CHAPTER IV

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES

Thus it came about that the geographical knowledge of later antiquity

shows nothing but a gradual decline from the heights which the Greeks had

early reached, and from which they had surveyed the earth, the universe

and their problems with an intellectual superiority that inclines one to

doubt the progress of mankind. The early Middle Ages show an even greater

decline. Rome, in spite of all, had formed a sort of scientific centre,

which was lost to Western Europe by the fall of the Roman Empire. To this

must be added the introduction of Christianity, which, for a time at any

rate, gave mankind new values in life, whereby the old ones came into

disrepute. Knowledge of distant lands, or of the still more distant

heavens, was looked upon as something like folly and madness. For all

knowledge was to be found in the Bible, and it was especially commendable

to reconcile all profane learning therewith. When, for instance, Isaiah

says of the Lord that He "sitteth upon the circle of the earth" (i.e.,

the round disc of the earth), and "stretcheth out the heavens as a

curtain, and spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in" [xl. 22], and that

He "spread forth the earth" [xlii. 5, xliv. 24], and when in the Book of

Job [xxvi. 10] it is said that "He has compassed the waters with bounds,

where light borders on darkness," such statements did not agree with the

doctrine of the spherical form of the earth; this was therefore regarded

with disfavour by the Church; the circular disc surrounded by Ocean, which

was the idea of the childhood of Greece, was more suitable, and according

to Ezekiel [v. 5-6] Jerusalem lay in the centre of this disc. It was

inevitable that knowledge of the earth and of its farthest limits should

be still more crippled in such an age, and this is especially true of

knowledge of the North.

[Illustration: Cosmas's Map of the World. The surface of the earth is

rectangular and surrounded by ocean, which forms four bays: the

Mediterranean on the west (with the Black Sea), the Caspian above on the

right, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf below on the right. The Nile

(below), the Euphrates and the Tigris flow from the outer world under the

ocean to the earth's surface]

Those writers who in the early part of the Middle Ages occupied themselves

with such worldly things as geography, confined themselves mostly to

repeating, and in part further confusing, what Pliny and later Latin

authors had said on the subject. The most widely read and most frequently

copied were Solinus and Capella, also Macrobius and Orosius. This was the

intellectual food which replaced the science of the Greeks. Truly the

course of the human race has its alternations of heights and depths!

[Illustration: Cosmas's representation of the Universe, with the mountain

in the north behind which the Sun goes at night. The Creator is shown

above]

But even if the migrations had for a time interrupted peaceful trading

intercourse with the North, they were also the means of new facts becoming

known, and it was inevitable that in the long run these migrations, and

subsequent contact with the northern peoples, should leave their mark on

the science of geography. The knowledge of the North shown in the

literature of the early Middle Ages is thus to be compared with two

streams, often quite independent of one another; the one has its source in

classical learning and becomes ever thinner and more turbid; the other is

the fresh stream of new information from the North, which we find in a

Cassiodorus or a Procopius. Sometimes these two streams flow together, as

in an Adam of Bremen, and they may then form a mixture of like and unlike,

in which it is often hopeless to find one's way.

[Sidenote: Cosmas Indicopleustes, 6th century]

It is true that some were found, even in the early Middle Ages, who

maintained the doctrine of the earth's spherical form, whereas early

Christian authors, such as Lactantius (ob. 330) and Severianus (ob. 407),

had asserted that it was a disc; the latter also thought that the heaven

was divided into two storeys, an upper and a lower, with the visible

heaven as a division; the earth formed the floor of this celestial house.

One ancient notion (in Empedocles, Leucippus, Democritus) was that this

disc of the earth stood on a slant, increasing in height towards the

north, which was partly covered by high mountains, the Rhipæan and

Hyperborean ranges (as in Ptolemy's map). These childish ideas took their

most remarkable shape in the "Christian Topography," in twelve books, of

the Alexandrine monk, Cosmas Indicopleustes (sixth century). In his

younger days he had travelled much as a merchant and seen many wonderful

things, amongst others the wheel-ruts left by the Children of Israel

during their wanderings in the wilderness. The Jews' tabernacle, he

thought, was constructed on the same plan and in the same proportions as

the world. Consequently the earth's disc had to be made four-cornered,

with straight sides, and twice as long as it was broad. The ocean on the

west formed a right angle with the ocean on the south. On the north was a

high mountain; behind it the sun was hidden in its course during the

night.[127] As the sun in winter traverses the sky in a lower orbit, it

appears to us as though it receded behind the mountain near its foot, and

it stays away longer than in summer, when it is higher. The whole vault of

heaven was like a four-cornered box with a vaulted lid, which was divided

by the firmament into two storeys. In the lower one were the earth, the

sea, the sun, moon and stars; in the upper one the waters of the sky. The

stars were carried round in circles by angels, whom God at the creation

appointed to this heavy task. It was impossible for the earth to revolve,

simply because its axle must be supported by something, and of what kind

of material could it be made? He had nothing else worth mentioning to say

about the North. But notions such as these had their influence on the

earliest mediæval maps.

[Sidenote: Cassiodorus, 468-570 A.D.]

The first mediæval author who, so far as we know, definitely gave new

information of value about the countries and peoples of the North, was the

Roman senator and historian Cassiodorus (born at Scylaceum, it is supposed

about 468), who was an eminent statesman under Theodoric, King of the

Goths (493-526). After the victories of Belisarius in Italy, Cassiodorus

retired into a monastery in southern Italy (Bruttium), which he himself

had founded, and died there, perhaps 100 years old (about 570). He wrote

several valuable works, amongst them, probably by order of Theodoric, one

in twelve books on "The Origin and Deeds of the Goths," which was perhaps

completed about 534. This work has unfortunately been lost, and we only

know it through the Goth Jordanes, who has made excerpts from it. There is

reason to believe [cf. Mommsen, 1882, Proœmium, p. xxxvii.] that

Cassiodorus's knowledge of Gothic was defective, and that he has borrowed

his information about the North, especially Scandinavia, from a

contemporary, or perhaps somewhat older writer, Ablabius, who is referred

to in Jordanes' book as "the distinguished author of a very trustworthy

history of the Goths," but who is otherwise unknown. Through the Norwegian

king Rodulf and his men (see below, under Jordanes), or other Northerners

who visited Theodoric, and who were "mightier than all the Germans in

courage and size of body," first-hand information was brought concerning

the countries of the North, which Ablabius, who certainly knew Gothic, may

have written down, and from him Cassiodorus has thus derived his

statements, which again are taken from him by Jordanes. In addition to

various classical authors, some Latin and some Greek, of whom Jordanes

mentions many more than he has made use of, it is probable that

Cassiodorus has also drawn upon the maps of Roman itineraries [cf.

Mommsen, 1882, Proœmium, p. xxxi.], and perhaps also Greek maps.

[Sidenote: Jordanes, circa 552]

The Gothic monk (or priest) Jordanes lived in the sixth century, and wrote

about 551 or 552 a book on "The Origin and Deeds of the Goths" ("De

origine actibusque Getarum"), which for the most part is certainly a poor

repetition of the substance of Cassiodorus's great work on the same

subject; and in fact he tells us this himself, with the modest addition

that "his breath is too weak to fill the trumpet of such a man's mighty

speech." It is true that Jordanes asserts in his preface that he has only

had the loan of the work to read for three days, for which reason he

cannot give the words but only the sense, and thereto, he says, he has

added what was suitable "from certain histories in the Greek [which he did

not understand] and Latin tongues," and he has mixed it with his own

words. But this is only said to hide his lack of originality; for the book

evidently contains long literal excerpts from the work of Cassiodorus,

while Jordanes' Latin becomes markedly worse when he tries to walk alone.

Not even the preface to the work is original; this is copied from

Rufinus's translation of Origines' commentary on the Epistle to the

Romans.

Of the uttermost ocean we read in Jordanes:

"Not only has no one undertaken to describe the impenetrable uttermost

bounds of the ocean, but it has not even been vouchsafed to any one to

explore them, since it has been experienced that on account of the

resistance of the seaweed and because the winds cease to blow there,

the ocean is impenetrable and is known to none but Him who created

it." This conception has a striking resemblance to Avienus's "Ora

Maritima" (see above, pp. 37-40), and may very probably be derived

from it.

Of the western ocean he says, amongst other things:

"But it has also other islands farther out in the midst of its waves,

which are called the Balearic Isles, and another Mevania; likewise the

Orcades, thirty-three in number, and yet not all of them are

cultivated [inhabited]. It has also in its most western part another

island, called Thyle, of which the Mantuan [i.e., Virgil] says: 'May

the uttermost Thule be subject to thee.' This immense ocean has also

in its arctic, that is to say, northern, part, a great island called

Scandza, concerning which our narrative with God's help shall begin;

for the nation [the Goths] of whose origin you inquired, burst forth

like a swarm of bees from the lap of this island, and came to the land

of Europe."

