supplies of phosphoric acid and potash.
THE SOIL
Soils that are poor in humus are generally in need of nitrogen.
Heavy soils are generally supplied with potash but lack phosphoric
acid.
Sandy soils are apt to be poor in potash and nitrogen.
SYSTEM OF FARMING
A system of general or diversified farming embracing crop products and
stock raising, requires much less artificial manuring than does a
system which raises special crops or quick growing crops in rapid
succession, as in the case of truck farming or market gardening.
TESTING THE SOIL
Every farmer should be more or less of an investigator and
experimenter.
The factors mentioned previously as indicating the presence or absence
of sufficient quantities of certain plant foods serve as a general
guide, but are not absolute. The best method of determining what plant
foods are lacking in the soil is to carry on some simple experiments.
The following plan for soil testing with plant foods is suggestive: To
test the soil for a possible need of the single plant foods, a series
of five plots may be laid off. These plots should be long and narrow
and may be one-twentieth, one-sixteenth, one-tenth, one eighth acre or
larger. A plot one rod wide and eight rods long will contain
one-twentieth acre. The width of the plot may be adjusted to
accommodate a certain number of rows of crop and the length made
proper to include an even fraction of an acre. A strip three or four
feet in width should be left between each two plots. These strips are
to be left unfertilized and are for the purpose of preventing one plot
being affected by the plant food of another.
The plots are all plowed, planted and cared for alike, the only
difference in treatment being in the application of plant food. If the
plots are one-twentieth acre in size, plant foods may be applied as
follows.
+----------------------------+
PLOT 1. | Nitrate of Soda 8 lbs. |
+----------------------------+
+----------------------------+
PLOT 2. | Acid Phosphate 16 lbs. |
+----------------------------+
+----------------------------+
PLOT 3. | Nothing. |
+----------------------------+
+----------------------------+
PLOT 4. | Muriate of Potash 8 lbs. |
+----------------------------+
+----------------------------+
PLOT 5. | Lime 1 bushel. |
+----------------------------+
Plot 3 is a check plot for comparison.
The measuring of the plots, weighing and application of the
fertilizers, planting and care of the crops, weighing and measuring at
harvest, should be carefully and accurately done.
A number of additional plots may be added if desired to test the
effect of plant foods in combination. For instance:
+----------------------------+
PLOT 6. | Nitrate of Soda 8 lbs. |
| Acid Phosphate 16 " |
+----------------------------+
+----------------------------+
PLOT 7. | Nitrate of Soda 8 lbs. |
| Muriate of Potash 8 " |
+----------------------------+
+----------------------------+
PLOT 8. | Nothing. |
| |
+----------------------------+
+----------------------------+
PLOT 9. | Muriate of Potash 8 lbs. |
| Acid Phosphate 16 " |
+----------------------------+
+----------------------------+
PLOT 10. | Nitrate of Soda 8 lbs. |
| Acid Phosphate 16 " |
| Muriate of Potash 8 " |
+----------------------------+
If the amount of fertilizer is too small to distribute evenly over the
plot, mix it thoroughly with a few quarts of dry earth or sand to give
it more bulk and then apply it.
In the use of fertilizers it should always be remembered that small
crops are not always due to lack of plant food, but may be caused by
an absence of the other conditions necessary for root growth and
development. The soil may not be sufficiently moist to properly supply
the plants with water. Too much water may check ventilation. Poor
tillage may check root development. Unless the physical conditions are
right the possible effects of additional plant food in the form of
fertilizers are greatly diminished. The farmer who gets the largest
return from fertilizers is the one who gives greatest attention to the
physical properties of the soil. He makes use of organic matter and is
very thorough in his methods of tillage. Every farmer should apply to
his State Experiment Station for bulletins on the subject of
fertilizers.
CHAPTER XXIV
THE ROTATION OF CROPS
SYSTEMS OF CROPPING
There are two methods or systems of cropping the soil:
The One Crop System, or the continuous cropping of the soil year after
year with one kind of crop.
The Rotation of Crops or the selection of a given number of different
crops and growing them in regular order.
The purpose of this chapter is to inquire into the effect of these two
systems of cropping:
On the soil conditions necessary for the best growth and development
of the crops.
On the market value of the crops.
On the increase of or the protection from injurious diseases and
insects.
On the distribution of labor throughout the year.
On the caring for farm stock.
On the providing for home supplies.
This inquiry and the conclusion will be based on the following facts
learned in the foregoing chapters.
Plant roots need for their growth and development (see Chapter II):
A mellow yet firm soil.
A moist soil.
A ventilated soil.
A warm soil.
A soil supplied with plant food.
Decaying organic matter or humus is one of the most important
ingredients of our soils. Because:
It greatly influences soil texture and therefore the conditions
necessary for root growth.
Its presence or absence greatly influences the attitude of soils
toward water, the most important factor in plant growth. Its presence
helps light, sandy soils to hold more water and to better pump water
from below, while it helps close, heavy soils to better take in the
water which falls on their surface. Its absence causes an opposite
state of affairs.
The presence of organic matter checks excessive ventilation in too
open, sandy soil by filling the pores, and improves poor ventilation
in heavy clay soils by making them more open.
Humus, on account of its color, influences the heat absorbing powers
of soils.
The organic matter is constantly undergoing more or less rapid decay
unless the soil be perfectly dry or frozen solid. Stirring and
cultivating the soil hasten this decay.
As the organic matter decays it adds available plant food to the soil,
particularly nitrogen.
As it decays, it produces carbonic acid and other acids which are
able to dissolve mineral plant food not soluble in pure water and thus
render it available to plants.
Plants, although they require the same elements of plant food, take
them in different amounts and different proportions.
Plants differ in the extent and depth of root growth and therefore
take food from different parts of the soil. Some are surface feeders
while others feed on the deeper soil.
Plants differ in their power to take plant food from the soil; some
are weak feeders, and can use only the most available food; others are
strong feeders, and can use tougher plant food.
Plants vary in the amount of heat they require to carry on their
growth and development.
THE ONE CROP SYSTEM
We are now ready for the question. What effect has the continuous
cultivation, year after year, of the same kind of crop on the soil
conditions necessary to the best growth and development of that crop
or any other crop? Suppose we take cotton for example.
How does cotton growing affect soil humus?
During the cultivation of cotton, the organic matter or humus of the
soil decays in greater quantities than are added by the stalks and
leaves of the crop. Therefore, cotton is a humus wasting crop, and
the continuous cultivation of this crop tends to exhaust the supply
of organic matter in the soil.
How does cotton growing affect soil texture?
Cotton growing wastes soil humus and therefore injures soil texture by
making the lighter soils more loose and open, and the heavier soils
more dense and compact.
How does cotton growing affect soil water?
By wasting humus cotton growing injures soil texture and so weakens
the water holding and water pumping power of light soils and weakens
the water absorbing power of heavy soils. Therefore the continuous
cultivation of cotton weakens the power of the soil over water, that
most important factor in crop growth.
How does cotton growing affect soil ventilation?
Continuous cotton culture, by wasting humus, injures texture and
therefore injures soil ventilation, causing too much ventilation in
the lighter soils and too little in heavier soils.
How does cotton culture affect plant food in the soil?
Continuous cotton growing wastes plant food:
Because it wastes organic matter which contains valuable plant food,
particularly nitrogen.
Because by wasting organic matter it increases the leaching of the
lighter soils and the surface washing of the heavier soils.
