THE ALDINE PRESS.
The revival of classical literature in Europe is generally assigned to
the middle of the fifteenth century, and is, perhaps, coeval with the
invention of printing, when for the first time it became possible to
multiply books not only rapidly but without the multitude of mistakes
which invariably occurred in ordinary manuscripts. We have seen that in
the palmy days of Rome some of the large publishing houses were quite
capable of turning out extensive editions at a few hours' notice. No
modern type-setter could possibly keep pace with one of the trained
slaves of Atticus, and when some hundreds of the latter were assembled
in a room transcribing the MS. of some favourite author through the
medium of a professional reader, many copies would be completed in an
incredibly short space of time. If, however, the reader made a mistake,
it would be faithfully and universally reproduced, while in addition
each transcriber might fairly be credited with a number of errors of his
own. To this extent the printing press was a great improvement. If it
did its work more slowly, less workmen were required; and though each
movement of the machine would perpetuate the same errors, these might be
reduced to a minimum by the very simple expedient of carefully reading
and correcting the "proofs".
The year 1450 ushered in, as is supposed, the great art which was
destined to revolutionise the world; and although the pen was employed
for many years after that, it gradually gave place to its more
convenient if less nimble rival, taking at last a position more
congenial to it. "The pen for the brain, the press for reproduction,"
became henceforth a motto which had for its basis a new division of
labour as convenient as it was efficacious.
In the same year,[7] at Sermonetta, a little Italian town, Aldus
Manutius, the great printer and editor, first saw the light. The earlier
portion of his life was devoted entirely to scholastic duties and in
preparing himself, by hard and assiduous study of the Greek and Latin
classics, for the more important work of revising and printing the text.
It was not until 1490 that the preliminaries were complete, and he found
himself, with a little money and an immense stock of knowledge, a
comparative stranger at Venice, where already 160 printers and
publishers had been engaged for some time in glutting the market with
almost worthless books. The old Greek manuscripts especially were a
source of inconceivable trouble and continual annoyance. They were
written for the most part in bastard characters, and crowded with
mistakes and omissions, the result of some hundreds of years of repeated
transcriptions. They were, moreover, almost as difficult to procure as
they were corrupt in text. Nor was this the only difficulty that faced
the intrepid pioneer editor. Greek was a language but rarely used,
having given place to Latin in all but the most cultivated circles; the
demand for books in that character was accordingly limited, while even
at that early period competition was ruinous. To say nothing of the army
of printers at Venice, there was a large number at Rome who more than
supplied the Italian and foreign markets, turning out books in such
profusion that the important and oldest printing house, that of
Sweinheym & Pannartz, was compelled to petition the Pope to save
themselves from bankruptcy. In their petition they state that they had
printed no less than 12,475 separate volumes, a statement most likely
exaggerated, but none the less cogent evidence of the fierce struggle
which was being carried on when Aldus determined to swell the ranks of
the already crowded profession.
He was disgusted with the slipshod efforts of the ignorant proprietors
of these numerous printing shops, who were so eager to forestall one
another that they could not pay any attention to the quality of their
work, even assuming they had the aptitude for doing so. He took his
stand upon his accomplishments alone, apparently not doubting for an
instant that conscientious work, coupled with a superior education,
would in the long run repay him for the years of anxious toil which he
well knew would be his lot.
The Greek types of Rome, Milan, and Florence, hitherto in use, and all
cut to a single pattern, were abominable, and Aldus commenced by casting
types of his own. A fount of Roman and Italian letters consisted of only
24 capital and an equal number of small letters--the J and U were the
same as I and V--but a complete collection of Greek types with all the
varied accents and double characters, with which the language abounds,
amounted to no less than 600. Many of these he was compelled at the
outstart to forego, and he set to work upon his first book, the
_Grammatica Graeca_ of Lascaris, with barely a tithe of that number. It
was well that Aldus should commence with this work, for it was the first
which had been printed in Greek, some eighteen years previously by
Paravisinus, of Milan, whose small and crabbed type presents a
remarkable contrast to that of Manutius. Closely following upon this
venture comes the _Editio Princeps_ of Aristotle, which, in its 5 vols.
folio, is unquestionably the most splendid and lasting monument of the
Aldine press. It was issued, one volume at a time, between the years
1495-8, and was sold by the editor and publisher for a sum equivalent to
about L5 of our money. Next comes the _Editio Princeps_ of Aristophanes,
also in folio, and dated 1498, which, like all the other productions of
this press at that early date, was printed from large open types with
broad margins. The expense of production and consequent cost of these
sumptuous volumes were great, too great in fact to command a speedy
sale, and Aldus at last began to realise that it was infinitely
preferable to print and sell a large number of works at a cheap price
than a smaller number at a high one. Accordingly he had a more minute
fount of type cast, and in April, 1501, published his famous _Virgil_, a
small book of 228 unpaged leaves, measuring not quite 8 inches by 4. The
text, so it is said, was modelled after the neat handwriting of
Petrarch, and became known throughout Italy as the Aldino type, though
in France it was called _Italic_, the name it goes by to this day
throughout Europe. This book was sold for about 2s. of our money, and
was the first serious attempt ever made to produce cheap printed
classics.