After having spoken of Ptolemy's (also Mela's) mention of this island,

which according to his version of the former had the shape of "a citron

leaf, with curved edges and very long in proportion to its breadth" (this

cannot be found in Ptolemy), and lay opposite the three mouths of the

Vistula, he continues:

"This [island] consequently has on its east the greatest inland sea in

the world, from which the River Vagi discharges itself, as from a

belly, profusely into the Ocean.[128] On the western side it [the

island of Scandza] is surrounded by an immense ocean and on the north

it is bounded by the before-mentioned unnavigable enormous ocean, from

which an arm extends to form the Germanic Ocean ('Germanicum mare'),

by widening out a bay. There are said to be many more islands in it,

but they are small,[129] and when the wolves on account of the severe

cold cross over after the sea is frozen, they are reported to lose

their eyes, so that the country is not only inhospitable to men but

cruel to animals. But in the island of Scandza, of which we are

speaking, although there are many different peoples, Ptolemy

nevertheless only gives the names of seven of them. But the

honey-making swarms of bees are nowhere found on account of the too

severe cold. In its northern part live the people Adogit, who, it is

said, in the middle of the summer have continuous light for forty days

and nights, and likewise at the time of the winter solstice do not see

the light for the same number of days and nights; sorrow thus

alternating with joy, so are they unlike others in benevolence and

injury; and why? Because on the longer days they see the sun return to

the east along the edge of the axis [i.e., the edge of the pole, that

is to say, along the northern horizon], but on the shorter days it is

not thus seen with them, but in another way, because it passes through

the southern signs, and when the sun appears to us to rise from the

deep, with them it goes along the horizon. But there are other people

there, and they are called Screrefennæ, who do not seek a subsistence

in corn, but live on the flesh of wild beasts and the eggs of

birds,[130] and such an enormous number of eggs [lit., spawn] is laid

in the marshes that it serves both for the increase of their kind

[i.e., of the birds] and for a plentiful supply for the people."

[Sidenote: Screrefennæ or Skridfinns]

The "Screrefennæ" of Jordanes (in other MSS. "Crefenne," "Rerefennæ,"

etc.) are certainly a corruption of the same word as Procopius's

"Scrithifini" (Skridfinns), and were a non-Germanic race inhabiting the

northern regions (see later). The mention of these people, together with

their neighbours the "Adogit," who had the midnight sun and a winter night

of forty days (cf. also Procopius), shows without a doubt that Jordanes',

or rather Cassiodorus's, authority had received fresh information from the

most northern part of Scandinavia, possibly through the Norwegian king

Rodulf and his men.

[Sidenote: Adogit]

The mysterious name "Adogit" is somewhat doubtful. P. A. Munch [1852, p.

93], and later also Müllenhoff [ii., 1887, p. 41], thought that it might

be a corruption of Hálogi ("Háleygir," or Helgelanders) in northern

Norway. Sophus Bugge [1907] does not regard this interpretation as

possible, as this name cannot have had such a form at that time; he (and,

as he informs us, Gustav Storm also independently) thinks that "adogit" is

corrupted from "ādogii," i.e., "andogii," meaning inhabitants of And or

Andö in Vesterålen.[131] The termination -ogii he takes to be a mediæval

way of writing what was pronounced -oji, i.e., islanders.[132] But it

should be remembered how much the name "Screrefennæ" has been corrupted,

and that it is very possible that other names may have been so equally.

[Sidenote: Impossibility of forty days' daylight in summer and night in

winter]

The statement that the Adogit had forty days' daylight in summer and a

corresponding period of night in winter is, unfortunately, of no

assistance in the form in which it is given for deciding the locality

inhabited by them, for no such phenomenon occurs anywhere on the earth. If

we suppose that the Adogit people themselves observed the rising and

setting of the sun above a free horizon, then we must believe that they

reckoned the unbroken summer day from the first to the last night on which

the upper limb of the sun did not disappear below the edge of the sea. And

they would have reckoned the unbroken winter night from the first day on

which the sun's upper limb did not appear above the horizon at noon, until

the first day when it again became visible.

If we reckon in this way, and take into account the horizontal refraction

and the fact that the obliquity of the ecliptic about the year 500 was

approximately 11' greater than now, we shall find that at that time the

midnight sun was seen for forty days (i.e., from June 2 to July 12) in

about 66° 54' N. lat., or in the neighbourhood of Kunna, south of Bodö;

but at the same place more than half the sun's disc would be above the

horizon at noon at the winter solstice; it was therefore not hidden for a

single day, much less for forty days. But, on the other hand, it was not

until 68° 51' N. lat., or about Harstad on Hinnö, that they had an

unbroken winter night, without seeing the rim of the sun, for forty days

(from December 2 to January 11); but there they had the midnight sun in

summer for about sixty-three days. The fable of a summer day of the same

length as the unbroken winter night cannot therefore have originated with

the Northerners; it must have been evolved in an entirely theoretical way

by astronomical speculations (in ignorance of refraction) which were a

survival of Greek science, where the length of the northern summer day was

always assumed to be equal to that of the winter night. But that

information had been received at this time from the Northerners is

probable, since the statement of a forty days' summer day and winter night

is not found in any known author of earlier date,[133] and Jordanes'

contemporary, Procopius, has an even more detailed statement, especially

of this winter night (see later). The probability is that what the

Northerners took particular notice of was the long night, during which, as

Procopius also relates, they kept an accurate account of the days during

which they had to do without the light of the sun, a time in which "they

were very depressed, since they could not hold intercourse." This must

also have been what they told to the Southerners, while they did not pay

so much attention to the length of the summer day, when of course they

would in any case have plenty of sunlight. We must therefore suppose that

the latitude worked out according to the winter night of forty days is the

correct one, and this gives us precisely Sophus Bugge's And--Andö, or,

better still, Hinnö.

[Illustration: The more important tribal names in Southern Scandinavia,

according to Jordanes]

[Sidenote: Northern Tribal Names]

Jordanes counts about twenty-seven names of tribes or peoples in Sweden

and Norway; a number of them are easily recognised, while others must be

much corrupted and are difficult to interpret.[134] He mentions first the

peoples of Sweden, then those of Norway. "Suehans" is certainly the

Svear.

They, "like the Thuringians, have excellent horses. It is also they

who through their commercial intercourse with innumerable other

peoples send for the use of the Romans sappherine skins ('sappherinas

pelles'), which skins are celebrated for their blackness.[135] While

they live poorly they have the richest clothes."

We see then that at this time the fur trade with the North was well

developed, as the amber trade was at a much earlier date. Adam of Bremen

tells us of the "proud horses" of the Svear as though they were an article

of export together with furs. In the Ynglinga Saga it is related [cf.

Sophus Bugge, 1907, p. 99] that Adils, King of the Svear at Upsalir,

"was very fond of good horses, he had the best horses of that time."

He sent a stallion "to Hålogaland to Godgest the king; Godgest the

king rode it, and could not hold it, so he fell off and got his death;

this was in Ǫmd [Amd] in Hålogaland."

The original authority for the statement in Jordanes was probably King

Rodulf, who perhaps came from the northern half of Norway, and it looks as

though the Norwegians even at that time were acquainted with Swedish

horses.

Jordanes further mentions five tribes who "dwell in a flat, fertile land

[i.e., south Sweden], for which reason also they have to protect

themselves against the attacks of other tribes ('gentium')." Among the

tribes in Sweden are mentioned also the "Finnaithæ"--doubtless in

Finn-heden or Finn-veden (that is, either Finn-heath or Finn-wood), whose

name must be due to an aboriginal people called Finns--further, the

"Gautigoth," generally taken for the West Göter, who were a specially

"brave and warlike people," the "Ostrogothæ" [East Göter] and many more.

Then he crosses the Norwegian frontier and mentions

"The 'Raumarici'[of Romerike] and 'Ragnaricii' [of Ranrike or

Bohuslen], the very mild [peaceful] 'Finns' ('Finni mitissimi'), who

are milder than all the other inhabitants of Scandza;[136] further

their equals the 'Vinoviloth'; the 'Suetidi' are known among this

people ['hac gente' must doubtless mean the Scandinavians] as towering

above the rest in bodily height, and yet the 'Danes,' who are

descended from this very race [i.e., the Scandinavians ?] drove out

the 'Heruli' from their own home, who claimed the greatest fame [i.e.,

of being the foremost] among the peoples ['nationes'] of Scandia for

very great bodily size. Yet of the same height as these are also the

'Granii' [of Grenland, the coast-land of Bratsberg and Nedenes], the

'Augandzi' [people of Agder],[137] 'Eunix' [islanders, Holmryger in

the islands ?], 'Ætelrugi' [Ryger on the mainland in Ryfylke],

'Arochi' [== 'arothi,' i.e., Harudes, Horder of Hordaland], 'Ranii'

[in other MSS. 'Rannii' or 'Rami,' Sophus Bugge (1907) and A. Bugge

see in this a corruption of '*Raumi,' that is, people of Romsdal],

over whom not many years ago Roduulf was king, who, despising his own

kingdom, hastened to the arms of Theodoric king of the Goths, and

found what he had hankered after. These people fight with the

savageness of beasts, more mighty than the Germans in body and soul."