Because its roots occupy largely the upper soil and do not make use of
much food from the lower soil.
Because it grows only during the warm part of the year and there is
no crop on the land to check loss of plant food from leaching and
surface wash during the winter.
Because it is a weak feeder of phosphoric acid, and can use only that
which is in the most available form. In applying fertilizer to cotton
it is necessary for best results to apply at least twice as much
phosphoric acid as the crop can use, because it can use only that
which is in the most available form and the remainder is left in the
soil unused.
Continuous cotton culture then has an injurious effect on all the
important soil conditions necessary to its best growth and
development, and the result is a diminishing yield or an increasing
cost in maintaining fertility by the use of fertilizer.
How does continuous cotton culture affect the economics of the farm?
The injury to the soil conditions necessary to root growth diminishes
the yield and therefore increases the cost of production.
The poor soil conditions tend not only to diminish yield but also to
diminish the quality of the crop, which tends to lower the price
received for the cotton.
Keeping the land constantly in cotton tends to increase the insect
enemies and the diseases of the crop.
The continuous growing of cotton does not permit the constant
employment of one set of laborers throughout the year.
The continuous growing of cotton generally means that most of the
farm goes into cotton. A small patch of corn is planted for the stock,
which are apt to suffer from a lack of variety in food.
The same is true with reference to home supplies. Very few vegetables
are grown for the table and there is little milk, butter or eggs for
home use or exchange for groceries or drygoods at the store.
Thus we see that the continuous growing of cotton on the soil, year
after year, has a bad effect on conditions necessary to its best
growth and development and also on the economics of the farm.
These facts are true to a greater or less degree in the case of nearly
all of the farm crops. The grain crops are often considered as humus
makers because of the stubble turned under, but Professor Snyder, of
Minnesota, found that five years' continuous culture of wheat resulted
in an annual loss of 171 pounds of nitrogen per acre, of which only
24.5 was taken by the crop, the remaining 146.5 pounds were lost
through a waste of organic matter.
THE ROTATION OF CROPS
Now, suppose that instead of growing cotton on the same soil year
after year, we select four crops--cotton, corn, oats and cowpea--and
grow them in regular order, a rotation practiced in some parts of the
South.
We will divide the farm into three fields and number them 1, 2 and 3,
and will plant these crops as indicated by the following diagrams:
[Illustration: Plan of farm.]
Plan for planting.
FIELD 1. FIELD 2. FIELD 3.
+----------------+----------------+----------------+
| | OATS, | CORN, |
1st year | | harvested in | followed by |
or 1905. | COTTON | spring, | oats, |
| | followed by | planted in |
| | COWPEAS. | fall. |
+----------------+----------------+----------------+
| CORN, | | OATS, |
2d year | followed by | | harvested in |
or 1906. | oats, | COTTON. | spring, |
| planted in | | followed by |
| fall. | | COWPEAS. |
+----------------+----------------+----------------+
| OATS, | CORN, | |
3d year | harvested in | followed by | |
or 1907. | spring, | oats, | COTTON. |
| followed by | planted in | |
| COWPEAS. | fall. | |
+----------------+----------------+----------------+
Each of these crops occupies one-third of the farm each year, and yet
the crop on each field changes each year so that no one kind of crop
is grown on any field oftener than once in three years. The cotton is
grown for market, the corn partly to sell, partly to feed, the oats to
feed and the cowpeas to plow under. All cotton and corn refuse is
plowed under.
What effect will such a system have on the conditions necessary for
plant growth? Suppose we follow the crops on Field 1. Cotton, corn,
and oats are humus wasting crops but the pea crop which is grown the
third year is plowed under, and largely, if not entirely, remedies the
loss by furnishing a new supply of organic matter, and the ill effects
which we noticed would follow the loss of organic matter due to the
continuous growing of cotton are avoided, soil texture is preserved,
soil ventilation is not injured, and the power of the soil over water
is preserved.
What is the effect on plant food in the soil?
Before answering this question let us see what amounts of plant foods
these crops take out of the soil.
We will assume that the soil is a good loam at the start and will
produce:
One bale of five hundred pounds of lint cotton per acre, sixty bushels
shelled corn per acre, thirty bushels oats per acre, or two tons
cowpea hay per acre.
Such a yield of crop would take from the soil the following amounts of
plant food per acre:
----------------------+-----------+------------+------------
| | Phosphoric |
| Nitrogen, | Acid, | Potash,
| pounds. | pounds. | pounds.
----------------------+-----------+------------+---------
Cotton (whole plant) | 103 | 41 | 65
Corn (whole plant) | 84 | 26 | 61
Oats (whole plant) | 32 | 13 | 27
Cowpea | 78 | 23 | 66
----------------------+-----------+------------+---------
Now suppose we sell the lint of the cotton, keeping all the rest of
the plant, including the seed, on the farm and turning it back into
the soil.
Of the corn suppose we sell one-half the grain and keep the other half
and the fodder for use on the farm.
Suppose the oats be made into oat hay and be fed on the farm and the
cowpeas be turned under.
Assuming that the cowpeas take half their nitrogen from the air.
This will mean that in the course of three years we take out of the
soil of each acre in the crops:
Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash.
258 pounds. 103 pounds. 219 pounds.
but we return to the soil in crop refuse and manure from the stock:
Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash.
256 pounds. 87 pounds. 197 pounds.
This assumes that we have taken from the farm in products sold:
------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
| Nitrogen. | Phosphoric | Potash. |
| | Acid. | |
------------------|-----------|------------|------------|
Cotton Lint | 2 | 1 | 2 |
Corn | 28 | 12 | 10 |
Animal products | 11 | 3 | 10 |
+-----------+------------+------------+
Totals | 41 | 16 | 22 |
------------------+-----------+------------+------------+
The plant food charged to animal products is twenty per cent. of that
in the grain and forage fed to the stock.
At the end of the three years the plant food account will balance up
with:
Nitrogen a gain of 2 pounds.
Phosphoric Acid a loss of 16 "
Potash a loss of 22 "
This result is of course approximate. There will be some loss of
nitrogen through leaching and denitrification. Some of the potash and
phosphoric acid will be converted into unavailable forms. This can be
made good by applying to the cotton a fertilizer containing twenty
pounds of nitrogen, sixty pounds of phosphoric acid and twenty pounds
of potash.
Additional nitrogen and organic matter can be grown to turn under by
planting crimson clover in the cotton at the last working for a winter
cover crop to be turned under for the corn, and by planting cowpeas or
soy beans between the rows of corn.
If this is done it may not be necessary to add any nitrogen in the
fertilizer, letting that supply only phosphoric acid and potash.
If commercial fertilizer is used on the cotton, it would be a good
plan to apply the manure from the stock to the corn.
To follow our crop on Field 1 through the three years we will have,
first, cotton drawing large amounts of plant food from the soil and
diminishing the humus of the soil.
Growing a winter crop of crimson clover, turning back all the cotton
refuse except the lint and oil, and applying the barn manure will
furnish ample plant food for the corn and replenish the organic
matter.
The corn is a rather stronger feeder of phosphoric acid than cotton
and will be able to get sufficient from that left by the cotton.
The oats will be able to get a full ration after the corn, and the
cowpeas will readily take care of themselves on the score of plant
food and will put the soil in fine condition for cotton again.
The peas may be left on the ground to turn under in the spring at
cotton planting time, or they may be plowed under in the early fall
and a crimson clover or vetch cover crop planted, which will be plowed
under for the cotton.
