PAPER-MAKING--DIFFERENT SIZES OF PAPER--DIFFERENT SIZES OF
BOOKS--MEASUREMENTS WATER-MARKS--BOOKS TO CONSULT.
The mould used by paper-makers is a kind of sieve of an oblong shape,
bottomed with the very finest wire strands, all of which run
horizontally from end to end. From top to bottom, and about an inch
apart, are placed "chain wires," and on the right-hand side of the mould
the wire water-mark, which, together with the wire-marks, appears
semi-transparent. The reason of this is that both water-mark and wires
are slightly raised, and of course the pulp is thinner there than
anywhere else. Any ordinary sheet of paper held up to the light will
show this, and serve to extra illustrate the following diagram.
[Illustration: PAPER-MAKER'S MOULD: JUG WATER-MARK.]
Here CDEF is the mould which the workman drops into a vat of pulp, the
fine strands run from G to H all the way down the mould, AA, &c., are
the chain wires, and B is the water-mark, in this case a jug. The water
in the pulp of course runs through the sieve, leaving a layer of soft
matter, which after a while hardens into a sheet of paper. The
water-mark was at one time the trade mark of the maker, but subsequently
became merely a symbol denoting the size of the sheet of paper before it
was folded. The smallest sheet was water-marked with a jug, as above,
and termed "pot"; the next had a cap and bells, hence our term
"foolscap"; the next a horn, hence "post". Others had a "crown," and so
on. At the present day all water-marks have once more become trade
symbols, and cannot be depended upon to afford any evidence of size; but
at one time--_i.e._, before the year 1750--this was not so, and,
therefore, these water-marks, irrespective of their antiquarian value,
serve a useful purpose--namely, to point out in cases of doubt whether
any given book is an octavo, quarto, or folio, or a variation of any of
these sizes.
To refer once more to the diagram. Take a sheet of paper supposed to
have come from the mould and double it in half at the line AX. The
water-mark will in that event appear in the centre of the half sheet,
and the folded paper is of folio size. Now fold the paper the contrary
way, and the water-mark will appear at the bottom, but cut in half; the
paper thus folded is quarto (4to). Now fold it the contrary way again,
and a section of the water-mark will appear at the top; the paper thus
folded is octavo (8vo). We can go on folding, and in every subsequent
case the watermark will appear at the edges, while, as the paper gets
smaller and smaller, the sizes are styled 12mo, 16mo, 32mo, and so
forth.
In the example given, a book made of the sheet of paper in question
would be a pot folio, pot 4to, pot 8vo, and so on; but as larger-sized
papers were used, another book might be a post 8vo, or a crown 4to, &c.,
according to circumstances.
As stated, this is one way of finding out the size of an old book; but
there is another way--by means of the "signatures," which consist of
small letters or figures at the foot of the page of nearly every book.
The leaves (not pages) must be counted between signature and signature,
and then if there are two leaves the book is a folio, if four a 4to, if
eight an 8vo, if twelve a 12mo, if sixteen a 16mo, and if thirty-two a
32mo. Take, as an example, this very book you hold in your hand, and it
will be found that there are eight leaves between signature and
signature; hence it is an 8vo, though a small one, owing, of course, to
the small size of the paper from which it has been made, _viz._, crown.
Had it been a little smaller (still preserving its oblong shape) it
would have been a foolscap 8vo, if somewhat larger a demy 8vo, if larger
still a royal 8vo, and largest of all imperial 8vo. The quartos and
folios are governed by identical rules, and hence in the trade the sizes
of books are very numerous.
Simple as this method of computation may appear, a great deal of
controversy has taken place on the subject--so much so, indeed, that
there are people to be found who stoutly maintain, and adduce proof to
show, that what looks like a 4to is in reality an 8vo, or _vice versa_.
It would be out of place to enter into a discussion of this nature, and,
therefore, I should advise the young collector to count the leaves
between signature and signature, and to abide by the result, regardless
of all the learned arguments of specialists. If there are no signatures,
and the book is an old one, then study the position of the water-mark.
As examples, it will be sufficient to note that the _Illustrated London
News_ is folio, _Punch_ is 4to, and the _Cornhill_ and nearly all the
monthly magazines are large 8vos. There is a large number of varieties
of each size, but on the whole books which approximate to the sizes of
magazines are of the sizes named. Occasionally in judging by the eye in
this manner a mistake may be made; but of one thing there is no doubt,
that a vast amount of argument would have to be expended upon the
subject before the judgment could be proved to be wrong.