The small (?), "very mild" Finns must, from the order in which they are

named, have lived in the forest districts--Solör, Eidskogen, and perhaps

farther south--on the Swedish border. P. A. Munch [1852, p. 83] saw in

their kinsmen the "Vinoviloth" the inhabitants of "Vingulmark" (properly

"vingel-skog," thick, impenetrable forest), which was the forest country

on Christiania fjord from Glommen to Lier. Müllenhoff agrees with this

[ii., 1887, pp. 65 f.], but thinks that "-oth," the last part of the word,

belongs to the next name, Suetidi, and that "Vinovil" may be a corruption

of Vingvili or Vinguli (cf. Paulus Warnefridi's "Vinili" ?). But however

this may be, we must regard this people and the foregoing as "Finnish" and

as inhabiting forest districts, as hunters, as well as a third Finnish

people, "Finnaithæ" in Småland. We shall return later to these "Finns" in

Scandinavia. It has been thought that "Suetidi" may be from the same word

as "Sviþjoð"; but as Jordanes has already mentioned the Svear ("Suehans"),

and as the name occurs among the Norwegian tribes, and there is evidently

a certain order in their enumeration, Müllenhoff may be right in seeing in

it a corruption of a Norwegian tribal name. He thinks that "Othsuetidi"

may be a corruption of "Æthsævii," i.e., "Eiðsivar" (cf. Eidsivathing),

"Heiðsævir" or "Heiðnir" in Hedemarken, who were certainly a very tall

people. The mention of the Norwegian warriors has a certain interest in

that it is due to the Roman statesman Cassiodorus (or his authority), who

glorified the Goths and had no special reason for praising the

Northmen.[138] It shows that even at that time our northern ancestors were

famed for courage and bodily size, and that too above all other Germanic

peoples, who were highly esteemed by the Romans. It is not clear whether

Rodulf was King of the "Ranii" (Raumer ?) alone, or of all the Norwegian

tribes from Grenland to Romsdal. It may be supposed that he was a

Norwegian chief who migrated south through Europe at the head of a band of

warriors, composed of men from the tribes mentioned, and that finally on

the Danube, hard pressed by other warlike people, he sought alliance and

support from the mighty king of the Goths, Theodoric or Tjodrik (Dietrich

of Berne). This may have been just before 489, when the latter made his

expedition to Italy. Many circumstances combine to make such a hypothesis

probable.[139]

We know that about 489 the Eruli were just north of the Danube, and were

the Goths' nearest neighbours. Now, as we shall see later, Eruli was

perhaps at first a common name for bands of northern warriors, and these

Eruli on the Danube may therefore certainly have consisted to a greater

or less extent of Norwegians. We know, further, that at this time there

was a king of the Eruli to whom Theodoric sent as a gift a horse, sword

and shield, thereby making him his foster-son [cf. Cassiodorus, Varia iii.

3, iv. 2]. Finally, we know from Procopius that the Eruli just at this

time had a king, Rodulf, who fell in battle against the Langobards (about

493). When we compare this with what Jordanes says about the Norwegian

king Rodulf, who hastened to Theodoric's arms and found there what he

sought, it will be easy to conclude that this Norwegian chief is the same

as the chief of Eruli here spoken of. Rodulf, or "Hrodulfr," is a known

Norwegian name. "Rod-," or "Hrod," is the same as the modern Norwegian

"ros" (i.e., praise), and means probably here renowned.

One is further inclined to believe that it was from this Rodulf or his

men, of whom some may have come from And in Hålogaland, that Cassiodorus

or his authority obtained the information about Scandinavia and northern

Norway, which is also partly repeated in Procopius.

Sophus Bugge [cf. 1910, pp. 87 ff.; see also A. Bugge, 1906, pp. 35

f.] has suggested that the "Ráðulfr," who is mentioned in the runic

inscription on the celebrated Rök-stone in Östergötland (of about the

year 900), in which Theodoric ("Þiaurikr") is also mentioned, may be

the same Norwegian chief Rodulf who came to Theodoric and who fell in

battle with the Langobards. He even regards it as possible that it is

an echo of this battle which is found in the inscription, where it is

said that "twenty kings lie slain on the field"; in that case the

battle has been moved north from the Danube to "Siulunt" (i.e.,

Sealand). There are other circumstances which agree with this: it is

said of the Eruli that they had peace for three years before the

battle [cf. Procopius]; on the Rök-stone it is stated that the twenty

kings stayed in Siulunt four winters; the latter must have been

Norwegian warriors of different tribes: Ryger, Horder, and Heiner

(from Hedemarken), perhaps under a paramount king Ráðulfr, who settled

in Sealand--while the Eruli were bands of northern warriors, who under

a king Rodulf had established themselves on the north bank of the

Danube. Bugge's supposition may be uncertain, but if it be correct it

greatly strengthens the view (see p. 145) that the Eruli were largely

Norwegian warriors, since in that case the king of the Eruli, Rodulf

(== Ráðulfr), would have been in command of tribes for the most part

Norwegian: Ryger, Horder, and Heiner.

[Sidenote: Procopius, circa 552 A.D.]

The Byzantine historian Procopius, of Cæsarea (ob. after 562), became in

527 legal assistant, "assessor," to the general Belisarius, and

accompanied him on his campaigns until 549, amongst others that against

the Goths in Italy. In his work (in Greek) on the war against the Goths

("De bello Gothico," t. ii. c. 14 and 15), written about 552, he gives

information about the North which is of great interest. He tells us of the

warlike Germanic people, the Eruli, who from old time[140] were said to

have lived on the north bank of the Danube, and who, with no better reason

than that they had lived in peace for three whole years and were tired of

it, attacked their neighbours the Langobards, but suffered a decisive

defeat, and their king, Rodulf, fell in the battle (about 493).[141]

"They then hastily left their dwelling-places, and set out with their

women and children to wander through the whole country [Hungary] which

lies north of the Danube. When they came to the district where the

Rogians had formerly dwelt, who had joined the army of the Goths and

gone into Italy, they settled there; but as they were oppressed by

famine in that district, which had been laid waste, they soon

afterwards departed from it, and came near to the country of the

Gepidæ [Siebenbürgen]. The Gepidæ allowed them to establish themselves

and to become their neighbours, but began thereupon, without the

slightest cause, to commit the most revolting acts against them,

ravishing their women, robbing them of cattle and other goods, and

omitting no kind of injustice, and finally began an unjust war against

them." The Eruli then crossed the Danube to Illyria and settled

somewhere about what is now Servia under the eastern emperor

Anastasius (491-518). Some of the Eruli would not "cross the Danube,

but decided to establish themselves in the uttermost ends of the

inhabited world. Many chieftains of royal blood now undertaking their

leadership, they passed through all the tribes of the Slavs one after

another, went thence through a wide, uninhabited country, and came to

the so-called Varn. Beyond them they passed by the tribes of the Danes

[in Jutland], without the barbarians there using violence towards

them. When they thence came to the ocean [about the year 512] they

took ship, and landed on the island of Thule [i.e., Scandinavia] and

remained there. But Thule is beyond comparison the largest of all

islands; for it is more than ten times as large as Britain. But it

lies very far therefrom northwards. On this island the land is for the

most part uninhabited. But in the inhabited regions there are thirteen

populous tribes, each with a king. Every year an extraordinary thing

takes place; for the sun, about the time of the summer solstice, does

not set at all for forty days, but for the whole of this time remains

uninterruptedly visible above the earth. No less than six months

later, about the winter solstice, for forty days the sun is nowhere to

be seen on this island; but continual night is spread over it, and

therefore for the whole of that time the people are very depressed,

since they can hold no intercourse. It is true that I have not

succeeded, much as I should have wished it, in reaching this island

and witnessing what is here spoken of; but from those who have come

thence to us I have collected information of how they are able [to

count the days] when the sun neither rises nor sets at the times

referred to," etc. When, during the forty days that it is above the

horizon, the sun in its daily course returns "to that place where the

inhabitants first saw it rise, then according to their reckoning a day

and a night have passed. But when the period of night commences, they

find a measure by observation of the moon's path, according to which

they reckon the number of days. But when thirty-five days of the long

night are passed, certain people are sent up to the tops of mountains,

as is the custom with them, and when from thence they can see some

appearance of the sun, they send word to the inhabitants below that in

five days the sun will shine upon them. And the latter assemble and

celebrate, in the dark it is true, the feast of the glad tidings.

Among the people of Thule this is the greatest of all their festivals.

I believe that these islanders, although the same thing happens every

year with them, nevertheless are in a state of fear lest some time the

sun should be wholly lost to them.

"Among the barbarians inhabiting Thule, one people, who are called

Skridfinns [Scrithifini], live after the manner of beasts. They do not

wear clothes [i.e., of cloth] nor, when they walk, do they fasten

anything under their feet, [i.e., they do not wear shoes], they

neither drink wine nor eat anything from the land, because they

neither cultivate the land themselves nor do the women provide them

with anything from tilling it, but the men as well as the women occupy

themselves solely and continually in hunting; for the extraordinarily

great forests and mountains which rise in their country give them vast

quantities of game and other beasts. They always eat the flesh of the

animals they hunt and wear their skins, and they have no linen or

anything else that they can sew with. But they fasten the skins

together with the sinews of beasts, and thus cover their whole bodies.