These same facts will be true of each of the three fields. The humus
and, therefore, texture will be taken care of; ventilation, soil
temperature and plant food will be controlled to advantage.
Each of the crops will be represented on the farm each year and the
yields of each crop will be better than if grown continuously alone.
The quality and therefore the market value will be greater. Insects
and disease will be easier kept in control, and stock will be more
economically furnished with a variety of foods.
BENEFITS DERIVED FROM ROTATION OF CROPS
Rotation of crops economizes the natural plant food of the soil and
also that which is applied in the form of manure and fertilizer. This
is because:
Crops take food from the soil in different amounts and different
proportions.
Crops differ in their feeding powers.
Crops differ in the extent and depth to which they send their roots
into the soil in search of food and water.
Crops differ in the time of year at which they make their best
growths.
Rotation helps to maintain or improve the texture of the soil because
the amount of humus in the soil is maintained or increased by turning
under green manure and cover crops which should occur in every
well-planned rotation.
Rotation helps to maintain or increase the plant food in the surface
soil. When crops like cowpeas or clover which take mineral food from
the subsoil and nitrogen from the air, are plowed under, they give up
the plant food in their leaves, stems and upper roots to the surface
soil, and thus help to maintain or increase fertility.
Rotation tends to protect crops from injurious insects and diseases.
If one kind of crop is grown continuously on one piece of land the
soil becomes infested with the insects and diseases which injure that
particular crop. If the crop is changed, the insects and diseases find
difficulty in adapting themselves to the change and consequently
diminish in numbers.
Rotation helps to keep the soil free from weeds. "If the same kind of
crop were grown year after year on the same field, the weeds which
grow most readily along with that crop would soon take possession of
the soil." For example, chick weed, dock, thistle, weeds peculiar to
grain and grain crops tend to increase if the land is long occupied by
these crops.
Rotation helps the farmer to make a more even distribution of labor
throughout the year. This is because crops differ as to the time of
year at which they are planted and harvested.
Rotation of crops enables the farmer to provide for his stock more
economically. Live stock fares better on a variety of food, which is
more cheaply secured by a system of rotation than otherwise.
THE TYPICAL ROTATION
A typical rotation for general farming should contain at least:
One money crop which is necessarily an exhaustive crop.
One manurial crop which is a soil enricher.
One feeding crop which diminishes fertility only a little.
One cleansing crop, a hoed or cultivated crop.
CONDITIONS WHICH MODIFY THE ROTATION
There are certain conditions which tend to modify the rotation or to
influence the farmer in his choice of crops. They are as follows:
First of all the climate will set a limit on the number and varieties
of crops from which a choice can be made for a given locality.
The kind of farming which he chooses to carry on, whether stock
raising, grain farming, truck farming, or a combination of two or more
of these, or others.
Kind of soil. Certain soils are best adapted to particular crops. For
example, heavy soils are best suited to wheat, grass, clover,
cabbages, etc. Light, sandy soils to early truck, certain grades of
tobacco, etc.
The demand for crops and their market value.
Facilities for getting crops to market, good or bad country roads,
railroads and water transportation.
The state of the land with respect to weeds, insect pests and plant
diseases.
GENERAL RULES
A few general rules may be made use of in arranging the order of the
crops in the rotation though they cannot always be strictly followed.
Crops that require the elements of plant food in the same proportion
should not follow each other.
Deep-rooted crops should alternate with shallow-rooted crops.
Humus makers should alternate with humus wasters.
Every well arranged rotation should have at least one crop grown for
its manurial effect on the soil, as a crop of cowpeas, or one of
clover, to be turned under.
The objection often made to this last rule is that, aside from the
increase in fertility, there is no direct return for the time, labor
and seed, and the land brings no crop for a year. It is not necessary
to use the entire crop for green manuring--a part of it may be used
for hay or for pasture with little loss of the manurial value of the
crop, provided the manure from that part of the crop taken off is
returned and the part of the crop not removed is turned under.
LENGTH OF THE ROTATION
The length of the rotation may vary from a two-course or two crop
rotation to one of several courses. Crimson clover may be alternated
with corn, both crops being grown within a year.
A three-course rotation, popular in some parts of the country, is
wheat, clover, and potatoes; potatoes being the money crop and
cleansing crop, wheat a secondary money crop or feeding crop, and
clover the manurial and feeding crop.
A popular four-course rotation is corn, potatoes or truck, small
grain, clover; the potatoes being the chief money crop, corn the
feeding crop, the small grain the secondary money or feeding crop, and
clover the manurial and feeding crop.
On many New England farms near towns, hay and straw are the chief
money crops. Here the rotation is grass two or more years, then a
cleansing crop and a grain crop. A Canadian rotation is wheat, hay,
pasture, oats, peas. A rotation for the South might be corn, crimson
clover, cotton, crimson clover; this rotation covering a period of two
years. A South Carolina rotation is oats, peas, cotton, corn--a
three-year rotation. It might be improved as follows: Oats, peas,
crimson clover, cotton, crimson clover, corn.
CHAPTER XXV
FARM DRAINAGE
Some farm lands contain so much water that the conditions of fertility
are interfered with and therefore the crop producing power of these
lands is lowered.
HOW SURPLUS WATER AFFECTS FERTILITY
This surplus water diminishes fertility by reducing the area of film
water in the soil.
It checks soil ventilation.
It tends to keep the soil cold.
It dilutes plant food in the soil.
It interferes with proper tillage.
INDICATIONS OF A NEED OF DRAINAGE
The above-mentioned state of affairs occurs sometimes in fields at the
foot of hills, or on sloping uplands which receive spring water or
seepage water from higher lands. Some fields are underlaid by a close,
compact subsoil which so checks percolation that the surface soil is
too wet for tillage operations the greater part of the year. In such
cases:
A need of drainage is generally indicated by the presence of more or
less free water standing on the surface.
In some lands the surface water does not appear as free water standing
on the surface. In such cases:
A need of drainage is indicated by the curling and wilting of the
leaves of corn and other crops during dry, hot weather. This curling
and wilting is due to the fact that during the early growth of the
crop free water stands so high in the soil that the crop roots are
confined to a shallow layer of soil. When dry, hot weather comes, the
free water recedes, the upper soil dries out, and the roots cannot get
sufficient water to supply the demands of transpiration, hence the
curling and wilting of the leaves.
If drains are placed in this soil, the free water will be kept at a
lower level in the spring and the plant roots will develop deeper in
the soil, where there will be constant supply of film water during the
dryer and warmer summer weather.
The wiry and spindling growth of grass and grain crops may indicate
too much water.
The growth of moss on the surface of the ground and the cracking of
the soil in dry weather are also indications of too much water.
DRAINS
How can we get rid of this surplus free water?
We can make passageways through the soil to a lower level and then
let gravity pull the water through them to lower ground below. These
passageways are called drains.
Drains may be classed as:
Surface drains which are shallow, open channels made in the soil with
a plow, hoe or other tool, to carry off surface water. They are
temporary and need frequent renewing.
Open-ditch drains are deeper, more permanent water passageways around
or across the fields.
Surface and open-ditch drains take only surface water. They also carry
off surface soil and manures washed into them. They frequently become
choked or stopped by trash and soil, and are in the way of cultivation
and harvesting operations.
Covered drains, under drains or blind ditches are water passageways
made of brush, poles, stones, tiles, etc. (Figs. 80-81), placed in the
bottoms of ditches and then covered with soil.
