the screen into the hall, the “court cupboard” was removed from the
lower end of the hall. The “livery cupboard” took its place. The “court
cupboard” was then placed on the daïs, at the “Lord’s borde end,” or in
a recess at the back of the high table. Sometimes it was placed in front
of the bay window at the end of the daïs, where it acted as a kind of
screen.
The “livery cupboard” was not only used for service, but for “liveries”
of food and drink, served at night and in between meals. Smaller livery
cupboards were sometimes found in the bedrooms, and these were usually
furnished with doors and locks. As food was kept in them, the panels are
frequently perforated for the sake of ventilation.
Occasionally, especially in later times, the uses of the “court” and
“livery” cupboards were combined. Between these pieces of furniture, one
difference long existed: a portion of the court cupboard was enclosed at
a very early period, while the livery cupboard remained with its open
shelves.
If we may believe the old inventories, there were many varieties of the
cupboard, or many names for it. We find cupboard and chest-of-drawers,
great cupboard, table and cupboard, table-cupboard, livery cupboard,
side cupboard, press cupboard, sideboard cupboard, half-headed cupboard,
standing cupboard, “cort” cupboard, etc., etc.
[Illustration: PLATE XI]
Its use was universal, as it was an article of convenience, beauty and
ceremony. On Plate X. a characteristic specimen of a Seventeenth Century
“court cupboard” of oak is shown. This is preserved in the Vestry in
Jamston Church, Nottinghamshire. The lower part would resemble the
ordinary side table of the day, if the back supports were like the two
turned baluster legs in the front. The long drawer with carved panels is
appropriated for linen, or cutlery. The enclosed cupboard is cut in the
form of half a hexagon,—a favourite device of the period for cupboards,
and has three doors enriched with carved panels and mouldings. The top
slab or “cupboard head” is supported by spirally turned columns. The
proper way to adorn this piece of furniture is to place a cupboard
cloth, or “carpet” (of damask with fringed ends, or a strip of the same
material as the hangings of the room) upon the top, allowing the ends of
the scarf to fall over the sides (but not the front), and then to
arrange on it a few choice pieces of plate, or porcelain. It is
interesting to compare this example with No. 8 and No. 1 on the same
plate. No. 8 is a portion of a cupboard of later date. This has a
“double head,” and under the first stage the ornament is a pendant,
instead of a column or pillar. This stands on a ball foot, of an older
form than the foot of No. 1 or No. 3. This example, moreover, has its
lower portion enclosed with panelled doors. The earlier specimens of the
“court cupboard” are generally (and often richly) carved. Sometimes the
pillars have Ionic capitals, sometimes they are ornamented with the
swelling bulb or acorn enriched with the acanthus leaf, as exhibited in
No. 2, Plate X. The devices for the mouldings and panels open to the
carver were innumerable. Towards the close of our period, cupboards were
decorated with applied ornaments of ebony (or an imitation of it) in the
form of eggs, spindles and lozenges, as shown in the cabinet No. 1 on
Plate X.
The cabinet is a development of the enclosed cupboard. The
characteristic cabinet of James I.’s time is adorned with pillars, arch
panels and spindle ornaments. The specimen just referred to on Plate X.,
No. 1, has these decorations. It stands on a frame of six legs,—a frame
that was also used for the lower part of the high case-of-drawers that
was coming into fashion towards the end of our period.
The cabinet was always a handsome piece of furniture equipped with
shelves, drawers, compartments, and doors,—a repository for jewels,
documents and curios. It was sometimes defined as a set of boxes, or
drawers for curiosities, and from it the _cabinet-maker_, “one whose
business it is to make cabinets and the finer kind of joiner’s work,”
took his name.
The cabinet was known in England at an early date. In 1550, we read of a
“fayre large cabinett covered with crimson velvet with the King’s arms
crowned.” In the Seventeenth Century, the cabinet was panelled and
carved, adorned with turned pillars, pendants or swelling bulbs, or it
was of the newer style with applied ornaments and turned supports.
Frequently also an imported cabinet was to be seen in the English home
of this century,—a beautiful specimen of Dutch marquetry, of Italian
inlay, of Oriental lacquer, or, indeed, of Boulle work, to say nothing
of the splendid examples of Flemish carving.