The children even are not brought up among them as with other peoples;

for the Skridfinns' children do not take women's milk, nor do they

touch their mothers' breasts, but they are nourished solely with the

marrow of slain beasts. As soon therefore as a woman has given birth,

she winds the child in a skin, hangs it up in a tree, puts marrow into

its mouth, and goes off hunting; for they follow this occupation in

common with the men. Thus is the mode of life of these barbarians

arranged.

"Nearly all of the remaining inhabitants of Thule do not, however,

differ much from other peoples. They worship a number of gods and

higher powers in the heavens, the air, the earth and the sea, also

certain other higher beings which are thought to dwell in the waters

of springs and rivers. But they always slay all kinds of sacrifice and

offer dead sacrifices. And to them the best of all sacrifices is the

man they have taken prisoner by their arms. Him they sacrifice to the

god of war, because they consider him to be the greatest. But they do

not sacrifice him merely by using fire at the sacrifice; they also

hang him up in a tree, or throw him among thorns, and slay him by

other cruel modes of death. Such is the life of the inhabitants of

Thule, among whom the most numerous people are the Gauti (Göter), with

whom the immigrant Eruli settled."

[Sidenote: Erulian sources of Procopius]

[Sidenote: Common source of Procopius and Jordanes]

This description by Procopius of Thule (Scandinavia) and its people bears

the stamp of a certain trustworthiness. If we ask whence he has derived

his information, our thoughts are led at once to the Eruli, referred to by

him in such detail, who in part were still the allies of the Eastern

Empire, and of whom the emperor at Byzantium had a bodyguard in the sixth

century. There were many of them in the army of the Eastern Empire both in

Persia and in Italy; thus Procopius says that there were two thousand of

them in the army under the eunuch Narses, which came to Italy to join

Belisarius. Procopius thus had ample opportunity for obtaining first-hand

information from these northern warriors, and his account of them shows

that the Eruli south of the Danube kept up communication with their

kinsmen in Scandinavia, for when they had killed their king "Ochon"

without cause, since they wished to try being without a king, and had

repented the experiment, they sent some of their foremost men to Thule to

find a new king of the royal blood. They chose one and returned with him;

but he died on the way when they had almost reached home, and they

therefore turned again and went once more to Thule. This time they found

another, "by name 'Datios' [or 'Todasios' == Tjodrik ?]. He was

accompanied by his brother 'Aordos' [== Vard ?] and two hundred young men

of the Eruli in Thule." Meanwhile, as they were so long absent, the Eruli

of Singidunum (the modern Belgrade) had sent an embassy to the emperor

Justinianus at Byzantium asking him to give them a chief. He sent,

therefore, the Erulian "Svartuas" (== Svartugle, i.e., black owl ?), who

had been living with him for a long time. But when Datios from Thule

approached, all the Eruli went over to him by night, and Svartuas had to

flee quite alone, and returned to Byzantium. The emperor now exerted all

his power to reinstate him; "but the Eruli, who feared the power of the

Romans, decided to migrate to the Gepidæ." This happened in Procopius's

own time, and may therefore be regarded as trustworthy; it shows how easy

communication must have been at that time between Scandinavia and the

south, and also with Byzantium, so that Procopius may well have had his

information by that channel. But he may also have received information

from another quarter. His description of Thule shows such decided

similarities with Jordanes' account of Scandza and its people that they

point to some common source of knowledge, even though there are also

dissimilarities. Among the latter it may be pointed out that Jordanes

makes a distinction between Thule (north of Britain) and Scandza, while

Procopius calls Scandinavia Thule, which, however, like Jordanes, he

places to the north of Britain, and he does not mention Scandia. It may

seem surprising that Jordanes' authority, Cassiodorus (or Ablabius ?),

should have known Ptolemy better than the Greek Procopius. The explanation

may be that when Procopius heard from the statements of the Eruli

themselves that some of them had crossed the ocean from the land of the

Danes (Jutland) to a great island in the north, he could not have supposed

that this was Scandia, which on Ptolemy's map lay east of the Cimbrian

peninsula and farther south than its northern point; it would seem much

more probable that it was Thule, which, however, as he saw, must lie

farther from Britain and be larger than it was shown on Ptolemy's map; for

which reason Procopius expressly asserts that Thule was much larger than

Britain and lay far to the north of it. As it was not Procopius's habit

to make a show of unnecessary names, he keeps the well-known name of

Thule and does not even mention Scandia. It may even be supposed that it

was to west Norway itself, or the ancient Thule, that the Eruli sailed. If

their king Rodulf was a Norwegian, as suggested above, this would be

probable, as in that case many of themselves would have come from there

too; besides which, we know of a people, the Harudes or Horder, who had

formerly migrated by sea from Jutland to the west coast of Norway; there

had therefore been an ancient connection, and perhaps, indeed, Horder from

Norway and Harudes from Jutland may have been among Rodulf's men, and

there may also have been Harudes among the Eruli whom the Danes, according

to Jordanes, drove out of their home (in Jutland ?). There was also, from

the very beginning of Norwegian history, much connection between Norway

and Jutland.

Another disagreement between the descriptions of Procopius and Jordanes is

that according to the former there were thirteen tribes, each with a king,

in Thule, while Jordanes enumerates twice as many tribal names in Scandza,

but of these perhaps several may have belonged to the same kingdom.[142]

A remarkable similarity between the two authors is the summer day forty

days long and the equally long winter night among the people of Thule as

with the Adogit, and the fact that in immediate connection therewith the

Scrithifini and Screrefennæ, which must originally be the same name, are

mentioned. The description in Procopius of festivals on the reappearance

of the sun, etc., points certainly to information from the North; but, as

already pointed out, the statement in this form, that the summer day was

of the same length as the winter night, cannot be due to the Norsemen

themselves; it is a literary invention, which points to a common literary

origin; for it would be more than remarkable if it had arisen

independently both with the authority of Procopius and with that of

Jordanes. An even more striking indication in the same direction is the

resemblance which we find in the order of the two descriptions of Thule

and of Scandza. First comes the geographical description of the island,

which in both is of very great size and lies far out in the northern

ocean; then occurs the statement that in this great island are many

tribes.[143] Next we have in both the curious fact that the summer day and

the winter night both last for forty days. Then follows in both a more

detailed statement of how the long summer day and winter night come about,

and of how the sun behaves during its course, etc. Immediately after this

comes the description of the Skridfinns, who have a bestial way of life,

and do not live on corn, but on the flesh of wild beasts, etc., with an

addition in Jordanes about fen-fowl's eggs (perhaps taken from Mela),

while Procopius has a more detailed description of their mode of life,

which reminds one somewhat of Tacitus. Finally, there is a reference to

the Germanic people of Thule or Scandza; but while Procopius mentions

their religious beliefs and human sacrifices, and only gives the name of

the most numerous tribe, the Gauti, Jordanes has for the most part a

rigmarole of names.

Even if the method of treating the material is thus very different in the

two works, the order in which the material is arranged, and to some extent

also the material itself, are in such complete agreement that there must

be a historical connection, and undoubtedly a common literary source,

through a greater or less number of intermediaries, is the basis of both

descriptions. One might think of the unknown Ablabius, or perhaps of the

unknown Gothic scholar Aithanarit, whom the Ravenna geographer mentions in

connection with his reference to the Skridfinns, if indeed he did not live

later than Procopius. It is striking also that the passage about Thule in

Procopius gives rather the impression of having been inserted in the

middle of his narrative about the Eruli, without any very intimate

connection therewith, and it may therefore be for the most part taken from

an earlier author, perhaps with alterations and additions by Procopius

himself; but it is not his habit to inform us of his authorities.

[Sidenote: The Eruli are Norsemen]

Procopius's description of the Eruli is of great interest. It is a

remarkable feature in the history of the world that at certain intervals,

even from the earliest times, roving warrior peoples appear in Europe,

coming from the unknown North, who for a time fill the world with dread,

and then disappear again. One of these northern peoples was perhaps, as

already mentioned, the "Cimmerians," who in the eighth century B.C. made

an inroad into Asia Minor. Six hundred years later, in the second century

B.C., bands of Cimbri and Teutones came down from northern Europe and were

pressing towards Rome, till they were defeated by Marius and gradually

disappeared. Five hundred years later still, in the third to the fifth

centuries A.D., the Eruli come on the scene, and after they have

disappeared come the Saxons and Danes, and then the Normans. We may

perhaps suppose, to a certain extent at all events, that the races which

formed these restless and adventurous bands were in part the same, and

that it is the names that have changed. The Eruli are also mentioned by

Jordanes and by many other authorities besides Procopius. Together with

the Goths they played a part in the "Scythian" war in the third century,

but afterwards disappear to the north of the Black Sea. They must have

been the most migratory people of their time; we find them roaming over

the whole of Europe, from Scandinavia on the north to Byzantium on the

south, from the Black Sea on the east to Spain on the west; from the third

to the fifth century we find Eruli from Scandinavia as pirates on the

coasts of western Europe, and even in the Mediterranean itself, where in

455 they reached Lucca in Italy [cf. Zeuss, 1837, p. 477 f.; Müllenhoff,

1889, p. 19]. When we read in Procopius that some of the Eruli would not

"cross the Danube, but determined to establish themselves in the uttermost

ends of the world," this means, of course, that they had come from thence,

and that rather than be subject to the Eastern Empire they would return

home to Scandinavia. The name also frequently appears in its primitive

Norse form, "erilaR," in Northern runic inscriptions.[144] Since "erilaR"

(in Norwegian "jarl," in English "earl") means leader in war, and is not

known in Scandinavia as the original name of a tribe which has given its

name to any district in the North, we must suppose that it was more

probably an appellative in use in the more southern parts of Europe for

bands of northern warriors of one or more Scandinavian tribes [cf. P. A.