INFLUENCE OF COVERED OR UNDER DRAINS ON FERTILITY
_Influence on soil water._
Covered or under drains take not only surface water, but also remove
free water from the soil beneath down to nearly the level of the
bottom of the drains, and thus increase the area of film water.
Removing the free water enables the soil to absorb more readily rain
water falling on the surface and therefore checks surface wash and the
gullying of fields.
_Influence on soil ventilation._
Lowering the free water allows a deeper penetration of air and,
therefore, a deeper root development and enables crops to better
resist dry periods.
_Influence on soil temperature._
Lowering the free water in the soil influences soil temperature:
By diminishing the amount of water to be heated.
By checking evaporation.
By letting warm showers sink down into the soil.
By increasing ventilation and therefore permitting the circulation of
warm air in the soil.
The cropping season is lengthened by causing the soil to be warmer and
drier earlier in the spring and later in the fall.
_Influence on plant food in the soil._
Covered or under drains check losses of plant food that occur with
surface and open ditch drains. They render available more plant food,
for lowering free water and increasing ventilation:
Deepen the feeding area of the roots.
Aid the process of nitrification.
Aid chemical changes which make plant food available.
Check denitrification.
LOCATION OF DRAINS
As gravity is the force that is to take the surplus water from the
soil, the outlet of the drainage system should be at the lowest part
of the area to be drained.
[Illustration: FIG. 83.--CROSS-SECTIONS OF STONE-DRAINS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 84.
_A._ Cross-section of a pole-drain. _B._ Cross-section of a
tile-drain.]
[Illustration: FIG. 85.--A COLLECTION OF DRAINAGE TOOLS.]
[Illustration: FIG. 86.
_A_ represents a poorly laid tile-drain. It is poorly graded, and has
partly filled with soil. It has lost more than half its water carrying
capacity. _B_ was properly graded, and has kept free from sediment.]
The main drains should be located in the lowest parts of the fields,
indicated by courses taken by water after a rain or by small streams
running through the farm.
The lateral drains, if surface or open ditch drains, should run across
the slopes; if under drains, they should run up and down the slopes.
_Grade or slope of the drain._
The grade of the drain should be sufficient to cause a flow of the
water. In the case of open ditches it should not be steep enough to
cause too rapid a current and a consequent serious washing of the
banks of the ditch. Large, deep ditches will carry water with a grade
of one inch to a hundred feet.
_Tile drains._
Covered or under drains are made of brush, poles, planks, stones,
tiles, etc. (Figs. 83-84). Where tiles can be obtained at reasonable
prices they are considered best. Tiles are made of clay and are burnt
like brick. They are more lasting than wood and are easier and cheaper
to lay than stone, unless the stone must be gotten rid of.
The most approved form of drain tile is the round or circular form.
These are made in sizes ranging from two and one-half to six and eight
inches in diameter, and in pieces one foot in length.
The size used depends on the length of the drain, the amount of water
to carry, the frequency of heavy rainfalls and the character of the
soil.
The distance apart varies from twenty-five feet in heavy soils to
over two hundred feet in light soils. The usual depth is about three
feet, though the farther apart the deeper they are put.
A lateral tile drain should enter a main at an acute angle to prevent
too great a check in the current.
In putting in a drainage system the first thing to be done is to make
a plan of the ground and determine the slope of the land and the grade
of the drain. The ditches are then staked out and the digging
proceeds. In digging the ditches plows are sometimes used to throw out
the top soil, then the work is finished with spades and shovels.
Professional ditchers use special tools and they take out only
sufficient earth to make room for the tiles (Fig. 85). The tiles are
then laid end to end, the joints covered with a piece of sod, some
grass, straw, paper or clay, to prevent loose soil sifting in. As the
tiles are laid, enough soil is placed on them to hold them in place
until the ditch is filled.
In laying the tiles an even grade should be maintained (Fig. 86). A
lessening of the grade checks the current of water and tends to cause
a stoppage of the drain.
The water gets into the drain through the joints where the tiles come
together.
The outlet of a tile drain should be protected by brick work or should
be of glazed tile such as the so-called terra-cotta tile, to prevent
injury by frost.
The mouth of the drain should be protected by a screen of wire to
prevent the entrance of rats and other small animals.
GLOSSARY
=Acid=, a chemical name given to many sour substances.
=Albumen=, a nitrogenous organic compound.
=Albuminoid=, a nitrogenous substance resembling albumen.
=Ammonia=, a gas containing nitrogen produced by the decay of organic
matter.
=Annual=, a plant that lives only one year; corn and sunflower are
examples.
=Anther=, the part of a stamen that bears the pollen.
=Available=, that which can be used.
=Bacteria=, very small plants, so small that they cannot be seen
without the aid of a powerful microscope. They are sometimes called
"germs." Some of them are beneficial, some do great harm and some
produce disease.
=Biennial=, a plant that lives two years, usually producing seeds the
second year.
=Bordeaux mixture,= a mixture of copper sulphate, lime and water used
to prevent plant diseases. It was invented in Bordeaux, France.
=Bud=, an undeveloped branch.
=Calyx=, the outermost part of a flower.
=Cambium=, the active growing layer between the bark and the wood of a
tree.
=Capillary=, Hair-like. A name given to very small spaces through
which water flows by the force of capillary attraction.
=Carbohydrate=, an organic substance made of oxygen, hydrogen and
carbon, but containing no nitrogen; cellulose or woody fibre, sugar,
starch are examples.
=Carbon=, a chemical element. Charcoal is nearly pure carbon.
=Carbonic acid gas=, a gas consisting of carbon and oxygen. It is
produced from the lungs of animals, and by the decay or burning of
organic matter.
=Catch crop=, a crop growing during the interval between regular
crops.
=Cereal=, a name given to the grain crops that are used for food.
=Chlorophyl=, the green matter in plants.
=Commercial fertilizers=, materials containing plant food which are
bought and sold in the markets to improve the soil.
=Compost=, a mixture of decaying organic matter used to enrich the
soil.
=Cross pollination=, the pollination of a flower by pollen brought
from some other flower.
=Cover crop=, a crop to cover the soil during the interval between
regular corps.
=Cultivator=, a farm implement used to loosen the surface of the soil
and to kill weeds after a crop has been planted.
=Cutting=, a part of a plant placed in moist soil, water or other
medium with the object of its producing roots and making a new plant.
=Dormant=, said of plants when they are resting or inactive. Most
plants are dormant during the winter season.
=Drainage=, the method by which surplus water is removed from the
land.
=Element=, a substance that cannot be divided into simpler substances.
=Fermentation=, the process by which organic substances are broken
down or changed and new substances formed.
=Fertility=, that state or condition of the soil which enables it to
produce crops.
=Fibre=, long thread-like structure.
=Flocculate=, to make crumbly.
=Free water=, standing water or water which flows under the influence
of gravity.
=Function=, the particular action of any part of an organism.
=Furrow=, the trench left by the plow.
=Furrow slice=, the strip of earth which is turned by the plow.
=Germinate=, to sprout.
=Grafting=, the process of inserting a cion or bud in a stock plant.
=Green manure crops=, crops intended to be plowed under to improve the
soil.
=Harrow=, an implement used to pulverize the surface of the soil.
=Heavy soils=, soils that are hard to work; stiff, cloddy soils.
=Horticulture=, that branch of agriculture which deals with the
growing of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants.
