new invention.
The following will be shortly the advantages of this new process,
even supposing the Teas are no better:--
1. _Economy._--This will possibly be even greater than what is set
out in the extract of the local paper below; for the fact that the
Tea is never placed over charcoal until the whole is ignited, and has
become “live charcoal,” is not there recognized, much of the caloric
thus escapes.
2. Cleanliness and absence of charcoal dust.
3. Absence of the objectionable fumes of charcoal.
4. Immunity from fire in Tea-houses.
5. Greater speed in the firing process, and the saving of all the
labour employed to make charcoal.
6. Reduced temperature in Tea-houses.
If all the advantages are, as I expect they will be, attained, the
life of a Tea planter will be more pleasant than hitherto.
The following is the opinion of the new process expressed by the
_Darjeeling News_ of 1st August:--
“It has long been a question, which all planters were desirous to
solve, if the fumes of charcoal were necessary to make Tea, that is
to say, if any chemical action was produced on the Tea by the said
fumes, and if not, whether it would not be possible to do the firing
in some other and far cheaper way.
“The question has, we believe, been solved by Colonel Edward Money,
and if so, for the invention is quite a new one, a boon of great
magnitude will have been conferred on the Tea interest of India. We
congratulate this district as being the birthplace of the improvement.
“The apparatus at present in use at Soom, and which we have seen
working, is a rough and crude one made on the spot. This, and the
more perfect plans from which larger and better ones are to be made,
are readily shown by Colonel Money to anyone visiting Soom; but until
the invention is patented, it is not well to describe it in print.
Suffice if we say the invention is a remarkably simple one--cheap to
erect--durable in its character, and the working thereof unattended
with any expense whatever, beyond the cost of the fuel (which may
be of any kind), and which of course will be many times less than
charcoal.
“If true, as we hear, that it takes 3-1/2 maunds of wood generally
to make one maund of charcoal, and if also true, as Colonel Money
suggests, that the caloric in one maund of wood equals the caloric
in two maunds of charcoal, it then follows that each maund of wood,
put into Colonel Money’s furnace, equals seven maunds of wood to make
charcoal.
“Of course the above are more or less random figures, but they
suffice to show that the saving of fuel will be very great--a boon
of course to planters, but a boon also to the Forest Department and
to India.
“We knew of the invention some time back, but we forbore to notice
it until the brokers’ reports on the Tea so made had been received.
We have now seen these. Samples of ‘charcoal’ and ‘furnace’ Tea were
sent down, made from the same leaf, the same day, and manufactured
in one up to the “firing” process. Two brokers give the higher value
to the furnace Tea, one to the charcoal kind--but the difference is
small.
“We believe, as one of our most experienced planters, who has tasted
the Teas, been to Soom, and seen the brokers’ reports, says, that
‘the Tea dried by the furnace apparatus will be _at least_ equal to
that prepared over charcoal.’
“As Colonel Money is already known as an authority in Tea, and as
he has stated to us his belief that ‘charcoal days’ for Tea are
now at an end, we await with confidence the ultimate success of
his invention, which even if it makes no better Tea will certainly
make it far cheaper, while the dirt from charcoal dust will be done
away with, the temperature of the Tea-houses much reduced, and the
deleterious fumes of charcoal, so very objectionable from a sanitary
point of view in Tea manufacture, will be known no more.”
Again, 29th August, a month later, the _Darjeeling News_ further
remarks:--
“We alluded recently to Colonel Money’s very ingenious plan for
drying Tea without charcoal. Since then his apparatus has been
in full work at Soom, and has been inspected by numbers of the
Darjeeling planters, one and all of whom have, we understand,
reported most favourably on its working. Samples of Tea manufacture
have been from time to time sent to Calcutta brokers for their
opinion, and reports have been received from fifteen, of whom seven
are in favour of Tea made by the old charcoal process, seven are in
favour of the new furnace process, and one reports that the Tea made
by each process is exactly the same.
“Colonel Money is now taking steps to erect his improved furnace,
which will be in working order by the end of September, and the whole
October crop of Soom Tea will be fired by the new furnace.
“Colonel Money has applied for a patent, and as soon as this is
granted we hope to give our readers a description of the apparatus.
For obvious reasons it would not be advisable to do so before then.
We may mention here that one of the most intelligent and practical
planters in this district has ordered one of Colonel Money’s flues
for his private garden.
“Of the commercial success of Colonel Money’s apparatus we have no
doubt whatever, and we trust that Colonel Money will reap a handsome
profit from his very ingenious invention, which will be an undoubted
boon not only to this district, but to all the Tea-producing
districts of India.