Munch, 1852, p. 53]. They may have called themselves so; it was, in fact,

characteristic of the Scandinavian warrior that he was not disposed to

acknowledge any superior; they were all free men and chiefs in

contradistinction to thralls. Gradually these bands in foreign countries

may have coalesced into one nation [cf. A. Bugge, 1906, p. 32]. But as

expeditions of Eruli are spoken of in such widely different parts of

Europe, the name must, up to the end of the fifth century, have often been

used for Norsemen in general, to distinguish them from the nations of

Germany, like the designation Normans, and sometimes also Danes, in later

times. That the latter was used as an appellative as early as the time of

Procopius seems to result from his mentioning the tribes ("ethne") of the

Danes in just the same way as he speaks of those of the Slavs. What is

said about the Eruli suits the Scandinavians: they were very tall (cf.

Jordanes, above, p. 136) and fair, were specially famed for their

activity, and were lightly armed; they went into battle without helmet or

coat of mail, protected only by a shield and a thick tunic, which they

tucked up into a belt. Their thralls, indeed, had to fight without

shields; but when they had shown their courage they were allowed to carry

a shield [Procopius, De bello Pers., ii. 25]. "At that time," says

Jordanes, "there was no nation that had not chosen the light-armed men of

its army from among them. But if their activity had often helped them in

other wars, they were vanquished by the slow steadiness of the Goths," and

they had to submit to Hermanaric, King of the Goths by the Black Sea, the

same who is called Jörmunrek in the Völsunga Saga. The people here

described can scarcely have been typical dwellers in plains, who are

usually slow and heavy; we should rather think of them as tough and active

Scandinavian mountaineers, who by their hard life in the hills had become

light of foot and practised in the use of their limbs; but who, on the

other hand, had been ill-supplied with heavier weapons and had had scant

opportunities of exercise as heavy-armed men, for which indeed they had no

taste. This also explains their remarkable mobility. We are thus led once

more to think of Norway as the possible home of some of the Eruli. To sum

up, we find then that they had a king with the Norse name Rodulf, and

there are many indications that he was the same as the Norwegian king

Rodulf (from Romsdal ?) who came to Theodoric. They returned through

Jutland and sailed thence to Thule, where they settled by the side of the

Gauti, i.e., to the west of them in Norway, which from old time had had

frequent communication with Jutland, from whence the Horder (and probably

also the Ryger ?) had immigrated. They are described as having

characteristics which are typical of mountaineers, but not of lowlanders.

An Erulian name, "Aruth" (Αρουθ), mentioned by Procopius [De bello Goth.,

iv. 26], also points to Norway, since it appears to be the same as the

Norwegian tribal name "Horder" ("*Haruðr," gen. "Haruþs," on the

Rök-stone [cf. S. Bugge, 1910, p. 98], or "Arothi" in Jordanes).

Other Erulian names in Procopius may be common to the northern

Germanic languages. In the opinion of Professor Alf Torp it is

probable that "Visandos" is bison, "Aluith" is Alvid or Alvith

(all-knowing); in "Fanitheos" the first syllable may be "fan" or "fen"

(English, fen) and the second part "-theos" may be the Scandinavian

termination "-ther"; "Aordos" may be Vard. The King's name "Ochon"

seems to resemble the Norwegian Håkon; but the latter name cannot have

had such a form at that time, it must have been longer.

What Procopius tells us [De bello Goth., ii. 14] about the manners and

customs of the Eruli agrees with what we know of the Norsemen generally.

They worshipped many gods, whom they considered it their sacred duty to

propitiate with human sacrifices. Aged and sick persons were obliged to

ask their relatives to help them to get rid of life;[145] they were killed

with a dagger by one who did not belong to the family, and were burnt on a

great pile, after which the bones were collected and buried, as was the

custom in western Norway amongst other places. "When an Erulian died, his

wife, if she wished to show her virtue and leave a good name behind her,

had to hang herself not long after with a rope by her husband's grave and

thus make an end of herself. If she did not do this, she lost respect for

the future, and was an offence to her husband's family. This custom was

observed by the Eruli from old time." Their many gods and human sacrifices

agree, as we see, with Procopius's description of the inhabitants of

Thule, and with what we know of the Scandinavians from other quarters. As

human sacrifices with most peoples were connected with banquets, at which

slain enemies were eaten,[146] the assertion that our Germanic ancestors

did not practise cannibalism rests upon uncertain ground. When, therefore,

in finds of the Stone Age in Denmark, Sweden and Norway broken or scraped

human bones occur, which point to cannibalism, it cannot be argued from

this, as is done by Dr. A. M. Hansen [1907], that the finds belong to a

non-Germanic people.

For the rest, Procopius paints the Eruli in crude colours; they are

covetous, domineering and violent towards their fellow men, without being

ashamed of it. They are addicted to the grossest debauchery, are the most

wicked of men, and utterly depraved.

[Sidenote: Skridfinns]

The "Scrithifini" of Procopius (and Jordanes' corrupted form,

"Screrefennæ" or "Scretefennæ") are undoubtedly a people of the same kind

as Tacitus's "Fenni" (Ptolemy-Marinus's "Finni"); but they have here

acquired the descriptive prefix "scrithi-," which is generally understood

as the Norse "skriða" (== to slide, e.g., on the ice, to glide; cf.

Swedish "skridsko," skate). The Norsemen must have characterised their

Finnish (i.e., Lappish) neighbours on the north as sliding (walking) on

ski ("skriða á skiðum"), to distinguish them from other peoples in the

outlying districts whom they also called Finns. If this is so, it is the

first time that a reference to ski-running is found in literature. There

is, moreover, considerable similarity between Procopius's description of

these hunters and Tacitus's account of the "Fenni," who must certainly

also have lived in Scandinavia (see above, p. 113), and who may have been

the same people. They have many peculiar characteristics in common, e.g.,

that both men and women go hunting; and the statement that while the

mothers go hunting, the children, in Tacitus, are hidden in a shelter of

boughs (i.e., a tent), and in Procopius are hung up in a tree (perhaps

the Lapps' "komse," i.e., a cradle made of wood to hang up in the tent).

Procopius himself probably did not know Tacitus's "Germania," but it is

possible that his unknown authority did so, although this work was

generally forgotten at that time. But even if the description of Procopius

may thus be partly derived from Tacitus, in any case fresh information has

been added, the name Skridfinns itself to begin with, and certain correct

details, such as their fastening the skins together with the sinews of

beasts. The fable that the children did not touch their mothers' breasts

may (like the masculine occupation of the women) be due to legends about

the Amazons, who were not brought up on their mothers' milk. That the

children were given marrow instead may be due to the fact that this people

of hunters, like the Lapps of the present day, ate much animal fat and

marrow. The Eskimo often give their children raw blubber to chew.

[Illustration: Map of the world in the MS. of Isidore, tenth century, St.

Gallen (K. Miller)]

[Illustration: The oldest known map of the world, from the MS. of Isidore

of the end of the seventh century, St. Gallen (K. Miller)]

[Sidenote: Isidorus Hispalensis, before 636 A.D.]

Thus while valuable information about the North is to be found in the

early mediæval authors we have mentioned, this is not the case with the

well-known Isidorus Hispalensis of Seville (ob. 636, as bishop of that

city), who, however, exercised the greatest influence on the geographical

ideas of the Middle Ages. His geographical knowledge was derived from late

Latin authors, especially Orosius, Hieronymus and Solinus, and contributed

nothing new of value. But as he was one of the most widely read authors of

the early Middle Ages, he is of importance for having in that dark time

continued the thread of the learning of antiquity, even though that thread

was thin and weak. He was also to have an influence on cartography. With

his fondness for bad etymological interpretations he derived the word

"rotunditas," for the roundness of the earth, from "rota," wheel, and he

taught that "the word 'orbis' is used on account of the roundness of the

circumference, since it is like a wheel. For in every part the

circumfluent ocean surrounds its borders in a circle." Hence the

conception of the earth's disc as a wheel came to be general in the early

Middle Ages, and hence the designation of wheel-maps. Isidore divided the

earth's disc into three parts, Asia (including Paradise) at the top of the

wheel-map, and Europe and Africa, also called Lybia, at the bottom; and

the boundaries between these continents formed a =T= with the rivers

Tanais and Nile horizontally at the top, and the Mediterranean ("Mare

Magnum") below. Therefore maps of this type, which was maintained for a

long time, are also called =T=-maps.[147] Otherwise Isidore declared

clearly enough in favour of the spherical form of the earth.