=Humus=, partially decayed animal and vegetable matter in the soil.
=Hydrogen=, a gaseous, chemical element, one of the constituents of
water.
=Inter-tillage=, tillage between plants.
=Irrigation=, the practice of supplying plants with water by
artificial means.
=Kainite=, a potash salt used in making fertilizer.
=Kernel=, a single seed or grain.
=Leaching=, passing through and going off in drainage water.
=Legume=, a plant belonging to the bean, pea and clover family.
=Light soils=, soils which are loose and open and easy to work.
=Loam=, a mixture of sand, clay and organic matter.
=Mould board=, the curved part of the plow which turns the furrow
slice.
=Mulch=, a covering on the soil. It may be of straw, leaves,
pulverized soil or other material.
=Nectar=, a sweet substance in flowers from which bees make honey.
=Nitrate=, a soluble form of nitrogen.
=Nitrification=, the changing of nitrogen into a nitrate.
=Nitrogen=, a gas forming four-fifths of the air. Nitrogen is a very
necessary food of plants.
=Organic matter=, substances produced by the growth of plants and
animals.
=Osmose=, the movement of fluids through membranes or thin partitions.
=Oxygen=, a gas which forms one-fifth of the air. Its presence is
necessary to the life of all green plants and all animals.
=Ovary=, the part of the pistil that bears the developing seeds.
=Ovule=, an immature seed in the ovary.
=Perennial=, living through several years.
=Phosphoric acid=, an important plant food found in phosphates.
=Pistil=, the part of the flower which produces seeds.
=Propagate=, to increase in number.
=Pollen=, the powdery substance produced by stamens.
=Pollination=, the transfer of pollen from stamens to pistils.
=Potash=, an important plant food.
=Pruning=, removing parts of a plant for the good of what remains.
=Retentive=, holding, retaining, said of soil which holds water.
=Reverted=, said of phosphoric acid in the process of becoming
insoluble.
=Rotation of crops=, a change of crops in regular order.
=Sap=, the juice or liquid contents of plants.
=Seed bed=, the earth in which seeds are sown.
=Seedling=, a young plant just from the seed. Also a plant raised from
a seed in distinction from one produced from a graft or a cutting.
=Sepal=, one of the parts of the calyx.
=Slip=, a cutting placed in water or moist soil or other substance to
produce roots and form a new plant.
=Soil=, that part of the earth's crust into which plants send their
roots for food and water.
=Stamen=, that part of a flower which bears the pollen.
=Stigma=, the part of the pistil which receives the pollen.
=Stomata=, breathing pores in plants.
=Subsoil=, that part of the soil which lies beneath the soil that is
worked with the tillage tools.
=Sap root=, a main root that runs straight down into the soil.
=Tillage=, stirring the soil.
=Transpiration=, the giving off of water from plants.
=Tubercle=, a small nodular growth on the roots of plants.
=Under drainage=, drainage from below.
=Vitality of seeds=, the ability of seeds to grow.
INDEX
Acid phosphates, 196.
Adobe soils, 30.
After-cultivation, 158, 164.
benefits from, 164.
flat, 169.
frequency of, 167.
saves water, 164.
shallow, 15, 167, 169.
time for, 166.
tools for, 167.
Agencies active in making soils, 32.
Agents, with which farmer works, 5.
most important, 6.
Agriculture, foundation facts and principles of, 22.
Air, and the farmer, 5.
in relation to germination, 72.
necessary for root growth, 20.
work of, in making soils, 36.
Albuminoids in plants, 64, 66.
Alfalfa or lucern, 68.
roots, 13.
soils, 29.
Ammonia in fertilizers, 204, 205.
in barn manures, 175.
lost by fermentation, 175.
sulphate of, 194.
Analysis of plants, 163-166.
of fertilizers, 203.
Animals, 5.
and the farmer, 5.
dependent on plants, 6.
work of, in making soils, 37.
Annual plants, 125.
Anthers, 129.
Aphis, 116.
Apple, flower of, 129, 130.
Ash in plants, 65, 66.
Ashes, a source of potash, 199.
cotton hull, 199.
Bacteria, 68, 143.
and the farmer, 5, 144.
denitrifying, 144.
in manures, 174.
in the roots of legumes, 68.
in the soil, 68, 143.
nitrifying, 144.
nitrogen-fixing, 144.
Bare fallow, 100.
when advisable, 100.
Barn manures, 171.
application of, 177.
condition of, 179.
effect of on soil texture, 172.
loss of value of, 173.
meaning of term, 173.
Beet, 6.
Beets, 4.
nitrogen for, 214.
Biological properties of a fertile soil, 143.
Biology, 143.
Blood, dried, 194.
as a fertilizer, 194.
nitrogen in, 194.
Bokhara clover, 190.
Bone, dissolved, 197.
dust, 197.
ground, 197.
Bone fertilizers, 197.
meal, 197.
raw, 197.
steamed, 197.
Bone black, 197.
dissolved, 198.
Bones, 195, 197.
Bordeaux mixture, 118.
Breaking out the middles, 97.
Brick, 30.
Brush harrow, 102, 105.
Buds, 120.
Buildings, 5.
and the farmer, 5.
Bureau of soils, United States, 28.
Department of Agriculture, 28.
Buttercup, flower of, 129, 130.
Cabbage, fertilizer for, 211.
soil, 28, 161.
transplanting, 87, 88.
worm, 117.
Cabbages, 4.
Calcium in plants, 66, 67.
in soils, 68.
Calyx, 129.
function of, 132.
Cambium, 126.
Canadian field pea, 189.
Canteloupe soil, 28.
Capillary force, 49.
meaning of term, 49.
tubes, 49.
water, 153.
Carbon in plants, 66.
Carbonic acid in soil, 37.
Carrots, 4, 6.
Cauliflower soil, 28.
Celery, 4.
Cellulose in plants, 63, 66.
Chain harrow, 102, 105.
Chemical properties of a fertile soil, 147.
Cherry flower, 129, 130.
Chlorophyl in leaves, 113.
Classification of soils, 26.
Clay, 27, 38.
and lime, 42.
loams, 29.
power to absorb water, 41, 42.
relation to water, 25, 41, 43.
soils, 29.
soils injured by working when wet, 45.
to improve texture of, 42.
water-holding power, 44.
Clevis, 93.
Climbing plants, 121.
Clover, 68.
Bokhara, 190.
crimson, 189.
mammoth, 189.
red, 188.
Clovers, as green manure-crops, 188.
as nitrogen gatherers, 184.
nodules on roots of, 184.
Commercial fertilizers, 171, 192.
amount to buy, 212.
home mixing, 211.
kind to buy, 212.
raw materials, 192.
(See also Fertilizers.)
Composts, 171, 181.
Conditions necessary for root growth, 20.
Corn, a humus waster, 226.
depth of root growth of, 13.
flower of, 132.
germination of, 78, 79.
in rotation, 226, 229, 234.
plant, 6.
pollination of, 133.
rapid growth of roots of, 13.
roots cut by plow, 14.
soils, 28, 29, 30, 161.
structure of seed, 78.
water used by, 40.
Corolla, 129.
function of, 132.
Cotton, 5, 161.
a humus waster, 221.
in rotation, 225-229.
plant, 6.
plant food removed by, 227.
Sea Island, 161.
soils, 28, 29, 161.
upland, 161.
Cotton hull ashes, 199.
Cotton-seed meal, 194.
Cotyledons, 77.
use of, 79.
Coulter of plow, 94.
Coulter-toothed harrow, 102, 104.
Cow manure, 178.
losses by exposure, 178.
Cowpeas, 68, 186.
for green manuring, 186.
plant food in, 187.
root growth of, 12.
soils for, 187.
Cropping and soil water, 159, 160.
Crops, cleansing, 232.
feeding, 232.
in rotation, 219.
manurial, 232.
money, 232.
Cucumber flower, 133.
Cultivation.
(See After-cultivation.)
Denitrification, 147.
conditions favoring, 147.
Denitrifying germs, 144, 147.
Draft ring of plow, 93.
Draining, need of, 235.
Drains, 158-239.
and capillary water, 237.
covered, 237.
Drains, effect on film water, 237.
effect on plant food, 238.
effect on soil temperature, 238.
effect on soil water, 237.
grade of, 239.
lateral, 239.
location of, 238.
main, 239.
open ditch, 237.
surface, 237.
tile, 239.
Dried blood, 194.
as a fertilizer, 194.
nitrogen in, 194.
Early crops, soils for, 27, 28.
Egg experiments to show osmose, 18, 19.
Egg plant, soil for, 28.
Elements in plants, 66.
Elm tree leaf beetle, 117.
Endosperm, 78.
use of, 79.
Epicotyl, 78.
Essential organs of flowers, 131.
Evaporation, loss of water by, 54.
loss of heat by, 59.
Excursion,
to examine soils, 24.
to see plow cutting roots, 14.
to study roots, 11.
to study leaves, 108.
to study stems, 120.
to visit farm, 4.
Experiment to show,
air necessary for germination, 73.
amount of transpiration, 110.
capillarity, 49.
capacity of soils for film water, 51.
checking loss of water by evaporation, 55.
chlorophyl necessary for starch making, 113.
effect of soil mulch, 55.
depth of planting seeds, 81.
effect of lime on clay soil, 42.
effect of working soil when wet, 26, 45.
exclusion of oxygen by leaf, 113.
film water, 50.
growth in length of roots, 16.
heat necessary for germination, 73.
how food and water get into the root, 18, 19.
how soils are warmed, 58.
how soils lose heat, 59.
importance of roots, 7.
moisture necessary for germination, 71.
no starch formed in dark, 112.
osmose, 18, 19.
plants contain albuminoids, 64.
plants contain ashes, 65.
plants contain cellulose, 63.
plants contain gum, 64.
plants contain oil, 64.
plants contain starch, 64.
plants contain sugar, 64.
plants contain water, 65.
power of soils to absorb rain, 40.
power of soils to hold water, 44, 45.
power of soils to pump water, 43.
roots absorb moisture, 9.
roots take food from soil, 9.
roots produce new plants, 10.
roots need air, 21.
soil characteristics, 24, 25.
soil temperature, 57, 60.
starch in leaf, 111.
stems carry sap, 122.
stems store food, 124.
transpiration, the fact, 109.
transpiration, amount, 111.
use of cotyledons, 79.
what becomes of water taken by roots, 39.
Fallow, bare, 100.
Fall plowing, 99.
Families of plants, 86.
Farm drainage, 235.
Farm manures, 171, 183.
classification of, 171.
importance of, 172.
Farmer deals with agents, laws and forces, 5.
Fat in plants, 64.
Fermentation of manures, 174.
Fertile soil, a, 141.
biological properties of, 142, 143.
chemical properties of, 142, 147.
most important properties of, 150.
physical properties of, 142.
Fertility of the soil, 150.
economizing the, 150.
maintaining the, 150.
Fertilizers, commercial, 68, 192.
analysis of, 203.
classification of, 171.
home mixing, 211.
how to know what kind is needed, 212.
importance of thorough mixing with the soil, 15.
manufactured, 202.
many brands, 202.
mixed, 202.
raw materials, 192.
sources of lime, 193, 200.
sources of nitrogen, 193.
sources of phosphoric acid, 193, 195.
sources of potash, 193, 199.
use of by farmer, 172, 192.
value of plant food in, 205.
Filament of stamen, 129.
Film water, 50.
Fish scrap as a fertilizer, 194.
Flower,
of apple, 129, 130.
of buttercup, 129, 130.
calyx, 129.
of cherry, 129, 130.
corolla, 129.
of cucumber, 133.
functions of parts of, 130.
of honeysuckle, 129.
of melon, 133.
parts of, 129.
of peach, 129, 130.
petals, 129.
of petunia, 129.
pistil, 130.
pollen, 130.
of potato, 129.
sepals, 129.
stamen, 129.
of squash, 133.
of tomato, 129.
of wild mustard, 129, 130.
Flowers, 8, 128.
essential parts of, 131.
functions of, 130.
Food of plants, 63.
Forces of nature and the farmer, 5.
Forest soils, 29.
Foundation facts and principles of agriculture, 22.
Free water in the soil, 48, 153.
injurious to roots, 153.
source of capillary and film water, 153.
Fresno sand, 28.
Fruit, 8, 136.
Fruit soils, 29.
Fruits, 27.
Furrow slice, 96.
Gas lime, 201.
Geranium, 6.
Germinating seeds,
need air, 73.
need heat, 73.
need water, 71.
Germs, 143.
denitrifying, 144, 147.
nitrifying, 144, 145.
nitrogen fixing, 144.
Goosefoot family, 86.
Gourd family, 86.
Grafting, 136.
Grain crops humus wasters, 224.
Grain soils, 28.
Grass, 5.
family, 86.
soils, 28, 29, 30, 162.
Gravel, 26.
Gravelly loams, 29.
Green-crop manures, 171, 183.
benefits from, 185.
best plants for, 185.
Green manure-crops, 186.
clovers as, 188.
cowpeas as, 186.
legumes as, 186.
non-leguminous, 191.
soy-bean as, 189.
time for growing, 186.
Gum in plants, 64, 66.
Gypsum, 201.
Habit of growth of roots, 11.
Handles of plow, 93.
Harrowing, 101, 158.
objects of, 101.
time for, 101.
Harrows, 4, 102.
brush, 102, 105.
chain, 102, 105.
coulter-toothed, 102, 104.
plank, 102, 105.
rolling cutter, 102, 103.
spike-toothed, 102, 104.
spring-toothed, 102, 103.
Hay soils, 29, 30.
Heat and the farmer, 5.
Heat necessary for germination, 73.
Hilling the crop, 169.
Hilum, 77.
Hoeing and soil water, 158.
Hoes, 4.
Horn shavings as fertilizer, 195.
Horse manure, 176.
losses when piled, 176.
House plants, watering of, 51.
How the bean gets up, 78.
How the corn gets up, 79.
Humus, 27, 38.
influence on soil texture, 62.
nitrogen in, 67.
a source of nitrogen, 67.
water-absorbing power of, 41.
water-holding power of, 44.
water-pumping power of, 43.
Hydrogen in plants, 66.
Hypocotyl, 78.
Ice, work of, in making soils, 35.
Insects, chewing, 117.
how to combat, 116, 117.
injure leaves, 116.
sucking, 116.
Insect pollination, 131.
Inter-tillage, 164.
Iodine, test for starch, 64.
Iron in plants, 66.
Jointer of plow, 95.
value as a pulverizer, 95.
Kainite, 199.
Knowledge of flowers, value of, 134.
Land plaster, 200.
Laws of nature, 5.
Leaf work, conditions necessary for, 114.
interfered with, 115, 118.