“One point which has struck us as good in Colonel Money’s apparatus
is that the temperature of the Tea-house is considerably lowered
during the firing process as compared with the open _chulas_, and
that there is no free carbonic acid gas allowed to escape into the
Tea-house, so that those very unpleasant symptoms of slow poisoning
which often show themselves in planters and Tea-makers will be
unknown in future. At our suggestion Colonel Money has decided to
keep a register of the maximum temperature of the Tea-house, whilst
the open _chulas_ continue in use, and to compare it with the
temperature when the new apparatus has superseded them, also to test
for free carbonic acid gas in the air with each process.
“We are convinced that when the figures are available our readers
will be rather astonished at the difference from a sanitary point of
view.
“On the whole, we think that Colonel Money’s invention is by far the
most important application of _common sense_ and scientific knowledge
to Tea manufacture that we have yet seen, and we are almost certain
that his apparatus will before long be adopted throughout the Indian
Tea districts.”[108]
FOOTNOTE:
[108] Note to Third Edition.--No. The furnace has been erected but
on two or three gardens. Other inventions have since been brought
forward, and the whole matter is still in an uncertain state--I mean
as to which of the several apparatuses is the best. I believe in mine
still, and intend to erect it on the Western Dooar Gardens in which I
am interested, but, of course, I am not an impartial judge! One thing,
however, I lay claim to, and that is, that I was the first to show by
practical results that the fumes of charcoal are in no way necessary to
make Tea.
Note to Fourth Edition.--Since the above note was written (now five
years ago) many Tea Drying Machines have been invented (see pages 240
to 259), and I most willingly admit they are _all_ better than my
furnace apparatus. The first inventor rarely attains perfection, and
as in my case, he generally labours for the benefit of those who come
after!--EDWARD MONEY.
INDEX.
Area required for a garden, 2
-- large, a mistake, 2
Boxes, 147
-- cost of, 161
Climate, 14
-- in each district, 14 to 25
-- wanted, 14
-- rainfall, 14, 28
-- rain table, 28
-- temperature table, 26
-- elevation table, 26
-- cold, 14
-- hot winds, 14
-- affects flavour of tea, 15
-- good for tea, bad for man, 15, 35
Cultivation, 81
-- what is it, 81
-- when a waste of labour, 81
-- by digging round each plant, 82
-- weeds not to get ahead, 83
-- Dutch hoe for, 83
-- cost each operation per acre, 84
-- cost of, to 6th year, 84
-- cost of in full bearing, 85
Districts, 13
-- which best, 30
-- rainfall in, 28
-- cold in, 26
-- of Assam, 15
-- of Cachar, 16
-- of Chittagong, 16
-- of Terai below Darjeeling, 18
-- of Dehra Dhoon, 18
-- of Kangra, 19
-- of Darjeeling, 20
-- of Kumaon, 22
-- of Gurhwal, 24
Districts of Hazareebaugh, 24
-- of Neilgherries, 24
-- of Western Dooars, 25
-- meteorological table of, 26
-- comparative advantages of, 30
-- soil of, 13 to 25
-- jungle of, 13 to 25
-- lay of land of, 13 to 25
-- price waste lands in, 4
-- elevation of, 26
-- temperature of, 26
Distances for plants, 72
-- table of, 72
-- regulated by class, 72
-- best, 72
Flushes, 97
-- number of, 97 to 101
-- way formed, 104
-- differ in districts, 98
-- intervals between, 99
Hills and Plains--
-- comparison of, chap. iii.
-- high elevations bad, do.
-- table of elevation, 26
Jungle, 34
-- what best in Himalayas, 34
-- not of much consequence in Bengal, 34
Jungle, coarse grass, 34
-- cutting, 75
Labour, 10
-- local, 10, 11, 12
-- imported, 10, 11, 12
-- government action, 10, 11
-- cost of imported, 10
Labour in tea districts, chap. iii.
Laying out a garden, 42
Lay of land and aspect, 37
-- flat, sloping, steep, 7, 13, 35
-- aspect, 39
-- valleys, 40
-- narrow valleys, 40
Lay of land and selection of steep land, 7, 37
-- disadvantages of steep land, 37
-- lines on steep land, 46
-- plants close on steep land, 45
Leaf-picking, 102
-- principles of, 102
-- diagram of shoot, 104
-- teas made from each leaf, 107
-- cannot make separate teas in practice, 107
-- pruning connected with, 102
-- mistakes in, 42
-- how shoots form, 104
-- mode of, 104
Manufacture, 109
-- importance of good, 109
-- old and new plan, 110
-- withering, 110, 111, 123
-- rolling, 111, 112
-- panning, 109, 112
-- sunning, 112, 128
-- tea, how judged, 113
-- Pekoe tips, 105, 106, 114, 115, 116, 122
-- strong teas and Pekoe tips incompatible, 116
-- fermenting or colouring, 127
-- firing or dholing, 128
-- of flowery Pekoe, 130
Manufacture of green tea, 130, 144
-- sifting and sorting, 134, 135, 136, 161
-- sieves, 135
-- Chinese sieves best, 135
-- classes of tea, 137
-- cost of, 160
-- ignorance of, 7
Manufacture, coarse leaf, 126
-- burntness, 143
Manure, 67
-- advantages of, 17, 67
-- how to apply, 68
-- quantity, 69
-- cost of, 69
-- kinds of, 67
-- results of, 69
Management, accounts, forms, 152
-- what qualities required for a Manager, 152
-- forms, 153
-- accounts, 158
Making a garden, 73
-- general instructions for, 73
Mechanical contrivances, 116
-- McMeekin’s rolling table, 116
-- Kinmond’s rolling machine, 116
-- Nelson’s rolling machine, 118
-- Jackson’s rolling machine, 116
-- McMeekin’s drawers, 119
-- Money’s furnace, 121, 296
-- sifting machines, 121
-- machine required to separate the leaves, 122
-- packing machines, 121
Miscellaneous:--
Transport, chap. iii.