[Sidenote: Bede, 673-735]

The Anglo-Saxon monk and scholar, Beda Venerabilis (673-735), who in his

work "Liber de natura rerum" also mentions the countries of the earth, but

without making any fresh statement about the North, was strongly

influenced by Isidore. He asserts, however, the spherical form of the

earth in an intelligent way, giving, amongst other reasons, that of the

ancient Greeks, that earth and water are attracted towards a central

point. The form of a sphere was also the only one that would explain why

certain stars were visible in the north, but not in the south.

[Illustration: Europe on the reconstructed map of the world of the Ravenna

geographer (after K. Miller)]

[Sidenote: The Ravenna geographer, seventh century]

A few new facts about the North are to be found in the anonymous author

who wrote a cosmography at the close of the seventh century. As, according

to his own statement, he was born at Ravenna, he is usually known as the

Ravenna geographer, but otherwise nothing is known of him, except that he

was probably a priest. He bases his work on older authors; the Bible,

some Latin, some Greek, and some later writers; but he certainly had a

Roman itinerary map like the Tabula Peutingeriana. His statements about

the North are in part taken from Jordanes, but he also quotes three other

"Gothic scholars," who are otherwise entirely unknown. One of them,

Aithanarit (or Athanaric ?), is mentioned particularly in connection with

the Skridfinns. The other two, Eldevaldus (or Eldebald ?) and Marcomirus

(or Marcomeres ?), have also described western Europe; the latter is

specially used in the description of the countries of the Danes, Saxons

and Frisians.

The Ravenna geographer regarded the earth's disc as approximately

round, and surrounded by ocean, but the latter was not entirely

continuous, for it did not extend behind India. It was true that some

cosmographers had described it so, but no Christian ought to believe

this, for Paradise was in the extreme East, near to India; and as the

pollen is wafted by the breath of the wind from the male palm to the

female near it, so does a beneficent perfume from Paradise blow upon

the aromatic flowers of India. Some thought that the sun in its course

returned to the east under the depths of ocean; but the Ravenna

geographer agreed with those who said that the sun moved all night

along paths which cannot be traced, behind lofty mountains, in the

north beyond the ocean, and in the morning it came forth again from

behind them.

[iv. 12.] "In a line with Scythia and the coast of the ocean is the

country which is said to be that of the 'Rerefeni' and 'Sirdifeni'

('Scirdifrini'). The people of this country, according to what the

Gothic scholar Aithanarit says, dwell among the rocks of the

mountains, and both men and women are said to live by hunting, and to

be entirely unacquainted both with meat and wine. This land is said to

be colder than all others. Farther on by the side of the Serdifenni on

the coast of the ocean is the land which is called Dania; this land,

as the above-mentioned Aithanaridus and Eldevaldus and Marcomirus, the

Gothic scholars, say, produces people who are swifter than all

others." [These must be the Eruli.] "This Dania is now called the land

of the Nordomanni." This is the first time the name Norman is used, so

far as is known.

[v. 30.] "In the northern ocean itself, after the land of the

Roxolani, is an island which is called Scanza, which is also called

Old Scythia by most cosmographers. But in what manner the island of

Scanza itself lies, we will with God's help relate."

He says, following Jordanes (see above, p. 130), that from this island

other nations, amongst them the Goths and the Danes, besides the Gepidæ,

migrated.

It will be seen that the Ravenna geographer's statements about the

Skridfinns, whose name is varied and corrupted even more than in Jordanes,

bear a striking resemblance to those of Procopius, although he says he

derived them from the Goth Aithanarit; if this is correct, then the latter

must either have borrowed from Procopius, which is very probable, or he is

older and was the common authority both of Procopius and the Ravenna

geographer, and, if so, perhaps also of Cassiodorus (?).

[Illustration: Cynocephali on a peninsula north-east of Norway (from the

Hereford map)]

[Sidenote: Æthicus Istricus, seventh century (?)]

An enigmatical work, probably dating from about the seventh century,

which was much read in the Middle Ages, professes to be a Latin

translation, by a certain Hieronymus, from a Christian book of travel

by a Greek commonly called Æthicus Istricus.[148] He is said to have

travelled before the fourth century. The translator asserts that

Æthicus had related many fabulous things, which he has not repeated,

as he wished to keep to the sure facts; but among them we find many

remarkable pieces of information, as that Æthicus had seen with his

own eyes on the north of the Caspian Sea the Amazons give the breast

to Centaurs and Minotaurs, and when he was living in the town of

Choolisma, built by Japhet's son Magog, he saw the sea of bitumen

which forms the mouth of Hell and from which the cement for

Alexander's wall of iron came. In Armenia he looked in vain for Noah's

ark; but he saw dragons, ostriches, griffins, and ants as large and

ferocious as dogs. He also mentioned griffins and treasures of gold in

the north between the Tanais and the northern ocean. "The Scythians,

Griffins, Tracontians and Saxons built ships of wattles smeared over

with pitch" (perhaps it is meant that they were also covered with

hides). These ships were extraordinarily swift. Among the Scythians

there was said to be an able craftsman and great teacher, Grifo, who

built ships with prows in the northern ocean. He was like the griffins

or the flying fabulous birds. Æthicus visited an island called Munitia

north of Germania. There he found "Cenocephali" (dog-headed men). They

were a hideous race. The Germanic peoples came to the island as

merchants and called the people "Cananei." They go with bare calves,

smear their hair with oil or fat and smell foully. They lead a dirty

life and feed on unclean animals, mice, moles, etc. They live in felt

tents in the woods far away by fens and swampy places. They have a

number of cattle, fowls and eggs.[149] They know no god and have no

king. They use more tin than silver. One might be tempted to think

that this fable of dog-headed people in the north had arisen from the

word "Kvæn" (Finn), which to a Greek like Æthicus would sound like

"cyon" (dog). The name "Cenocephali" may have been introduced in this

way, while that of "Cananei" may have arisen by a sort of corrupt

similarity of sound between Kvæn and the Old Testament people of

Canaan. It might thus be Kvænland or Finland that is here spoken of.

Their going with bare calves and living in felt tents may remind us of

the Argippæi of Herodotus, who were bald (while in Mela they went

bare-headed) and had felt tents in winter.

[Illustration: The Seven Sleepers in the Cave by the North Sea (from Olaus

Magnus)]

[Sidenote: Paulus Warnefridi, 720-790]

The Langobard author Paulus Warnefridi, also called Diaconus (about

720-790), gives for the most part more or less confused extracts from

earlier authors, but he seems besides to have obtained some new

information about the North. Just as the Goth Jordanes (or Cassiodorus, or

Ablabius) makes the Goths emigrate from Ptolemy's Scandza, so Paulus,

following earlier authors,[150] makes the Langobards proceed from Pliny's

island Scatinavia, far in the north. It looks as though at that time a

northern origin was held in high esteem. But Paulus describes the country,

from the statements of those who have seen it, as not "really lying in the

sea, but the waves wash the low shores." This points to a confusion here

with a district called Scatenauge by the Elbe, which in a somewhat later

MS. (about 807) of the Langobardic Law is mentioned as the home of the

Langobards [cf. Lönborg, 1897, p. 27]. Paulus further relates that on the

coast "north-west towards the uttermost boundaries of Germany" there lie

seven men asleep in a cave, for how long is uncertain. They resemble the

Romans in appearance, and both they and their clothes are unharmed, and

they are regarded by the inhabitants as holy. The legend of the Seven

Sleepers is already found in Gregory of Tours, who has it from Asia Minor,

where it arose in the third century and was located at Ephesus [cf. J.

Koch, 1883]. The legend was very common in Germania, and we find it again

later in tales of shipwreck on the coast of Greenland.[151]

"Near to this place [i.e., the cave with the seven men] dwell the

'Scritobini';[152] thus is this people called; they have snow even in

summer time, and they eat nothing but the raw flesh of wild beasts, as

they do not differ from the beasts themselves in intelligence, and

they also make themselves clothes of their skins with the hair on.

Their name is explained from the word 'to leap' in the foreign tongue

[i.e., Germanic], for by leaping with a certain art they overtake the

wild beasts with a piece of wood bent like a bow. Among them is an

animal which is not much unlike a stag, and I have seen a dress made

of the hide of this animal, just as if it was bristling with hairs,

and it was made like a tunic and reached to the knees, as the

above-mentioned Scritobini wear it, as I have told. In these parts, at

the summer solstice, there is seen for several days, even at night,

the clearest light, and they have there much more daylight than

elsewhere, as on the other hand, about the winter solstice, even if

there is daylight, the sun itself is not seen there, and the day is

shorter than in any other place, the nights also are longer; for the

farther one goes away from the sun, the nearer the sun appears to the

earth [the horizon], and the shadows become longer."...