Leather as a fertilizer, 195.
Leaves, 8, 108.
digest food, 114.
facts about, 108.
functions of, 109.
manufacture starch, 112.
transpire water, 110.
Legume family, 86.
Legumes, definition of, 68.
nitrogen fixers, 68, 186, 144.
value as green manure plants, 144, 185.
Leguminous plants, 68.
Light necessary for leaf work, 114.
Lily family, 86.
Lime, 200.
amount to use, 200.
effect on sand, 200.
effect on clay, 200.
in soils, 149.
its action on soils, 149, 200.
sets free potash, 149.
sources of, 171, 200.
Lime stone soluble in water, 31.
Loam, 28.
Loamy soils, 28.
London purple, 117.
Loss of soil water, 53, 155.
Lucern, 13.
roots, 13.
Magnesium in plants, 66.
Maintenance of fertility, 150.
Materials composing soils, 26.
Mallow family, 86.
Manures, barn, 171, 173.
application of, 177.
care of, 173.
checking losses from, 176.
effect on soil texture, 172.
effect on soil water, 159.
functions of, 171.
losses from leaching, 173.
losses from heating, 174.
Many things the farmer deals with, 5.
Marigold, 6.
Marl, 201.
Melon flower, 133.
Miami sand, 28.
Microscopic organisms, 5.
Mixed fertilizers, 202.
inflating the guarantee, 204.
low grade, 204, 207.
many brands, 202.
valuation of, 205.
Morning-glory, 129.
Most important factor in the raising of crops, 151.
Mould board of plow, 94.
Muck, swamp, 30.
Mulch, soil, 56.
how made, 56.
to save water, 56.
Muriate of potash, 199.
Mustard, family, 86.
flower, 129, 130.
Muskmelon soils, 161.
Night shade family, 86.
Nitrates, what they are, 146.
availability of, 146, 193.
solubility of, 146.
Nitrate of soda, 193.
nitrogen, 193.
Nitric acid in soil, 146.
Nitrification, 146.
aided by plowing, 146.
aided by lime, 146.
conditions favorable to, 146.
Nitrifying germs, 144, 145.
Nitrogen, 66.
added to the soil by legumes, 68.
grown on the farm, 68.
in humus, 167.
in soils, 67, 148.
in plants, 66, 67.
in fertilizers, 192.
loss of, 67.
sources of, 171.
Nitrogen-fixing germs, 144.
Non-leguminous green manure-crops, 191.
Norfolk sand, 28.
Oats, soil for, 29.
Object of this book, 3.
Odorless phosphate, 198.
Oil in plants, 64, 66.
One-crop system, 221.
effect on fertility, 221.
Onion, 6.
Organic matter,
in soils, 32, 62, 220.
value of, 61.
Osmose, 18.
Ovary of flower, 130.
Ovules, 130.
Oxygen in plants, 66.
Paris green to destroy chewing insects, 117.
Parsley family, 86.
Parsnip root, depth of growth, 13.
Parsnips, 4.
Pasture, soils for, 30.
Pea family, 86.
soils, 28.
Peach borer, 127.
flower, 130.
Peanuts, 5.
Peat, 30.
Peppers, soil for, 28.
Percolation of water, 41.
Petals, 129.
Petunia, 129.
Pigweeds, 5, 6.
Pistil, 130.
function of, 131.
Phosphate, odorless, 198.
rock, 195.
slag, 195, 198.
Phosphoric acid, 195.
available, 195, 196.
in fertilizers, 195.
in soil, 148.
insoluble, 195, 196.
reverted, 196.
soluble, 196.
sources of, 171.
Phosphorus in plants, 66, 67.
in soils, 68.
Plank harrow, 102, 105.
Plant, analysis of, 63.
most important part of to plant itself, 7.
most important part of to plant grower, 7.
Plant diseases, 118.
Plant food, 63.
and the farmer, 5.
Plant food, in soil, 63.
in fertilizers, 68, 192, 205.
what it is, 63, 69.
Planting,
corn, 84.
grass seed, 84.
grain seed, 84.
method of, 83.
seeds, 81.
vegetable seeds, 84.
Plants, 5.
and the farmer, 5.
conditions for growth, 6.
composition of food of, 63.
for study, 6.
living, growing things, 6.
parts of, 6.
resemble one another, 6.
why raised, 6.
work of in making soils, 36.
Plow beam, 93.
coulter, 94.
characteristics of, 95.
clevis, 93.
cutting roots, 15.
draft ring, 93.
handles, 93.
jointer, 95.
landside, 94.
mouldboard, 94.
parts of, 92.
shackle, 93.
share, 93.
standard, 92.
truck, 95.
Plowing, 90.
depth of, 96.
effect on soil water, 156.
favors root growth, 14.
in fall, 99, 157.
in spring, 98, 157.
importance of deep, 15, 17.
objects of, 91, 92.
to save water, 92.
time for, 98.
Plows, 4.
Plumule, 78.
Pollen, 130.
Pollination, 131, 132, 135.
cross, 132, 133, 135.
of wild goose plum, 134.
Potash, 199.
in fertilizers, 199.
in soils, 149.
sources of, 171.
Potassium, in plants, 66, 67.
in soils, 68.
Potato, 6.
soils, 28, 29, 161.
Potato, sweet,
roots of, 13.
soils, 28, 160.
Properties of a fertile soil, 141.
Pruning, 137.
Quitch-grass, 121.
underground stem of, 121.
Radicle, 78.
Radish, shrunken root of, 10.
Ragweed, 5.
Rain, work of in making soils, 33.
on clay soils, 41.
on sandy soils, 41.
Rake, 101.
Rakes, 4.
Raking and soil water, 158.
Red spider, 117.
Rhubarb soil, 28.
Ridging the soil, 98, 158, 169.
Rock salt, 31.
Rollers, 107.
Rolling, 101, 106, 158.
autumn-sown grain, 106.
light soils, 106.
reason for, 106.
spring-sown grain, 106.
Rolling cutter harrows, 102.
Root, 8.
how it takes moisture, 18.
most important part of plant, 7.
Root hairs, 17, 18.
Roots,
absorb water, 9, 11, 17.
absorb plant food, 10, 11.
alfalfa, 13.
and fertilizers, 15.
growth of in length, 16.
conditions necessary for growth of, 8, 20, 141, 220.
corn, 13.
cowpea, 12.
depth of growth of, 12.
extent of growth of, 12.
habit of growth of, 11, 15.
hold plant in place, 9, 11, 15, 16.
important lessons from, 13, 15.
location of, 12, 13.
need firm soil, 20, 22, 23.
need mellow soil, 20, 22, 23.
need moist soil, 20, 22, 23.
need plant food in soil, 20, 22, 23.
need warm soil, 20, 22, 23.
need air in soil, 21, 22, 23.
produce new plants, 10, 11.
rapidity of growth of, 15.
soy-bean, 12.
store food, 10, 11.
sweet potato, 13.
tree, 13.
uses of, 9, 10, 11, 15.
work of, 9, 10, 15.
Rotation of crops, 219.
benefits from, 230.
conditions which modify, 232.
effect upon fertility, 224.
examples of, 234.
general rules for, 233.
length of, 233.
typical, 231.
Sampling soils, 163.
Sand, 26, 38.
Fresno, 28.
grades of, 26.
Miami, 28.
Norfolk, 28.
power to absorb water, 41, 43.