-- in each district, chap. iii.
Green tea, 21, 130, 144
Stagnant water, 40
Inundation, 40
Sections, 42
Yield, 43, 170
Lines of plants, 45, 46
Roads, 45
Relative price green and black teas, 133
Yield first 10 years, 170
Necessities for tea, 173, 180
Past, present, and future of Indian tea, 174
Strange facts about tea, 174
Imports, 177
Annual consumption, 177
Collapse of tea speculation, 178
Share list to-day, 179
Money matters: will tea pay?, 1
-- why has it not paid sometimes?, 1, 6
-- cause of failures, 1 to 8
-- wilful extensions, 6
-- price paid for gardens, 8
-- faulty area sold, 8
-- cost of making a 300-acre garden, 163
-- how much profit tea can give, 168
-- table, result 300 acres for 12 years, 172
Packing, 147
-- lead case for, 147
-- larger each break the better, 151
-- cost of, 161
Planting at stake, 59
-- advantages of, 57
-- disadvantages of, 58
-- mode of, 59
Pruning, 86
-- time for, 86
-- instruments for, 87
-- height to prune, 88
-- cost of, 88
Sale Lands, Waste Lands--
-- sale waste lands, 3
-- auction system, 3
-- price waste lands, 4
-- title, 4
Sanitation, 35
Seed, 54
-- transport of, 55
-- price of, 7
-- shade, natural, 62
-- do. artificial, 64
-- how to sow, 57
-- when ripe, 54
-- treatment of, 54
Seed as manure, 55
-- number in 1 maund, 56
-- proportions that germinate, 56
-- Government gave seed, 51
-- indigenous hybrid and China alike, 51
-- how to increase, 55
-- nurseries or stake planting best, 57
Soil, 31
-- only general rules for, 31
-- sandy, 31
-- greasy, 32
-- poor, 32
-- Ball on, 32
-- friable and porous, 32
-- in Tea districts, 13, 25, 31
-- clay, 33
-- decayed vegetation, 33
-- for seed beds, 62
Transplanting, 76
-- holes for, 59, 76
-- mode of, 77
-- results of bad, 77
-- when to be finished, 78
-- best days for, 79
Vacancies, 92
-- difficult to fill up, 92
-- why difficult, 92
-- best plan to fill up, 92
-- large proportion of, 6
Varieties of tea plants, 47
White-ants, Crickets, Blight, 89
-- harm done by crickets, 89
-- harm done by white-ants, 90
-- harm done by blight, 91
-- remedies for crickets, 90
-- do. white-ants, 91
-- do. blight, 91
Weeds, 82
-- ahead of labour, 83
INDEX
_TO THE ADDITIONS IN FOURTH EDITION._
Agricultural machinery, 223
America, 185, 204, 205, 209
Amsterdam Exhibition, 202 to 211
Any fuel _versus_ charcoal, 239, 258
Australia, 201, 202, 204, 205, 207 to 209
Brick tea, 212
Calcutta Syndicate, 202, 206, 208, 210, 211, 212, 214
China tea trade, 288
China, 194 to 198, 201 to 207, 210 to 212, 288
Consumption of China and Indian Tea, 201
Continent of Europe, 202, 211
Damage to tea by procedure in London, 272, 273
Darby’s digger, 225
Date of commencement of tea cultivation in each district, 194
Deliveries and stocks, 195, 197 to 201
Discovery of indigenous tea, 194
Dryers, by Robertson, the Typhoon, 240, 241
„ Allen, 242
„ Davidson, the Sirocco, 243, 244
„ Gibbs and Barry, 244
„ Shand, 244, 245, 246
„ Jackson, 246 to 248
„ Kinmond, 248 to 257
Fermenting Shelves, 239, 258
First tea in India, 194
Greatest and least possible loss by Custom House procedure, 274, 275
Green tea, 203, 204
Himalayan gardens, 212
Hoop iron, 271
How loss by Custom House procedure could be avoided, 275 to 278
Imports into Great Britain, 194, 195, 198 to 200, 203
Increase of Indian Imports into Great Britain, 195
Indian produce for 1883, 195
Indian _versus_ China tea, 219
Jebens’ transplanter, 223
Local market in India, 213 to 218
Loss of tea by procedure in London, 272, 273
Loss on China teas, 288 to 290
Machinery, 222 to 271
Making Indian tea known in United Kingdom, 218 to 221
Manufacturing machinery, 231 to 271
Markets outside Great Britain, 207 to 217
Money loss to producers and Customs by method of weighing in vogue, 278
New mode bulking at warehouse in Crutched Friars, 282 to 286
-- required further, 287, 288
New Zealand, 205
Ornamental tin boxes by Harvey Bros. and Tyler, 266 to 271