[Illustration: The oldest known picture of a ski-runner (from the Hereford

map's representation of Norway, thirteenth century)]

"And not far from the shore which we before spoke of [by the cave] on

the west, where the ocean extends without bounds, is that very deep

abyss of the waters which we commonly call the ocean's navel. It is

said twice a day to suck the waves into itself, and to spew them out

again; as is proved to happen along all these coasts, where the waves

rush in and go back again with fearful rapidity. Such a gulf or

whirlpool is called by the poet Virgil Caribdis, and in his poem he

says it is in the strait by Sicily, as he says:

'Scilla lies on the right hand

and the implacable Caribdis on the left.

And three times it sucks the vast billows

down into the abyss with the deep whirlpool

of the gulf, and it sends them up again into the air,

and the wave lashes the stars.'

"By the whirlpool of which we have spoken it is asserted that ships

are often drawn in with such rapidity that they seem to resemble the

flight of arrows through the air; and sometimes they are lost in this

gulf with a very frightful destruction. Often just as they are about

to go under, they are brought back again by a sudden shock of the

waves, and they are sent out again thence with the same rapidity with

which they were drawn in. It is asserted that there is also another

gulf of the same kind between Britain and the Gallician province"

[i.e., northern Spain], whereupon there follows a description of the

tides on the south coast of France and at the mouths of the rivers,

after which there is a highly coloured account of the horrors of the

Ebudes, where they can hear the noise of the waters rushing towards a

similar Caribdis.

Paulus Warnefridi evidently had a very erroneous idea of ski-running,

which he made into a leaping instead of a gliding motion. He may have

imagined that they jumped about on pieces of wood bent like bows. That the

abyss of waters or navel of the sea is thought to be in the North may be

due to reports either of the current in the Pentland Firth or of the

Mosken-ström or the Salt-ström, which thus make their appearance here in

literature, and which were afterwards developed into the widespread ideas

of the Middle Ages about maelstroms and abysses in the sea, perhaps by

being connected with the ancient Greek conception of the uttermost abyss

(Tartarus, Anostus, Ginnungagap; see pp. 11, 12, 17), and as here with the

description of the current in the Straits of Messina.

[Illustration: The Maelstrom near the Lofoten Islands (from Olaus Magnus)]

Viktor Rydberg [1886, pp. 318, 425, ff.] supposed Paulus's description of

the whirlpool to be derived from the Norse legends of the world's well,

"Hvergelmer"--which causes the tides by the water flowing up and down

through its subterranean channels--and of the quern "Grotte" at the

bottom of the sea, which forms whirlpools when the waters run down into

the hole in the mill-stone.[153] But it is perhaps just as probable that

it is the southern, originally classical ideas which have been localised

in the Norse legends. As we have seen, we find in Virgil the same

conception of a gulf in the sea which sucks the water into itself and

sends it up again. Isidore says of the abyss (also repeated in Hrabanus

Maurus):

"Abyssus is the impenetrable deep of the waters, or the caves of the

hidden waters, from whence springs and rivers issue forth, but also

those which run concealed beneath the ground. Therefore it is called

Abyssus, for all streams return by hidden veins to their mother

Abyssus."

It is credible that ideas such as this may have originated, or at any rate

coloured, the myth of "Hvergelmer" (i.e., the noisy or bubbling kettle).

Isidore was early known in England, Ireland and Scandinavia. The whirlpool

is also found among Orientals; thus Sindbad is drawn into it. Paulus's

mention of whirlpools not only in the North, and off the Hebrides, but

also between Britain and Spain and in the Straits of Messina, does not

show that he derived the legend solely from the North. Later, on the other

hand, in Adam of Bremen, the whirlpool becomes more exclusively northern,

and later still we shall get it even at the North Pole itself.

Paulus Warnefridi also mentions Greek fabulous people such as the

Dog-heads (Cynocephali) and the Amazons in North Germania. He says that

the Langobards fought with a people called "Assipitti," who lived in

"Mauringa," and that they frightened them by saying that they had

Cynocephali in their army, who drank human blood, their own if they could

not get that of others. The Langobards were said to have been stopped by

the Amazons at a river in Germany. The Langobard king, Lamissio, fought

with the bravest of them, while he was swimming in the river, and slew

her; and according to a prearranged agreement he thereby obtained for his

people the right of crossing unhindered. Paulus regards the story as

untrue, as the Amazons were supposed to have been destroyed long before;

but he had nevertheless heard that there was a tribe of such women in the

interior of Germany. The same idea of a female nation in Germany occurs

again later in literature (cf. King Alfred's "Mægða-land").

[Sidenote: Interpolation in Solinus, circa eighth century]

It has already been mentioned (p. 123) that in the MSS. of Solinus of the

ninth century and later there is found a mention of the Ebudes, the

Orcades and Thule which in the opinion of Mommsen is a later addition; and

as it is not found in Isidore Hispalensis, who made extensive use of

Solinus, it must have been introduced after his time (seventh century),

but before the ninth century, when it occurs in a MS. As the addition

about Thule, so far as I can judge, must show that this country is

regarded as Norway, and as there are many indications that it was made by

an Irish monk, it is further probable that it belongs to the period before

the Irish discovery of Iceland, which then, according to Dicuil's book,

became regarded as Thule. I think, therefore, we can place the addition at

the beginning of the eighth century, and it will then be evidence of the

knowledge of Norway which prevailed in the British Isles at that time.

After having mentioned Britain and the neighbouring islands the account

proceeds [Solinus, c. 22]:

"From the Caledonian Promontory it is two days' sail for those who

voyage to Tyle [Thule]. From thence begin the Ebudes islands

[Hebrides], five in number [the five principal islands]. Their

inhabitants live on fruits, fish and milk. Though there are many

islands, they are all separated by narrow arms of the sea. They all

together have but one king. The king owns nothing for himself alone,

all is common property. Justice is imposed upon him by fixed laws, and

lest he should be led away from the truth by covetousness, he learns

righteousness by poverty, since he has no possessions; he is therefore

supported by the people. No woman is given him in marriage, but he

takes in turn her who pleases him at the moment. Thus he has neither

the desire nor the hope of children. The second station for the

voyager [to Thule] is provided by the Orcades. But the Orcades lie

seven days' and the same number of nights' sail from the Ebudes, they

are three in number [i.e., the three principal isles of the

Shetlands]. They are uninhabited ('vacant homines'). They have no

woods, but are rough with reeds and grass, the rest is bare sandy

beach and rocks. From the Orcades direct to Thule is five days' and

nights' sail. But Thule is fertile and rich in late-ripening fruits.

The inhabitants there live from the beginning of spring with their

cattle, and feed on herbs and milk; the fruits of the trees they keep

for winter. They have women in common, regular marriage is not known

among them."

This description cannot well be pure invention, and unless it may be

thought to be transferred from another place, we must believe it to be

derived from a distant knowledge of Norway. Their living with the cattle

in spring is in accordance with this, but not their subsistence on the

fruits of the trees. Here one would rather be led to think of the

Hesperides and their golden apples, unless we are to suppose that they

collected nuts and berries. That the inhabitants of Thule had women in

common might be connected with the predilection of the Scandinavians for

polygamy, of which we also hear from other sources; but this is uncertain.

Even the Greeks and Romans saw in the absence of regular marriage a sign

of barbarism, which brought man near to the beasts, and which they

therefore attributed to people at the extreme limits of the earth; cf.

Herodotus, and Strabo's description of the Irish (p. 81). If the

Caledonian Promontory means Scotland, it is surprising that it should be

two days' sail to the Hebrides, and that these were the first and the

Orcades the second station on the way to Thule. We must then suppose that

there has been a jumbling together of several authorities, which is not

very probable if this is a later interpolation, since we must doubtless

believe the interpolating copyist to have thought himself possessed of

knowledge of these matters. If, however, we suppose him to have been an

Irishman, and to have looked upon the voyage to Thule with Ireland as a

starting-point, then it becomes more consistent. It is then two days' sail

from Ireland to the Hebrides, seven days thence to the Shetlands, and then

five to Thule; that is, the whole voyage will last fourteen days; and

this may be about right. It is undeniably somewhat surprising that there

should be no inhabitants on the Orcades, or Shetland, at that time.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE FAROES AND ICELAND BY THE IRISH IN THE EIGHTH CENTURY

[Sidenote: Dicuil, circa 825]

The earliest voyages northward to the Arctic Circle, of which there is

certain literary mention in the early Middle Ages, are the Irish monks'

expeditions across the sea in their small boats, whereby they discovered

the Faroes and Iceland, and, at all events for a time, lived there. Of

these the Irish monk Dicuil gave an account, as early as about the year

825, in his description of the earth, "De Mensura Orbis Terræ" [cf.

Letronne, 1814, pp. 38 f., 131 f.]. It is characteristic of the spiritual

tendency of that period of the Middle Ages that these remarkable voyages

were not, like other voyages of discovery, undertaken from love of gain,

thirst for adventure, or desire of knowledge, but chiefly from the wish to

find lonely places, where these anchorites might dwell in peace,

undisturbed by the turmoil and temptations of the world.[154] In this way

the unknown islands near the Arctic Ocean must have seemed to satisfy all

their requirements; but their joy was short-lived; the disturbers of the

North, the Vikings from Norway, soon came there also and drove them out or

oppressed them.