No sooner was the success of this venture assured than an unknown
printer of Lyons took advantage of the opportunity to issue a wretched
reprint, alike in every detail except the quality of the workmanship.
Aldus' painstaking textual corrections were slavishly copied: even his
title-page was stolen, and the whole immoral production foisted on the
public as a genuine example from Venice, and at a little more than half
the cost. Horace and Juvenal, Martial and Ovid, shared the same fate as
fast as they issued from the legitimate press; the Lyonnese printer was
as persevering as he had proved himself unscrupulous, and kept good time
with the movements of Aldus. But the fame of the latter was proof
against servile imitations, his types alone being so extravagantly
praised by his admirers that there were some who seriously contended
that their beauty was owing to the silver of which they were made. There
is, indeed, no mistaking them, and the collector has only to place an
original side by side with one of the reprints from Lyons, to fix the
superiority distinctly and irrevocably in his mind. Aldus during his
life printed altogether 126 editions known to bibliographers, 78 of
which are in quarto or folio, and many in two or more volumes. Some of
these consist of choice copies printed on white linen paper, notably the
_Opera_ of Ovid and Plutarch, and many more passed through several
editions during his lifetime and after his death, which, to the great
loss of the world of letters, took place on the 6th February, 1515, when
he was 65 years of age.
The distinguishing mark of the Aldine press is the well-known dolphin
and anchor which first makes its appearance on the edition of the _Terze
Rime_ of Dante of 1502, and with few exceptions on all the books
afterwards issued from the press. The story is that Aldus was engaged in
printing Columna's _Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, which appeared in 1499
(a good copy sold in February last for L80), and which contained
numerous illustrations, most probably by Andrea Mantegna. One of these
represents a dolphin twining about an anchor, a mark so pleasing to
Aldus that he subsequently adopted it, using it over his office door as
well as on the title-pages of all his books.
[Illustration: _The first Aldine Anchor, 1502-1515._]
[Illustration: _Mark of A. Torresano, and that of his Sons._]
At the death of Aldus Manutius his son Paolo, or Paulus, being only
three years of age, went to reside with his maternal uncle Andrea
Torresano, himself a famous printer of Asola, who subsequently, with his
sons, carried on the Aldine press at Venice for the benefit of the
parties interested. From that date until 1524 most, if not all, of the
books printed at the press bear the imprint: "In aedibus Aldi et Andreae
Asulani soceri," and though, as usual, bearing the anchor, a fresh block
had been cut which slightly alters its appearance.
[Illustration: _The second Aldine Anchor, 1519-1524. Last appearing in
this form on the "Homer" of 1524, the first anchor being again used from
1524 to 1540._]
From the year 1524 to 1529, when Torresano died, an exact copy of the
_first_ anchor was again employed and continued to be so used until
1540, when Paulus Manutius, the son of Aldus, took exclusive possession
of his father's business. It will be noted that during the three years
following the death of Torresano (1530-31-32) no books were issued from
the press; and when it recommenced operations in 1533, it was for the
benefit of Paulus Manutius and the representatives of Torresano "In
aedibus haeredum Aldi Manutii et Andreae Asulani soceri". In 1540, as
before stated, Paulus Manutius took entire control of the business, and
a third variation of the anchor was introduced, the inscription on the
title-pages being "apud Aldi Filios".
[Illustration: _The third Aldine Anchor, 1540-1546, called the Ancora
grassa._]
[Illustration: _The fourth Aldine Anchor, 1546-1554._]
From 1546 to 1554 yet another variation of the anchor was adopted,
sometimes without the surrounding device. In 1555 a slight modification
of the _third_ anchor, surrounded sometimes with scroll work, came into
fashion again, and so continued until the death of Paulus Manutius on
the 6th of April, 1574.
[Illustration: _Modification of the third Anchor, 1555-1574._]
With the death of Paulus, the glory of the Aldine press departed. He,
like his father, had patiently striven to infuse neatness and accuracy
into his work, and is said to have been in every respect his equal.
Aldus, the son of Paulus, who is known among bibliographers as "the
younger," had not perhaps the same opportunities as were afforded to his
predecessors. The art of printing had advanced universally, and there
was not so much room for improvement as there had been formerly. He
printed in a good, but by no means exceptional, style, from 1574 until
the time of his death in 1597, when the Aldine press ceased to exist.