Petition of Indian Tea Districts Association _re_ mode of weighing teas,
279 to 281
Planting pots, 223
Plantations in Northern India, 203
Ploughing, 223 to 231
Processes of manufacture, 231 to 271
Rollers by Jackson, 233, 235, 237
„ Kinmond, 233, 234, 235, 237
„ Haworth, 235, 237
„ Lyle, 236
„ Greig, 236
„ Thomson, 237, 238
Russia, 203, 211
Sifters, by Jackson, 259
„ Greig, 259
„ Pridham, 259
„ Ansell, 260 to 266
Sorter for green leaf by Greig & Co., 232
Statistics of Indian tea, 194 to 206
Tea outside China and India, 183 to 192
Ceylon, 183
Johore, 184
Japan, 185 to 188, 205, 210
Java, 188
America, 188 to 190, 201, 203, 205, 206, 208
Natal, 191
Fiji, 192
Tea consumption per head, 204, 205
_Tea Gazette_--This is alluded to in most pages, (see 290)
Thibet, 212
Weighing and bulking by Customs, 272 to 288
Weighing teas by Customs, The new rules, 290, 291
Withering machine, 232, 253, 257
W. B. WHITTINGHAM AND CO.,
PRINTERS,
91, GRACECHURCH STREET,
LONDON.
RANSOMES, HEAD & JEFFERIES,
IPSWICH & LONDON.
[Illustration]
_SOLE MANUFACTURERS_
OF
ANSELL’S PATENT TEA SORTER.
LATEST REPORT.
(From Mr. D. M. LUMSDEN, Manager of the Borelli Company’s Gardens,
through Messrs. J. WILLIAMSON & Co., London, February 8th, 1883.)
“I find that using ANSELL’S Sifter I have spent Rs. 780 less on my
sorting than last year, besides sorting 500 maunds more Tea; so I may
safely calculate that last season’s working paid for the machine.”
MANUFACTURERS ALSO OF
Portable and Fixed Engines, for burning Coal, Wood, and Vegetable
refuse.
Ploughs specially suited for Indian Agriculture.
Catalogues and all information on application to RANSOMES, HEAD &
JEFFERIES, 9, Gracechurch Street, London, and Orwell Works, Ipswich;
Mr. C. W. ANSELL, Woodcot, Kurseong, Bengal; Messrs. GILLANDERS,
ARBUTHNOT & Co., Calcutta.
BRITISH INDIA
STEAM NAVIGATION COMPANY,
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~London to Java and Queensland.~--Every 28 days. Calling at Port Said,
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~London to Kurrachee, Bombay, and Malabar Coast Ports.~--Fortnightly.
Calling at Algiers, Port Said, Suez, Aden, Kurrachee, Bombay, and
Malabar Coast Ports; and every alternate Steamer calling at Lisbon, the
latter connecting at Aden with the Company’s East African Mail Steamers
for Zanzibar, Mozambique, Quillimane, Inhambane, and Delagoa Bay.
~Calcutta to Chittagong, Akyab, Kyouk Phyoo, and Rangoon.~--Weekly.
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Singapore.~--Fortnightly.
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The Netherlands India Steam Navigation Company’s Mail Steamers for
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Passengers booked through to all Ports in India, Burmah, the Straits
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For all information apply to GRAY, DAWES & CO., 13, Austin Friars, and
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⁂ Agents to Government by Appointment for the Sale of the India Office
Publications.
_Fourth Edition, with important Additional Chapters. Price ~10~s. ~6~d._
TEA--CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE.
By Lieut.-Col. EDWARD MONEY.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE THIRD EDITION.
The ~Saturday Review~, in the course of an extended notice, says:--“We
think that Col. Money has done good service by throwing into the form
of a book an essay which gained the Prize awarded by the Agricultural
and Horticultural Society of India, in 1872. The author is one of a
well-known Anglo-Indian family.... He has had plenty of practical
experience, and has tested the labours of other men.... Col. Money’s
general rules and principles, as far as we can form a judgment, seem to
have reason as well as experience on their side.... No tea planter can
afford to disregard his experience.”