What Dicuil tells us of the Scandinavian North is chiefly derived from

Pliny, and contains nothing new. But of the unknown islands in the

northern ocean he writes [7, 3]:

[Sidenote: Discovery of the Faroes by the Irish]

"There are many more islands in the ocean north of Britain, which can

be reached from the northern British Isles in two days' and two

nights' direct sailing with full sail and a favourable wind. A

trustworthy priest ('presbyter religiosus') told me that he had sailed

for two summer-days and an intervening night in a little boat with two

thwarts [i.e., two pairs of oars],[155] and landed on one of these

islands. These islands are for the most part small; nearly all are

divided from one another by narrow sounds, and upon them anchorites,

who proceeded from our Scotia [i.e., Ireland], have lived for about a

hundred years ('in centum ferme annis'). But as since the beginning of

the world they had always been deserted, so are they now by reason of

the Northman pirates emptied of anchorites, but full of innumerable

sheep and a great number of different kinds of sea-birds. We have

never found these islands spoken of in the books of authors."

[Illustration: The Faroes]

This description best suits the Faroes,[156] where, therefore, Irish monks

had previously lived, and from whence they had been driven out by

Norwegian seafarers, probably at the close of the eighth century. As,

however, Dicuil is so well aware of the islands being full of sheep, the

Irish may have continued to visit them occasionally, like the trustworthy

priest referred to, who sailed there in a boat with two thwarts. Dicuil's

statement that they were then "emptied of anchorites" must doubtless be

interpreted to mean that they were uninhabited; but this does not sound

very probable. Rather, there are many indications that the islands had an

original Celtic population, which continued to live there after the

settlement of the Norsemen.

There are some Celtic place-names, such as "Dímon" (the islands "Stora

Dímon" and "Litla Dímon," or "Dímun meiri" and "Dímun minni") from the

Celtic "dimun" (== double neck, thus like Norwegian "Tviberg").[157]

As such Celtic place-names cannot have been introduced later, the

Norwegians must have got them from the Celts who were there before,

and with whom they had intercourse. The language of the Faroes has

also many loan-words from Celtic, mostly for agriculture and

cattle-farming, and for the flora and fauna of the islands. These

might be explained by many of the Norwegian settlers having previously

lived in the Scottish islands or in Ireland, or having had frequent

communication with those countries [cf. A. Bugge, 1905, p. 358]; but

it seems more natural to suppose that the loan-words are derived from

a primitive Celtic population. To this must be added that the people

of the Southern Faroes are still dark, with dark eyes and black hair,

and differ from the more Germanic type of the northern islands [cf. D.

Bruun, 1902, p. 5]. The name "Færöene" (sheep-islands) shows that

there probably were sheep before the Norsemen came, which so far

agrees with Dicuil; these sheep must then have been introduced by the

earlier Celts.

According to this it seems possible that the Irish monks came to the

islands not merely as anchorites, but also to spread Christianity among a

Celtic population. The Norwegians arrived later, took possession of the

islands, and oppressed the Celts.

[Sidenote: Irish Discovery of Iceland]

But the bold Irish monks extended their voyages farther north. Dicuil has

also to tell us how they found Iceland, which he calls Thule, and lived

there. After having mentioned what Pliny, Solinus, Isidore (Hispalensis)

and Priscianus say about Thule (Thyle), he continues [7, 2, 6]:

"It is now thirty years since certain priests, who had been on that

island from the 1st of February to the 1st of August, told that not

only at the time of the summer solstice, but also during the days

before and after, the setting sun at evening conceals itself as it

were behind a little mound, so that it does not grow dark even for

the shortest space of time, but whatsoever work a man will do, even

picking the lice out of his shirt (pediculos de camisia extrahere), he

may do it just as though the sun were there, and if they had been upon

the high mountains of the island perhaps the sun would never be

concealed by them [i.e., the mountains]. In the middle of this very

short time it is midnight in the middle of the earth, and on the other

hand I suppose in the same way that at the winter solstice and for a

few days on either side of it the dawn is seen for a very short time

in Thule, when it is midday in the middle of the earth. Consequently I

believe that they lie and are in error who wrote that there was a

stiffened (concretum) sea around it [i.e., Thyle], and likewise those

who said that there was continuous day without night from the vernal

equinox till the autumnal equinox, and conversely continuous night

from the autumnal equinox till the vernal, since those who sailed

thither reached it in the natural time for great cold, and while they

were there always had day and night alternately except at the time of

the summer solstice; but a day's sail northward from it they found the

frozen (congelatum) sea."

This description, written half a century before the Norwegians, according

to common belief, came to Iceland, shows that the country was known to the

Irish, at any rate before the close of the eighth century (thirty years

before Dicuil wrote in 825), and how much earlier we cannot say. With the

first-hand information he had received from people who had been there,

Dicuil may have blended ideas which he had obtained from his literary

studies. The sun hiding at night behind a little mound reminds us of the

older ideas that it went behind a mountain in the north (cf. Cosmas

Indicopleustes and the Ravenna geographer); but of course it may also be

due to local observation. The idea that the frozen sea ("congelatum mare")

had been found a day's sail north of this island is precisely the same as

in the Latin and Greek authors, where, according to Pytheas, the stiffened

sea ("concretum mare") or the sluggish sea ("pigrum") lay one day's sail

beyond Thule (cf. p. 65). But this does not exclude the possibility of the

Irish having come upon drift-ice north of Iceland; on the contrary, this

is very probable.

Dicuil's statement of the Irish discovery of Iceland is confirmed by the

Icelandic sagas. Are Frode (about 1130) relates that at the time the

Norwegian settlers first came to Iceland,

"there were Christians here whom the Norwegians called 'papar'

[priests]; but they afterwards went away, because they would not be

here together with heathens, and they left behind them Irish books,

bells and croziers, from which it could be concluded that they were

Irishmen." In the Landnámabók, which gives the same statement from

Are, it is added that "they were found east in Papey and in Papyli. It

is also mentioned in English books that at that time there was sailing

between the countries" [i.e., between Iceland and Britain].

In many other passages in the sagas we hear of them,[158] and the

Norwegian author Tjodrik Monk (about 1180) has a similar statement. Many

places in south Iceland, such as "Papafjörðr" with "Papos," and the island

of "Papey," still bear names derived from these first inhabitants. A

former name was "Pappyli," which is now no longer used. But besides these

place-names there are many others in Iceland which are either Celtic or

must be connected with the Celts. Thus, among the first that are mentioned

in the Landnámabók are "Minþakseyrr" and "Vestmanna-eyjar." "Minþak" is an

Irish word for a dough of meal and butter, and Westmen were the Irish. It

is true that in the Landnámabók [cf. F. Jónsson, 1900, pp. 7, 132, 265]

these names are placed in connection with the Irish thralls whom Hjorleif,

the associate of Ingolf, had brought with him, and who killed him; but, as

the more particular circumstances of the tale show, it is probable that it

is the place-names that are original, and that have given rise to the tale

of the thralls, and not the reverse. A. Bugge [1905, pp. 359 ff.] gives a

whole list of Icelandic place-names of Celtic origin, mostly derived from

personal names;[159] he endeavours to explain them as due to Celtic

influence, through Irish land-takers; but the most natural explanation is

certainly here as with the Faroes, that there was a primitive Celtic

population in Iceland, and not merely a few Irish monks, when the

Norwegians arrived; and that from these Celts the Icelanders are in part

descended, while they took their language from the ruling class, the

Norwegians, who also became superior in numbers. Future anthropological

investigations of the modern Icelanders may be able to throw light on

these questions. The original Celtic population may have been small and

dispersed, but may nevertheless have made it easier for the Norwegians to

settle there, as they did not come to a perfectly uncultivated country,

and to subdue men takes less time than to subdue Nature. As to how, and

how early, the Celts first came to Iceland, we know in the meantime

nothing.

[Sidenote: Einhard, ninth century]

[Sidenote: Hrabanus Maurus]

[Sidenote: Rimbertus]

Einhard (beginning of the ninth century), the biographer of Charlemagne,

speaks of the Baltic as a bay eastwards from the western ocean of unknown

length and nowhere broader than 100,000 paces (about ninety miles), and

mentions the peoples of those parts: "'Dani' and 'Sueones,' whom we call

'Nordmanni,'" live on the northern shore and on all the islands, while

Slavs and Esthonians and other peoples dwell on the southern shore. The

well-known German scholar, Hrabanus Maurus (circa 776-856), Archbishop of

Mayence (847-856), bases his encyclopædic work, "De Universo" (completed

in 847), in twenty-two books, chiefly upon Isidore, from whom he makes

large extracts, and has little to say about the North. Rimbertus (end of

the ninth century), on the other hand, in his biography of Ansgarius,

gives much information about Scandinavia and its people, while the nearly

contemporary Bavarian geographer ("geographus Bawarus") describes the

Slavonic peoples.

[Illustration]