Paper-makers at one period made their sheets in frames of a given size,
so that it was a comparatively easy matter to distinguish the size of a
book at a glance. Now-a-days, however, there appears to be but little
uniformity in this respect, and the difficulty is consequently
considerably increased. The following measurements will, however, be
found approximately correct, and they may be utilised in a practical
manner by taking a sheet of brown paper of the required size and folding
it as previously mentioned, thus forming crown 8vos, crown 4tos,
elephant folios, &c., at will. The practice is good, and it will not
need to be often repeated.
A sheet of foolscap measures about 17 in. x 13 in.
" post " 19 in. x 15 in.
" crown " 20 in. x 15 in.
" demy " 22 in. x 17 in.
" royal " 24 in. x 19 in.
" imperial " 30 in. x 22 in.
" elephant " 28 in. x 23 in.
" atlas " 34 in. x 26 in.
The only paper used, as a general rule, for making up into 8vo books is
foolscap, post, crown, demy, royal, and imperial; 4to books are made up
of all the sizes; though elephant and atlas are chiefly devoted to
folios.
I now take leave of this branch of the subject, and return to
water-marks, which, as previously stated, were formerly used, as they
are now, for trade marks, and as trade marks only.
Before the year 1320, paper was very rarely used to write upon, but
still there are a few examples of it having been so employed extant, the
chief of which is an account-book preserved at the Hague, commencing
with the year 1301. The water-mark on the paper of this book is a globe
surmounted by a cross, while on paper of a little later date the rude
representation of a jug frequently appears. The globe and the jug are
consequently the most ancient water-marks yet discovered, and these
became the principal marks on paper, then exclusively manufactured in
Holland and Belgium. The "can and reaping hook" appeared a little later,
so did the "two cans," the "open hand," and the "half _fleur-de-lis_,"
all executed, as might be expected, in the rudest possible manner.
The Holbein family at Ravensburg--a town famous to this day for the
manufacture of paper--used a "bull's head". Fust and Schoeffer (_circa_
1460) used a "clapper" or rattle, which has a somewhat curious history.
At Ravensburg there was an hospital for lepers, and whenever any of the
inmates had occasion to leave the building he was strictly enjoined to
flourish a rattle with which he was provided, so that healthy folk could
get out of his way. Paper made at the town is often found marked with
the rattle, that having grown, by reason of its frequent use, into an
institution of the place.
The next marks in point of date are in all probability the "unicorn,"
"anchor," and the "P" and "Y," the initials of Philip of Burgundy and
his wife Isabella, who were married in 1430.
The famous English printer Caxton (_c._ A.D. 1424-91)[4] used the
"bull's head" paper from Ravensburg, the "P" and "Y," the "open hand,"
and the "unicorn"; sometimes even the "bunch of grapes," which came from
Italy.
The first folio of Shakespeare's works (1623) has paper marked with a
"fool's cap" among other devices. The "post horn," another favourite
device, which has given the name to a particular size of paper--namely,
"post"--was first used about the year 1670, when the General Post Office
was established, and it became the fashion for the postman to blow a
horn.
In modern times paper-marks have become so numerous that it would be
next to impossible to classify them; nor would it be of much advantage
to the book collector even if it could be done. With old marks it is
different, for _fac-simile_ reprints of scarce and ancient volumes are
frequently detected by looking at the water-mark on the paper. Of
course, this also may be imitated, but there is often considerable
difficulty in attaining the requisite degree of perfection; and, under
any circumstance, some little knowledge of the early history and
appearance of water-marks will be found useful as well as interesting.
The best books to consult on the subject are Herring's _Paper and
Papermaking_ and Sotheby's _Principia Typographica_, 1858, the latter of
which is a masterpiece of learning and constructive skill.
FOOTNOTES:
[4] It is very improbable that Caxton was born in 1412, as nearly all
his biographers state, but about ten or twelve years later. Evidence of
this is contained in the records preserved at Mercers' Hall, Cheapside,
London, where his name is inscribed as having been apprenticed in the
year 1438, the age at which apprenticeship was entered upon being most
commonly between twelve and fourteen years.