Some of these cabinets were very ornate specimens of workmanship. Inlay
or marquetry was the leading feature of decoration for them. Natural
flowers, birds, animals and foliage in bright colours, or in the colours
of the exotic woods, undyed, were in use. Ivory and mother-of-pearl, as
well as shell were also employed. Even before the days of William and
Mary, when the Dutch marquetry became universally popular, there was
much inlaid furniture.
In 1697, John Evelyn notes:
“Emblema, continued to this day by the Italians in their Pietra
Comessa.... St. Lawrence at Florence, where the pavement and all the
walls are most richly encrusted with all sorts of precious marbles,
serpentine, porhirie, ophitis, achat, rants, coral, cornelian, lazuli,
etc., of which one may number thirty sorts, cut and laid into a _fonds_
or ground of black marble (as our cabinet-makers do their variegated
woods) in the shape of birds, flowers, landskips, grotesks, and other
compartments.”
The above reference shows that the English cabinet-makers were
accustomed to work in inlay.
One of the designs of marquetry that came into vogue in the Seventeenth
Century was the “herring-bone” pattern. A clock made by Daniel Quare
late in the Seventeenth Century, and preserved at Hampton Court Palace,
has its case inlaid with a border of herring-bone pattern.
The characteristic table of Jacobean days is the “drawing-table,” a
solid piece of furniture with massive legs, often carved, and connected
with rails near the floor. The top is a large slab of oak and beneath it
are two other slabs or leaves; when these are drawn out at each end, the
large slab falls into the space they occupied, and the table is thus
lengthened.
Another typical table, called either “round” or “oval,” is shown on
Plate XI. This is an eight-legged table provided with flaps, or falling
leaves, supported by legs that can be pulled forward. When not in use,
they fold into the frame. Sometimes this variety of table has six
instead of eight legs. A popular modern name for these is “the
gate-legged” and “the thousand-legged tables.” Frequently the legs were
turned spirally. There was another round, or oval table, whose falling
leaf was supported by a bracket, shaped something like the wing of a
butterfly, from which it has received the modern and popular name of
“butterfly table.” The square table was also in use. The table was
always covered with its “carpet”; indeed, in the inventories of the
period, the “table and carpet” are often mentioned together.
On Plate XI. are three specimen table legs. No. 1 shows legs that are
ornamented with a round globe, which like the round ball foot, is of
ebony or wood stained black in imitation. The stretchers and rest of the
frame are oak. Frequently the table leg was decorated with the carved
bulb or acorn, as is shown in No. 2, Plate X. A similar leg to No. 1,
Plate XI., occurs on the table in Plate V., but the stretchers here are
different. No. 2 and No. 3 on Plate XI. are good types of the
ornamentation of the period and their legs are also connected by
stretchers. The latter would be used as side-tables or placed in the
centre of a room.
The furniture of the parlour in the late Tudor period consisted of
high-backed carved chairs, joined stools with cushions covered with rich
material and fringed, foot-stools, turned chairs, “lyttle guilt chairs
for the women,” high folding screens with many leaves, long, square and
round tables with “carpets,” “conversation stools” with ornamented ends
and backs, chests, cabinets, coffers and all the ornaments of the
period. A wood fire gives warmth, and silver candelabra and sconces
light to the room, while further comfort is added by the tapestries,
curtains and innumerable cushions. Often, indeed, a bed occurs.
The Jacobean parlour differed but little; indeed, in some houses this
exact room survived; but the new styles were gradually driving out the
heavy chairs and cabinets for the lighter varieties with turned frames
and cane webbing or their upholstered backs and seats; and the old
carving was being rapidly supplanted by the newer decoration of the
black mouldings and applied ornaments. The high-backed and richly carved
settle had to give place to the “couch and squab,” a handsome specimen
of which appears on Plate VIII. This is also called a settee or a
“_chaise longue_.” Our particular example is composed of a walnut frame
covered with cane, upon which are placed a mattress or long cushion and
a round bolster, both of which are covered with green silk damask
bordered with a narrow fringe. The back, resembling the back of a chair,
is enclosed in an ornamental frame of scroll-work, somewhat similar to
that of No. 1 on the same plate, and turned side pillars. The top rail
is surmounted by a pedimental scroll with a crown in the middle. The six
legs have projecting knees and feet connected lengthwise by ornamental
rails upon which scrolls and crowns are carved. This piece of furniture
dates from 1660.
We have noted that the bed was generally met with in every room in the
house. There were, however, separate bedrooms even in the Tudor age.