The ~Indian Agriculturist~ says:--“Col. Money has advanced with the
times, and the work under review may well be considered the standard
work on the subject, and it ought to be in every tea planter’s hand in
India, Ceylon, Java, Japan, China or America; the merit and sterling
value of his essay has been universally and deservedly acknowledged....
We recommend our readers who require full information and sound advice
on the subject to procure Col. Money’s book.”
~Allen’s Indian Mail~ says:--“The particulars of this great industry,
which comprises (Tea) Cultivation and Manufacture, are given in the
work of Col. Money. The Third Edition expanded from the original prize
Essay published in 1872, by the results of the author’s practical
experience and observations up to the present time, supplies full
details of the origin and progress of an Indian Tea Garden, and that
in a very lucid and readable form.... The publication of so thorough,
clear and instructive a directorium as Col. Money’s work is in itself a
proof of the attention devoted to this important industry, which has a
great future before it. No one who desires to understand the condition
of its development; still more--no one who has a pecuniary interest in
a Tea Garden, can feel that the subject of tea is known until this work
has been studied.”
The ~China Express~ says:--“The experience gained since 1872 is added
to the work, and it now forms a most complete guide to the tea planter.
The great progress the cultivation of tea is making in India renders
a practical work of this kind very valuable; and the method in which
Colonel Money deals with the subject shows his thorough knowledge of
it.”
The ~Scotsman~ says:--“With respect to the conditions of climate and
soil necessary for successful tea cultivation, the requirements of the
plant in the way of water, &c., the varieties best suited for culture
in the various districts, the laying out of the tea garden, and all the
various details of cultivation and manufacture, Colonel Money writes
with the authority derived from many years of experience; and in the
present edition the fruits of his latest experience are embodied. To
new beginners in tea cultivation this book must be of the greatest
value, while it will be found full of interest by outsiders who may
be desirous of information about the condition and prospects of an
important department of agricultural industry.”
The ~Produce Markets Review~ says:--“Colonel Money is a practical tea
planter, and his work is the standard work on the subject, so that it
should be procured by all who are interested in the subject. The new
edition is greatly enlarged, and corrected by the experience of the
past six years.”
The ~Planters’ Gazette~ says:--“The cultivation of tea in the British
dominions is becoming a rapidly extending industry, and we are glad to
see that Colonel Money’s prize essay has reached a third edition, for
it is full of practical information and deserves to be studied by every
tea planter.”
The ~Manchester Examiner~ says:--“During the last few years the fact
that India is a tea-producing country has become more generally known
in England; but few people know that the finest Indian teas are more
expensive than the best of Chinese growth, and, that the average price
of the tea grown in India is higher than that which comes from the
Flowery Land. Another piece of information given in this book is not
less suggestive; we mean that which assures us that India is capable of
producing as much tea as would meet the wants of great Britain and all
her colonies. But the culture is yet in its infancy. Colonel Money’s
treatise is one of the most complete and exhaustive of the kind we
have ever read. He seems to anticipate all possible difficulties; his
warnings and his counsels embrace every branch of the subject, and
only a practical man could have written them. One would think that a
tea grower of common sense could scarcely make blunders with such an
admirable guide before him; and the commercial side of the enterprise
is discussed in the same careful manner as the agricultural.”
The ~Broad Arrow~ says:--“In this work we have the results of eighteen
years’ experience of a tea planter in India, and the author has so
written it that the beginner will find it invaluable, for he has had
his wants specially in view. It is, so far as we know, the best, as
it is certainly the most practical, book about tea that has been
published.”
_Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, ~3~s. ~6~d._
THE ART OF TEA BLENDING.
A Handbook for the Tea Trade; a Guide to Tea Merchants, Brokers,
Dealers and Consumers, in the Secret of Successful Tea Mixing.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
The ~Field~ says:--“This is a practical and authentic little text book
on the principles involved in Tea Blending.”
The ~Grocer’s Chronicle~ says:--“The book ought to be in the hands of
every grocer of the United Kingdom.”
The ~Grocer’s Journal~ says:--“We cordially recommend ‘The Art of Tea
Blending’ to our readers as giving useful instruction and guidance.”
~Allen’s Indian Mail~ says:--“The author gives full technical
instructions for the professional tea-blender and tea-taster; and in
doing so, he imparts much information that will be found both valuable
and interesting to the tea-drinking public.”
~Broad Arrow~ says:--“A trader should be able by its aid to make a name
as a teaman, and realise the result which the housewife only needs--a
gentle hint as to the opportunity of exercising real judgment and
correct taste in a matter of such important family interest as tea.”