During a period of 103 years some 823 books had been issued, many of
which are among the prizes of book collecting.[8]
Aldus Junior, like his father and grandfather, used the anchor, but
between the years 1575-81 it is so hidden in the foliage of a
magnificent coat-of-arms which had been granted to the family by the
Emperor Maximilian, that it is likely to be overlooked by any who have
not made the Aldine press their special study.
[Illustration: _The Aldine Anchor, enclosed in a coat-of-arms, as used
by Aldus Junior, 1575-1581. On some occasions, and always after the
latter date, he used the anchor alone, sometimes without the word
ALDVS._]
The collector will need to be cautioned against accepting every work
bearing the anchor as a genuine example from the Aldine press. Some are
mere forgeries, but so badly executed as to deceive nobody who has seen
half-a-dozen of any of the originals. Some printers assumed the mark by
licence, as did Torresano, who used Anchor No. 3, with the words "Ex
Aldina Bibliotheca," and occasionally Anchor No. 1, but, these
exceptions apart, it may usually be taken for granted that a book if
well printed and bearing the mark in question is authentic. If any
doubt exists it is easy to turn to the pages of Renouard, where every
genuine example is catalogued and described. Some fifty years ago,
Aldine collectors were more numerous than they are now, and as a
consequence prices were higher. This particular branch of bibliography
demands the sacrifice of much time, and cannot be even approached
without a fair knowledge of Latin, Greek, and French. As a consequence,
the new school of collectors, whose knowledge of those languages is not
always as well grounded as it might be, have long since severed their
allegiance from old traditions and now confine their attention to sober
English, where, it must be admitted, there is plenty of scope for good
work.
Even yet, however, the earlier productions of the Aldine press maintain
their former position: perhaps they have even surpassed it, for as
specimens of ancient typography they stand unrivalled. Reference is made
chiefly to works dated before 1500, and to such exceptional specimens as
the _Virgil_ of 1501, some of which are still worth more than their
weight in gold. The majority of works from this famous press have,
however, fallen enormously in value of late years, as witness the fine
copy of Augurellus, 1505, 8vo, beautifully bound in blue morocco, which
quite recently was sold by auction for less than a sovereign: some few
years ago it would have brought three times the amount, and been
considered cheap even then.
By way of illustration, I cannot do better than give a few examples of
modern prices, comparing them with the approximate amounts which would
have been obtained some twenty-five or thirty years ago.
_Homeri Opera_, 2 vols. 8vo, red morocco extra, gilt edges,
_Venetiis_, Aldus, 1524, L3 15s. Would have sold for L9 or L10.
_Silius Italicus de Bello Punico_, old Venetian binding, gold
tooling, lettered in gold, gilt edges, _Venetiis_, Aldus, 1523,
L1 18s. Would have sold for about L5.
_Virgilius, cura Aldi Pii Manulii_, red morocco, gilt edges, by
Roger Payne, _Venetiis_, Aldus, 1514, L4 5s. Sold in 1825 at
from L10 to L12 in equally good binding.
_Psalterium Graece_, a fine copy, in blue morocco, with gilt
edges, _Venetiis_, Aldus, no date, but about 1498, L12.
Notwithstanding the fact that this is one of the few fifteenth
century books from the Aldine press, its value has declined
about 25 per cent.
_Quintiliani Institutiones_, fine copy in russia, gilt edges,
_Venetiis_, Aldus, 1521, on title 1522, 14s. Former price about
L4.
_Aristophanis Comoediae_, first edition, fine copy in russia,
gilt edges, _Venetiis_, Aldus, 1498, a rare book, L4. Former
price about L15.
_Thucydidis Historia_, first edition, and one of the few copies
printed on fine paper, old russia, gilt, _Venetiis_, Aldus,
1502, a very scarce book in this condition, L2 14s. Former
price from L12 to L15.
The above examples are taken from a single catalogue, and, if occasion
demanded, the list could be indefinitely increased. They will, however,
be sufficient to show that if the good old days when Eliot's _Indian
Bible_ of 1661, now worth considerably more than L500, could have been
got for thirty shillings or less, are not likely to return, there is yet
plenty of opportunity for picking up rare books at a moderate price, and
for much less than would at one time have had to be paid for them.
Who knows that the fashion will not change again some day, and that the
most coveted of all volumes will not be choice examples from the Aldine
press?
[Illustration: _The Elzevir Buffalo's Head, from the "Caesar" of Leyden,
1635._]
FOOTNOTES:
[7] M. Firmin-Didot inclines to the year 1449 for the date of Aldus'
birth--_vide_ his _Alde Manuce et l'Hellenisme a Venise_, p. 1, Paris,
1875.
[8] In addition to this number there are about sixty "Doubtful
Editions". The number of recognised Forgeries is about forty-five.