Sandy soils, 27.
adapted to early truck, 27.
effect of humus on, 43, 44, 220.
improving, 43.
water-holding power of, 44.
Sandy loam, 28.
Sapwood, 126.
Scythes, 4.
Seed leaves, 77.
Seed, 130.
classification of, 85.
crab,
drills, 4, 84.
planting, 81, 83.
Seeds, 8.
depth to plant, 81.
how they come up, 77.
how to test, 75.
which germinate at a temperature of 45 degrees, 74.
which germinate at a temperature of 60 degrees, 74.
Seeds to germinate,
need air, 72, 73, 75.
need heat, 73, 75.
need moisture, 71, 75.
Sepals, 129.
Shallow cultivation, 14, 15, 167, 169.
Share of plow, 93.
Shackle of plow, 93.
Silt, 27, 38.
Silt loam, 29.
Small fruit soils, 20.
Soil,
a fertile, 141.
definition of, 23.
formation of, 30, 237.
material composing, 147, 26.
mulch, 56.
temperature, 57, 60.
testing, 162, 215.
texture, 37, 142.
texture important, 142, 143.
ventilation, 68, 142.
warmed by sun, 58.
warmed by conduction, 58.
water, 40, 151.
Soils, 5, 23.
adobe, 30.
alfalfa, 29.
and the farmer, 5.
attitude of toward water, 40.
cabbage, 28, 161.
canteloupe, 28, 161.
capacity for film water, 51.
cauliflower, 28.
classified, 26.
clay, 29.
cloddy, 38.
close, 38.
coarse, 38.
compact, 38.
corn, 28, 29, 30, 161.
cotton, 28, 29, 161.
effect of working when wet, 26, 41.
egg plant, 28.
fine, 38.
forest, 29.
fruit, 27, 29.
general farming, 28, 29.
grain, 28, 162.
grass, 28, 29, 162.
gravelly, 29.
hard, 38.
hay, 29, 30.
heavy, 38.
how made, 30.
humus, 27, 38.
leachy, 38.
loamy, 28.
loose, 38.
lose heat, 59.
light, 38.
lime in, 67, 149.
loss of water from, 53, 153.
lumpy, 38.
mellow, 38.
oat, 29.
open, 38.
organic matter in, 220.
pasture, 30.
pea, 28.
peat, 30.
peppers, 28.
plant food in, 63.
potato, 28, 29, 161.
porous, 38.
relation of to water, 39, 46.
relation of to plants, 23.
retentive, 38.
rhubarb, 28.
sandy, 27.
small fruit, 28, 29.
soft, 38.
sorghum, 162.
stiff, 38.
stony, 29.
strawberry, 28.
swamp, 30.
testing, 162, 215.
tobacco, 27.
tomato, 28, 161.
truck, 27, 28, 29, 161.
vegetable, 28.
water-absorbing power of, 40, 43, 46, 142.
water-holding power of, 44, 142.
watermelon, 28, 161.
wheat, 29, 30.
Soil water, 150, 151.
amount of used by plants, 40.
and farm operations, 156.
control of, 53.
form of, 48, 153.
greatest factor in growth of crop, 46.
importance of, 39, 151.
loss of, 53, 155, 157, 164.
loss of by evaporation, 54.
loss of by weeds, 54, 165.
loss of by surface wash, 53.
necessity for, 151.
not enough, 154.
saving, 165.
sources of, 40, 153.
too much, 154.
Soil water influenced,
by cropping, 159.
by harrowing, 101, 103, 158.
by humus, 42, 43, 44, 45, 220.
by plowing, 91, 156.
by ridging, 98, 158.
by rolling, 106, 158.
Sorghum soils, 162.
Soy-bean, as a green manure crop, 189.
growth of roots, 12.
Spade, 90.
Spading, 90.
Spading-fork, 90.
Spike-toothed harrows, 102, 104.
Spraying, 118.
Spring plowing, 98.
Spring-toothed harrows, 102, 103.
Squash flowers, 133.
Stable manure, 171, 173.
Stamen, 129.
function of, 131.
Staminate flowers, 133.
Starch in plants, 64, 66.
iodine test for, 64.
Stems, 8, 120.
distinguished from roots, 120.
habit of growth of, 121.
structure of, 125.
underground, 121.
uses of, 120.
work of checked, 126.
Stigma, 130.
Stomata, 110.
Stones, 26, 31.
Stony loam, 29.
Strawberry flowers, 134.
perfect, 135.
pistillate, 135.
Study of plants begun, 6.
Style, 130.
Sugar cane, 5.
soil, 162.
Sugar in plants, 64, 66.
Sulphate of ammonia, 194.
Sulphate of potash, 199.
Sulphur in plants, 66.
Sun, work of in making soils, 32, 34.
Sunlight, and the farmer, 5.
necessary for leaf work, 110, 111, 112.
Superphosphates, 198.
Swamp muck, 30.
Sweet clover, 190.
Sweet potato roots, 13.
soils, 28, 160.
Sweet potatoes, 5.
Sylvinite, 199.
Systems of cropping, 119.
Tankage, 194.
as fertilizer, 194.
nitrogen in, 194.
phosphoric acid in, 194.
Temperature of soil, 57.
Tendrils, plants climb by, 122.
Testing seeds, 75.
Testing soils for water, 162.
for plant food, 215.
Texture of soils, 37, 143, 150.
Thinning fruit, 137.
Thistle, 6.
Thistle family, 86.
Thomas slag, 198.
as fertilizer, 198.
phosphoric acid in, 198.
Tillage and plant food, 67.
and fertility, 150.
Time to begin this study, 3.
Time to plow, 98.
Tobacco soils, 27.
Tomato soils, 161.
Tools, 5.
and the farmer, 5.
Transpiration, the fact, 110.
amount of, 111.
Transplanting, 87.
machines, 89.
Truck of plow, 95.
Truck soils, 27, 28, 29, 161.
Tubercles on roots of legumes, 68, 144.
Turnip, 6.
Type soils, 26.
Under drains, 237.
advantage of, 237.
Underground stems, 121.
Value of knowledge of flowers, 134.
Vegetables,
roots, 13, 14, 15.
soil for, 28.
Ventilation of soils, 68, 142.
necessary for germination, 73.
necessary for root growth, 21, 22, 23.
necessary for fixation of nitrogen, 144.
Water, absorption of by soil, 40, 43, 46, 142.
amount used by plants, 40.
capillary, 49, 153.
evaporation of, 54, 155.
free, 48, 153.
film, 50.
ground, 48.
importance of to plants, 39.
percolation of, 41.
relation of soils to, 39.
standing, 48.
work of in making soils, 33, 35.
Water and the farmer, 5.
Water in plants, 65.
Watering house plants, 51.
Watermelon soils, 28, 161.
Weeders, 167.
Weeds, 54.
how they injure crops, 54, 92.
how to kill, 119.
waste soil water, 54.
Wheat soils, 29, 30.
water used by, 40.
Wheel hoes, 168.
White hellebore, 117.
Wind pollination, 132.
Work of roots, 9, 10, 15.
Work of sun in making soils, 32, 34.
air in making soils, 36.
animals in making soils, 37.
moving ice in making soils, 35.
moving water in making soils, 33, 35.
plants in making soils, 36.
rain in making soils, 33.
Wood ashes, 199.
Wool waste as fertilizer, 195.
* * * * *
End of Project Gutenberg's The First Book of Farming, by Charles L. Goodrich