The ~Grocer~ says:--“This is the third edition of a book which we have
previously noticed with favour, and which has met with considerable
success. Although the art of successful tea-blending is not one
which can well be gleaned from mere book-lore--practical experience
being essential to its acquisition--there are many young beginners,
and possibly also some older hands, who will derive a good deal of
information from the work now under notice. It has evidently been
prepared with much care, and in its way is a very useful handbook.”
The ~Daily Chronicle~ says:--“This capital handbook, which will prove
of great service to merchants, brokers, and all engaged in the tea
trade, has reached a third edition. For consumers we may extract the
information that water for making tea should be soft and pure; it
should be boiled quickly, and used when at the boiling point; the tea
will be at its best in rather less than ten minutes, losing part of its
flavour if allowed to stand longer.”
The ~Grocer’s Gazette~:--“This is a work which has now reached its
third edition, and which fully bears out its claim as an excellent
handbook on the subject. Not only is it a useful book to all
professionally engaged in the trade, but it is also calculated to
educate those who have not had the benefit of a practical experience,
by teaching them how to obtain a knowledge of the different classes of
teas and the proper method of mixing them. To the mature grocer the
work will be of interest, while the uninitiated may by its aid learn
how to select proper teas, please his customer’s palate, and sustain
his reputation by keeping up the character of his mixings.”
_Price ~28~s._
THE TEA CYCLOPÆDIA.
A Compilation, by the Editor of the _Indian Tea Gazette_, of
Information on Tea, Tea Science and Cultivation, Soils and Manures,
Statistics, &c., with Coloured Plates on Blights. 350 pages.
The ~Grocer~ says:--“One of the most valuable and exhaustive
contributions to tea literature which we remember to have seen.... The
cultivation of the plant in the different districts and provinces, the
selection of soils and manures, and buildings for its manufacture, &c.,
are all ably treated in this work; and as it deals thoroughly with the
scientific, statistical, and domestic branches of the subject, it is a
manual deserving the attention of the tea planter, importer, dealer,
and consumer. The experience of practical growers and cultivators is
here fully narrated, the opinions of the most competent authorities
on disputed points are clearly given and explained; and, in short,
every matter connected with the history of the tea trade, as a growing
industry and a widening channel of commerce, is gone into with a
completeness and precision which leave nothing to be desired.”
The ~American Grocer~ says:--“The Tea Cyclopædia is one we can commend
to our importers, grocers, and dealers, as being the most complete work
of its kind on Indian teas, as well as furnishing innumerable items of
interest to those engaged in the sale of China and Japan teas.”
_Fancy boards, price ~2~s. Cloth, ~3~s. ~6~d._
WOMAN’S FORTITUDE--
A Tale of the Indian Mutiny. By Lieut.-Col. EDWARD MONEY.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
~Public Opinion~ says:--“The author has managed to convey the
characteristic tone of garrison talk in a very clear manner.... There
is much good narrative and brilliancy of dialogue.”
The ~Scotsman~ says:--“Written with much spirit ... it will be full of
interest to anybody who cares to know what European life and Society
were in India in the last days of ‘John Company.’”
The ~Daily Chronicle~ says:--“The horrors enacted at Cawnpore during
the Indian Mutiny give a tragic interest to this thrilling tale.”
~Capital and Labour~ says:--“The plot of the tale is carefully
constructed and well worked out, and while the main purpose is always
kept in view, opportunity is taken to depict some of the phases of
Anglo-Indian life, while the characters in the story are cleverly
portrayed, and the attention of the reader is never allowed to flag.”
_Crown 8vo. cloth elegant, bevelled boards, gilt edges. Price ~5~s.
Plain, ~3~s. ~6~d._
JEMIMA.
A Story of English Family Life. By ADELAIDE. With Frontispiece.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
The ~Times~ says:--“‘Jemima,’ by Adelaide, is another tale that girls
should care to read, with sufficient proportion of story, and of a more
original type than girls’ books generally are. The humour, of which
there is an unusual proportion for such works, is not, perhaps, of a
very subtle or rich quality, but it is easy and simple, and appropriate
to the characters. Any humour, so long as it is neither vulgar nor
obscene, is surely preferable to the long-drawn melancholy which is too
apt to pervade girls’ books--for what reason we could never understand;
girls are no more naturally prone to sadness than boys.”
The ~Scotsman~ says:--“A better story of its kind than ‘Jemima’ cannot
easily be met with. The book is written with a freshness and exuberant
buoyancy of manner that suit the subject admirably.”
The ~Academy~ says:--“‘Jemima’ is a very natural and charming story of
a very natural and charming little girl. It is exactly what it pretends
to be--‘a story of English family life’--but it has a distinctness of
quality which is by no means common in stories of English family life.”
The ~Daily Chronicle~ says:--“The story of English family life told
by Adelaide, under the title of ‘Jemima,’ is of a much more realistic
character. Lively and amusing throughout, there is also an element
of good sense introduced, which keeps the juvenile escapades within
reasonable bounds, and extracts a lesson even from naughtiness.”