Shakespeare’s description of Imogen’s apartment gives a very charming
picture of a rich sleeping-room of the time:
“_First her bed-chamber
(Where I confess I slept not; but profess,
Had that was well worth watching,) it was hang’d
With tapestry of silk and silver; the story,
Proud Cleopatra when she met her Roman,
And Cnydus swell’d above the banks, or for
The press of boats or pride; a piece of work
So bravely done, so rich, that it did strive
In workmanship, and value; which I wonder’d,
Could be so rarely and exactly wrought,
Since the true life on’t was...._
_The chimney
Is south the chamber; and the chimney-piece,
Chaste Dian bathing: never saw I figures
So likely to report themselves; the cutter
Was as another Nature dumb; outwent her,
Motion and breath left out...._
_The roof o’ the chamber
With golden cherubins is fretted: her andirons
(I had forgot them) were two winking Cupids
Of silver, each on one foot standing, nicely
Depending on their brands._”[6]
It is interesting to compare the above with the room that was prepared
for the reception of James I. at Knole, Sevenoaks, Kent, which is still
intact. The walls are covered with tapestry depicting the story of
Nebuchadnezzar. The state bed, which cost £8,000, is richly ornamented
and has a canopy top, while its furniture is of gold and silver tissue,
lined with rose-coloured satin, and embroidered and fringed with gold
and silver. The chairs and stools in the room are covered to correspond
with the hangings and other furniture of the bed.
Another room in the same house, known as the “Venetian Bedroom,” because
the Venetian ambassador, Nicolo Molino, slept there, contains a fine
state bed, said to have been arranged for the entertainment of James II.
The canopy and headboard are carved and gilt and surmounted by the royal
arms. The hangings and other furniture are of green cut velvet lined
with lutestring,[7] and the chairs and stools in the room are similarly
upholstered.
Another room at Knole, known as the “Spangled Bedroom,” on account of
its ceiling, is hung with tapestry and contains a handsome bed which is
represented on Plate IX. The stools and chairs in this room are covered
with crimson silk embroidered in the same pattern as the bed-furniture.
The massive Elizabethan “four-posted” bed died hard. Although in many
homes the new styles were being introduced, the “beddes of tymbre” were
treasured and still formed objects of special bequests. Oliver
Cromwell’s bed, which is still in existence, is similar in general style
to the “Great Bed of Ware,”[8] which was so large that it could hold
twelve persons. In 1598, Paul Hentzer, visiting Windsor, notes the beds
belonging to princes of preceding reigns measured 11 feet square and
were covered with quilts shining with gold and silver.
The large Tudor bed was the richest piece of furniture. Apart from the
sheets of finest linen, the soft and handsome blankets, the counterpane
of marvellous needlework, the quilts of silk and rugs of fur, and the
curtains of tapestry, samite, silk or velvet, it was a mass of superb
carving luxuriantly expressed upon headboard, canopy, tester, columns,
and panels. The columns were often carved to represent the “four
gospellers,” or evangelists, and angels: which explain the old rhyme:
“_Matthew, Mark, Luke and John,
Bless the bed that I sleep on;
Two angels at my head,
Two angels round my bed,
Two to watch, and two to pray,
And two to carry my soul away._”
One of the popular decorations of the columns was the acorn-shaped
central bulb on the posts, and the arch panel on the headboard. Even the
under side of the canopy is formed of carved panels. On either side of
the headboard, the terminal figures of men or women or angels were not
merely decorative, but formed supports for looping back the curtains.
Many of these carved oak bedsteads were imported from Flanders,
especially those whose testers are carved with designs suggested by
drapery or fringe. Under this great bed, which sometimes stood upon a
low platform, the “trundle” or “truckle” bed was rolled.
“_In the best bed the Squire must lie,
And John in truckle bed hard by._”
The bed shown on Plate IX. is of the new style which lingered with a few
changes far into the reign of Queen Anne. It is therefore a typical
Jacobean or Stuart bed. The proportion is entirely different to that of
the Tudor four-poster. The pillars, or supports, for the tester are
taller, and the whole framework is of lighter build. This interesting
specimen is still preserved at Knole, the home of the Sackvilles at
Sevenoaks, Kent. Its hangings, tester, valance and counterpane are of
crimson silk lined with satin and richly embroidered with gold and
silver.
No. 1 on the same Plate shows the bed with light, spiral column that was
also in use. The post is surmounted by an ornament, or knob, or bunch of
feathers which, in France are called “_pomme_.”
This is the kind of bed which appears on Plate III., No. 3.
It will be noticed that there is no carving on this bed which depends
for its elegance upon the richness of its furniture. At this period,
green, yellow and crimson were the favourite colours for draping the
bed. The materials chosen were silk damask, worsted damask, plain satin,
silk, or serge, according to the wealth of the owner; and when it is
remembered that the windows were hung with the same stuff, and the
chairs, stools, cushions, table-carpets and cupboard cloth and cushions
were of similar stuff, it will be admitted that a Jacobean bedroom is
lacking neither in beauty nor richness.
The rich materials mentioned above were often embroidered in gold or
silver as is the case in bed shown on Plate IX.
Striped silk was another favourite for the hangings of the bedroom. As a
rule, when worsted materials were used, the curtains of both bed and
windows were lined with silk. There was a great variety of silks, known
variously as lutestring, paduasoy, tabby, taffetas, sarcenet, chaney,
cheney or China, etc.; while the woollen goods included serge, darnick
or dorneck, perpetuana, mohair, camoca or camak, camlet, say, serge,
rateen, watchet, fustian, damask, and kitterminster or kidderminster,
some of which were mixed with camel’s hair or threads of silk. There
were also dimity, flowered chintz, and callimanco (a glazed linen), as
well as Turkey-work and “wrought” (which, of course, was needlework).
East India goods, such as printed calico and seersucker, were also used
at the end of the period. White curtains for the bed are rarely
employed.
The modern upholsterer will have no difficulty in finding suitable and
equivalent materials for furnishing a Jacobean bed and bedroom.
The valance hanging from the tester, as shown on Plate IX., is adorned
with fringe, as is also the stool that stands at the foot of the bed.
Beside the bed, there was always laid a narrow strip of carpet, or
tapestry, or rug, always referred to as a “bedside carpet.”[9]
In the bedroom, we always find a large “trussing chest,” used as a
receptacle for the bed clothes, and there may be another chest for the
preservation of wearing apparel. The latter is more likely to be a
chest-with-drawers, consisting of the chest proper, below which are two
long drawers, appearing to the eye as four on account of the panels,
mouldings and knobs. On lifting up the top, a deep well is revealed, at
the side of which there is a “till,” or compartment, for small articles,
trinkets, etc.
At first, the chest was decorated with carved panels and mouldings, and
was usually rendered secure with a lock and great iron hinges that were
extremely decorative. The date and the initials of the owner were carved
upon it, as well as a fanciful motto or legend. At a later period, the
chest was placed on a frame of short square legs. The next development
was the addition of a long drawer below the chest. Another drawer was
added, and another, until this piece of furniture gradually became,
instead of a simple box or trunk, a “chest-of-drawers,” a
“chest-with-drawers,” a “nest-of-drawers,” a “case-of-drawers,” a
“press,” a “cupboard-press,” etc., etc. The bureau, or desk, or
“screetore,” is another development; and, of course, the cabinet in its
simplest form is nothing but a chest-of-drawers with shelves inside shut
in by doors.
This development will be apparent by glancing at the chest-of-drawers,
or case-of-drawers, on Plate X. This contains but four drawers, although
at first sight it would seem that there were eight. The panels of these
drawers are edged with a flat bevelled moulding stained black, and
within that is a sunk panel, in the centre of which is the brass
handle-plate. A moulding incised with cuts edges the top slab. The
chest-of-drawers stands on four turned knobs or balls. A specimen handle
and key-plate of the period appropriate for chest, chest-of-drawers, or
cabinet are No. 5 and No. 6 on Plate X. The case-of-drawers is also
found in the bedroom, where the other furniture includes a
dressing-table and glass, tables, chairs and stools, very often a
cupboard, sometimes a desk or “screetore,” and always plenty of
cushions.
The “drawing-table,” of course, has no place in the bedroom; such a one
as that shown on Plate XI., with either a square or round top is the
most usual. Its “carpet” matches the hangings of the room. The cupboard,
chairs, stools, and couch and desk do not differ from those already
described. The dressing-table is merely a simple table covered with
drapery, and upon it or above it stands or hangs a mirror, the frame of
which in general design is like the one shown on Plate XI. In very rich
homes, this is of solid silver, but more frequently it is carved and
gilt, or made of olive-wood, or ebony. Sometimes it has merely a square
and unornamented frame, and again the frame may be inlaid.