_Crown 8vo. 2 vols. ~10~s. each_.
VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH-MALAY LANGUAGES--
With Notes. English-Malay Vocal Dialogues. By FRANK A. SWETTENHAM.
_Demy 8vo., cloth, price ~7~s. ~6~d._
HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF SAVAGE LIFE IN POLYNESIA--
With Illustrative Clan Songs. By Rev. W. W. GILL, B.A.
_Second and Revised Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth elegant. Price ~2~s._
SERMONIC FANCY WORK
On the Figures of our First Acquaintances in Literature. By JOHN PAUL
RITCHIE.
I. Little Jack Horner. The Spirit of Self-Satisfaction.
II. Peter White. How we are led by the Nose.
III. Humpty Dumpty. The Spirit of Exclusiveness.
IV. Little Miss Muffit. The Education of Fear.
V. Jack Spratt and his Wife. The Perfect Law of Liberty.
VI. Jack and Jill. The Climbing Spirit and its Incumbrances.
VII. Little Bo-peep. The Recovery of the Lost Sheep.
VIII. Beauty and the Beast. The Union of the Strong and Beautiful.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE FIRST EDITION.
The ~Literary Churchman~ says:--“Pungent, amusing, and replete with
clever satire.”
The ~Christian~ says:--“In this ingenious and novel experiment, gravity
and mirth go hand in hand. The style is energetic and pointed, and the
matter pregnant and suggestive.”
The ~Sword and Trowel~ says:--“Very clever.”
The ~Nonconformist~ says:--“Under the guise of commentary on texts
from old nursery rhymes and stories, Mr. Ritchie really gives us
some admirable discourses--‘Sermonic Fancy Work’ in very deed. It is
astonishing how, by the help of a slight vein of paradox and a nimble
fancy, he can pass, almost imperceptibly, from mild fun to very sad
earnest, touching not a few of our most ingrained faults in the most
efficient way.”
The ~Scotsman~ says:--“A clever, wholesome, readable little book.”
The ~Homilist~ says:--“The sermons are really good. They have satire,
but it is satire which consumes religious rubbish and nonsense. They
have fun and humour, but you are made to laugh in order that you may
think with more vigour and seriousness.”
The ~Freeman~ says:--“The ‘Familiar Texts’ are the old nursery rhymes
treated homiletically. In the styles adopted we fancy we can trace
resemblances to those of some of the popular preachers of our day. The
wit is not without wisdom. The satire is not destitute of sense. It
is the sort of book that a reader with any humour in him will find it
difficult to lay down before he has read it right through.”
~Capital and Labour~ says:--“A droll book and yet containing much
quaint wisdom in searching out and applying principles of truth and
common sense.... As a whole, and considering its healthy tone and
practical scope, we heartily commend this handsome little volume. It is
a fine specimen of the combined arts of the typographer and bookbinder,
and its attractive exterior ought to draw many readers, who will then
be charmed with the contents and with the unconventional method of
treatment.”
_Crown 8vo. Cloth elegant, gilt edges, price ~5~s. Plain, ~4~s. ~6~d._
WON BY WAITING.
A Story of Home Life in France and England. By EDNA LYALL. With
Frontispiece by FRANK MURRAY.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
The ~Daily News~ says:--“The book is full of promise, the story
soon deepens into real interest and develops considerable power of
construction and character drawing.”
The ~Spectator~ says:--“The characters are drawn with considerable
skill, with force, and without exaggeration.”
The ~Academy~ says:--“The Dean’s daughters are perfectly real
characters--the learned Cornelia especially;--the little impulsive
French heroine, who endures their cold hospitality and at last wins
their affection, is thoroughly charming; while throughout the book
there runs a golden thread of pure brotherly and sisterly love, which
pleasantly reminds us that the making and marring of marriage is not,
after all, the sum total of real life.”
The ~Freeman~ says:--“A very pleasing and well-written tale: full of
graphic descriptions of French and English life, with incidents and
characters well sustained. A book with such pleasant reading, and with
such a healthy tone and influence, is a great boon to the young people
in our families.”
_Cloth elegant, ~5~s._
POEMS, DOMESTIC AND MISCELLANEOUS.
By JAMES GILES.
The ~Sheffield Independent~ says:--“Very pretty poems, full of a dainty
and airy melody. It is beautifully got up.”
~Public Opinion~ says:--“Mr. Giles has evidently a true poetical
instinct.”
The ~Literary World~ says:--“Full of gentle human feeling, domestic
tenderness, and patient submissive thinking.”
_8vo. cloth. Price ~7~s. ~6~d._
OLD CEYLON.
Sketches of Ceylon Life in the Olden Time. By JOHN CAPPER. With
Illustrations by Ceylon Artists.
“Readable and entertaining sketches.”
_New and Enlarged Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth elegant. Price ~7~s. ~6~d._
SEATS AND SADDLES,
Bits and Bitting, Draught and Harness, and the Prevention and Cure of
Restiveness in Horses. By Major FRANCIS DWYER.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE NEW EDITION.
~Bell’s Life~ says:--“The work which Major Dwyer has so successfully
carried through the press in two former editions is, for the third
time, presented to the public in a new and enlarged form. In all the
details of horse management the author is perfectly at home, and the
practical way in which he deals with his subject cannot fail to be
appreciated by equestrians or those who keep studs. The first portion
of the volume is devoted to a lengthy dissertation on the all-important
subject of Seats and Saddles. These chapters afford much valuable
information gained by a careful study, not only of the framework of
the animal considered from a mechanical point of view, but also of the
influence of the saddle in its relation to the seat of the rider.... We
assure our readers that the whole contents of the book are well worth
perusal. It may be well, however, to mention that the question of bits
and bitting is thoroughly considered, while Part III. is taken up with
remarks on the true principles which should be observed in matters of
draught and harness. The concluding portion of the book deals with that
worst of all vices in the horse, restiveness, its prevention and cure.”
The ~Saturday Review~ says:--“It is a book which we should recommend to
the notice of young cavalry officers.”
_Limp cloth, plain, ~1~s. Cloth gilt, gilt or red edges, ~1~s. ~6~d._
THE LIVING EPISTLE;
Or, The Influence of Christian Character.
The ~Christian~ says:--“Unflinching in its loyalty to the highest of
all standards, simple in its delineation of what Christian character
should be, earnest in its appeals to the heart and to common sense,
this little book brings to its readers a draught of clear, pure air,
and ought to send them on their way invigorated and quickened in their
desires after holiness.”
The ~Freeman~ says:--“A really ingenious and beautiful exposition of
the inspired description of Christian life. The volume is from the pen
of the late Dr. Jenkyn, formerly of Coward College, and is worthy of a
place by the side of other works we owe him.”
_In Large Crown 8vo. cloth elegant, bevelled boards. Price ~14~s._
PERTHSHIRE IN BYGONE DAYS--
One Hundred Biographical Essays. By P. R. DRUMMOND, F.S.A.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
The ~Nonconformist~ says:--“The volume is simply full of the raciest
material, on the whole well laid out, and cannot fail to prove of
interest to many beyond the circle of Perthshire men into whose hand it
may have the good fortune to come. Mr. Drummond had no purpose to serve
in writing the book beyond giving vent to his wide knowledge and his
love of the subject. He was a bookseller in Perth, and it is evident
that to nothing in literature or in human life was he indifferent. All
the notables he knew; and he treasured up _ana_ year by year simply
because it fell in with his tastes and enjoyments to do so.... The book
is full of delicious morsels.”
The ~Athenæum~ says:--“It contains a great deal of sound sense, and
many amusing stories.”
_Price ~1~d. Stiff Paper, ~2~d. With Gold Bead, head and foot, ~4~d.
Oak Bead, ~6~d. Handsomely Framed, ~5~s. ~6~d._
THE PEOPLE’S POLITICAL ALMANACK,
A Sheet Calendar, edited by JOHN NOBLE, of the London and Counties
Liberal Union.
The ~Daily News~ says:--“It is ornamented with an excellent engraving
of the Victoria Tower. It should hang in every Liberal Club in the
Kingdom.”
100 Copies, post free, 8s.; 500 Copies, post free, £1 15s.; 1,000
Copies, post free, £3. If 1,000 copies are taken, the names of the
Officers of Local Societies and their Branches are printed at foot free
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Transcriber's Note
The following apparent errors have been corrected:
p. 14 "it well" changed to "it will"
p. 94 "wonld" changed to "would"
p. 97 "fifteeen" changed to "fifteen"
p. 107 "_a_." changed to "_a_",
p. 139 "leafs" changed to "leaves"
p. 177 (note) "was--" changed to "was:--"
p. 187 "similiar" changed to "similar"
p. 203 "considered." changed to "considered,"
p. 243 "litle" changed to "little"
p. 264 "viz," changed to "viz.,"
p. 264 "seive-mesh" changed to "sieve-mesh"
p. 273 "loose" changed to "lose"
p. 273 "tare." changed to "tare,"
p. 280 "he gross" changed to "the gross"
p. 299 "Hazareebagh" changed to "Hazareebaugh"
p. 300 "Transport, chap" changed to "Transport, chap."
p. 301 "title" changed to "-- title"
Advertisement "Chapers" changed to "Chapters"
Advertisement "PERIODICALS" changed to "PERIODICALS."
Inconsistent spelling, hyphenation, italics and punctuation have
otherwise been kept as printed.
Tables have been refactored for accessibility.