Turning now to the chairs, we find the heavy wooden chairs, such as are
shown on Plate VII., Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, and No. 2 on Plate VIII., are
giving place to newer forms. One of the most typical is the “low
leather” chair, which we have already spoken of in the preceding
chapter. This was generally covered with leather put on with large brass
nails, and was sometimes also decorated with fringe. Genoa velvet, silk,
serge, needlework, etc., were also used for covering this form of chair.
A square straining-rail usually connects the legs close to the floor. It
was popularly known as “the Cromwell,” and is shown on Plate V. and in
the Frontispiece. Two good variants occur on Plate I., No. 3, and lower
right-hand corner. Another typical chair, which is also reminiscent of
Abraham Bosse, appears on Plate VII. This shape is frequently met with
in the pictures of the old Dutch masters.
This particular specimen, which is preserved at Knole Park, is covered
with rose-coloured velvet, divided into squares by means of a braid of
mixed gold and silk threads, and adorned with a fringe of the same. The
nails that fasten the material are copper-gilt, and a large quatrefoil
ornament marks the intersection of the legs. The oval finials on the
back are also decorated with copper-gilt nails. The woodwork is painted
with red lacquer ornamented with a floral design in gold.
All the styles shown on Plate I. are also known in England. A very
characteristic chair is the “high backed” chair, known also to France
and Flanders. It is very slender and upright. Examples are shown on
Plates V. and VIII. The side-posts are either spiral, as in Plate V., or
spindle, as shown in No. 1 and No. 6 on Plate VIII. The back panel and
seat are of cane webbing, or stuffed and upholstered. The frame of the
panel may be rounded as in No. 6 on Plate VIII., or square as No. 1 on
the same plate. The top is usually carved in some kind of scroll-work.
Sometimes the cane-webbing is framed with a simple moulding, as shown in
No. 6. Plate VIII. and again it may have an ornate combination of
scrolls and leaves, as shown in No. 1 on the same Plate. Stretchers
render the legs firm. Sometimes there are two spiral front rails as
shown on Plate V., but more frequently the rail is an elaborate
arrangement of scrolls, as shown on the chair in the upper left hand
corner on Plate VII. or on No. 4 and No. 5 on Plate VIII. The feet are
often made of a large and somewhat clumsy scroll turned outward, as
shown on No. 5, Plate VIII. Another variety occurs on the arm-chair
above. Another species of foot is moulded into a kind of embryonic claw,
known as “the Spanish foot.” The arm-chair on Plate VIII. is one of the
richest productions of the age. It is elaborately carved and gilt. The
border or frame surrounding the panel of the back is beautifully carved
with the strawberry leaf, and Cupids and other figures enrich the top.
The side supports of the back are spirally turned, ending in a
decorative acorn (which is repeated in detail on No. 3). The seat and
back are upholstered in red velvet. This valuable relic dates from 1660.
A simpler chair, also dating from 1660, occurs on Plate VII. This is of
walnut. The side-supports are continuations of the back legs, the front
legs curve outward, and the front rail is a series of scrolls. The back
is surmounted by a carved and pierced pediment. The stuffed seat and
back are covered with needlework on canvas.
Other typical seats of the day are shown on Plate VI., a settee or
double chair, and stool, the frames of which are painted black. The back
of the settee is very high with a curved or wavy top. The arms curve
downward with a bold sweep. The four short legs, curving outwards, with
projecting knees and feet, are connected by heavy straining-rails formed
of heavy scrolls. Both settee and stool are upholstered in rich Mortlake
tapestry of the age, representing sprays of flowers.
-----
Footnote 1:
_Taming of the Shrew_, Act II., Scene 1.
Footnote 2:
“The usual manner,” says Percy in his preface to the Northumberland
Household Book, “of hanging the rooms in the old castles, was only to
cover the naked stone walls with tapestry or arras, hung upon tenter
hooks from which they were easily taken down upon every removal.”
Afterwards it seems to have been hung on projecting frames leaving a
space between it and the wall, affording a convenient hiding-place. It
will be remembered that Hamlet killed Polonius behind the arras, where
the latter had concealed himself.
Footnote 3:
So called from the town of that name in Flanders.
Footnote 4:
“_Read what is written in the painted cloth
Do no man wron; be good unto the poor
Beware the mouse, the maggot and the moth
And ever have an eye unto the door._”
(Old Tract, 1601).
Footnote 5: