RECAPITULATION.
Manures have two distinct classes of action in the soil, namely,
_chemical_ and _mechanical_.
_Chemical_ manures are those which enter into the construction of
plants, or produce such chemical effects on matters in the soil as shall
prepare them for use.
_Mechanical_ manures are those which improve the mechanical condition
of the soil, such as loosening stiff clays, compacting light sands,
pulverizing large particles, etc.
[What are the three kinds of manures?
What are organic manures, and what are their uses? Mineral?
Atmospheric?]
Manures are of three distinct kinds, namely, _Organic_, _mineral_, and
_atmospheric_.
_Organic_ manures comprise all vegetable and animal matters (except
ashes) which are used to fertilize the soil. Vegetable manures supply
carbonic acid, and inorganic matter to plants. Animal manures supply the
same substances and ammonia.
_Mineral_ manures comprise ashes, salt, phosphate of lime, plaster, etc.
They supply plants with inorganic matter. Their usefulness depends on
their solubility.
Many of the organic and mineral manures have the power of absorbing
ammonia arising from the decomposition of animal manures, as well as
that which is brought to the soil by rains--these are called absorbents.
_Atmospheric_ manures consist of ammonia, carbonic acid, oxygen and
water. Their greatest usefulness requires the soil to allow the water of
rains to pass _through_ it, to admit of a free circulation of air among
its particles, and to contain a sufficient amount of absorbent matter to
arrest and retain all ammonia and carbonic acid presented to it.
[What rule should regulate the application of manures?
How must organic manures be managed? Atmospheric?]
Manures should never be applied to the soil without regard to its
requirements.
Ammonia and carbon are almost always useful, but mineral manures become
mere _dirt_ when applied to soils not deficient of them.
The only true guide to the exact requirements of the soil is _chemical
analysis_; and this must always be obtained before farming can be
carried on with true economy.
Organic manures must be protected against the escape of their ammonia
and the leaching out of their soluble parts. One cord of stable manure
properly preserved, is worth ten cords which have lost all of their
ammonia by evaporation, and their soluble parts by leaching--as is the
case with much of the manure kept exposed in open barn-yards.
Atmospheric manures cost nothing, and are of great value when properly
employed. In consequence of this, the soil which is enabled to make the
largest appropriation of the atmospheric fertilizers, is worth many
times as much as that which allows them to escape.
SECTION FOURTH.
MECHANICAL CULTIVATION.
CHAPTER I.
THE MECHANICAL CHARACTER OF SOILS.
[What is the first office of the soil?
How does it hold water for the uses of the plant?
How does it obtain a part of its moisture?]
The mechanical character of the soil is well understood from preceding
remarks, and the learner knows that there are many offices to be
performed by the soil aside from the feeding of plants.
1. It admits the roots of plants, and holds them in their position.
2. By a sponge-like action, it holds water for the uses of the plant.
3. It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere to supply the demands of
plants.
[How may it obtain heat?
What is the use of the air circulating among its particles?
Could most soils be brought to the highest state of fertility?
What is the first thing to be done?
Should its color be darkened?]
4. It absorbs heat from the sun's rays to assist in the process of
growth.
5. It admits air to circulate among roots, and supply them with a part
of their food, while the oxygen of that air renders available the
minerals of the soil; and its carbonic acid, being absorbed by the water
in the soil, gives it the power of dissolving, and carrying into roots
more inorganic matter than would be contained in purer water.
6. It allows the excrementitious matter thrown out by roots to be
carried out of their reach.
All of these actions the soil must be capable of performing, before it
can be in its highest state of fertility. There are comparatively few
soils now in this condition, but there are also few which could not be
profitably rendered so, by a judicious application of the modes of
cultivation to be described in the following chapters.
The three great objects to be accomplished are:--
1. To adopt such a system of drainage as will cause all of the water of
rains to pass _through_ the soil, instead of evaporating from the
surface.
2. To pulverize the soil to a considerable depth.
3. To darken its color, and render it capable of absorbing atmospheric
fertilizers.
[Name some of the means used to secure these effects.
Why are under-drains superior to open drains?]
The means used to secure these effects are _under-draining, sub-soil and
surface-plowing, digging, applying muck, etc._
CHAPTER II.
UNDER-DRAINING.
The advantages of _under_-drains over _open_ drains are very great.
When open drains are used, much water passes into them immediately from
the surface, and carries with it fertilizing parts of the soil, while
their beds are often compacted by the running water and the heat of the
sun, so that they become water-tight, and do not admit water from the
lower parts of the soil.
The sides of these drains are often covered with weeds, which spread
their seeds throughout the whole field. Open drains are not only a great
obstruction to the proper cultivation of the land, but they cause much
waste of room, as we can rarely plow nearer than within six or eight
feet of them.
There are none of these objections to the use of under-drains, as these
are completely covered, and do not at all interfere with the
cultivation of the surface.
[With what materials may under-drains be constructed?
Describe the tile.]
Under drains may be made with brush, stones, or tiles. Brush is a very
poor material, and its use is hardly to be recommended. Small stones are
better, and if these be placed in the bottoms of the trenches, to a
depth of eight or ten inches, and covered with sods turned upside down,
having the earth packed well down on to them, they make very good
drains.
TILE DRAINING.
The best under-drains are those made with tiles, or burnt clay pipes.
The first form of these used was that called the _horse-shoe tile_,
which was in two distinct pieces; this was superseded by a round pipe,
and we have now what is called the _sole tile_, which is much better
than either of the others.
[Illustration: Fig. 4--Sole Tile.]
[Why is the sole tile superior to those of previous
construction?
How are these tiles laid?
How may the trenches be dug?]
This tile is made (like the horse-shoe and pipe tile) of common brick
clay, and is burned the same as bricks. It is about one half or three
quarters of an inch thick, and is so porous that water passes directly
through it. It has a flat bottom on which to stand, and this enables it
to retain its position, while making the drain, better than would be
done by the round pipe. The orifice through which the water passes is
egg-shaped, having its smallest curve at the bottom. This shape is the
one most easily kept clear, as any particles of dirt which get into the
drain must fall immediately to the point where even the smallest stream
of water runs, and are thus removed. An orifice of about two inches is
sufficient for the smaller drains, while the main drains require larger
tiles.
These tiles are laid, so that their ends will touch each other, on the
bottoms of the trenches, and are kept in position by having the earth
tightly packed around them. Care must be taken that no space is left
between the ends of the tiles, as dirt would be liable to get in and
choke the drain. It is advisable to place a sod--grass side down--over
each joint, before filling the trench, as this more effectually protects
them against the entrance of dirt. There is no danger of keeping the
water out by this operation, as it will readily pass through any part of
the tiles.
In _digging the trenches_ it is not necessary (except in very stony
ground) to dig out a place wide enough for a man to stand in, as there
are tools made expressly for the purpose, by which a trench may be dug
six or seven inches wide, and to any required depth. One set of these
implements consists of a long narrow spade and a hoe to correspond, such
as are represented in the accompanying figure.
[Illustration: Fig. 5.
Upton tool.
Spade and hoe.]
With these tools, and a long light crowbar, for hard soils, trenches may
be dug much more cheaply than with the common spade and pickaxe. Where
there are large boulders in the soil, these draining tools may dig under
them so that they will not have to be removed.
When the trenches are dug to a sufficient depth, the bottoms must be
made perfectly smooth, with the required descent (from six inches to a
few feet in one hundred feet). Then the tiles may be laid in, so that
their ends will correspond, be packed down, and the trenches filled up.
Such a drain, if properly constructed, may last for ages. Unlike the
stone drain, it is not liable to be frequented by rats, nor choked up by
the soil working into it.
The position of the tile may be best represented by a figure, also the
mode of constructing stone drains.
[Why are small stones better than large stones in the
construction of drains?
On what must the depth of under-drains depend?]
It will be seen that the tile drain is made with much less labor than
the stone drain, as it requires less digging, while the breaking up of
the stone for the stone drain will be nearly, or quite as expensive as
the tiles. Drains made with large stones are not nearly so good as with
small ones, because they are more liable to be choked up by animals
working in them.[AK]
[Illustration: Fig. 6.
_a_--Tile drain trench.
_b_--Stone drain trench.
_c_--Sod laid on the stone.]
[Describe the principle which regulates these relative depths
and distances. (Blackboard.)
Which is usually the cheaper plan of constructing drains?]
The _depth_ of the drains must depend on the distances at which they are
placed. If but _twenty_ feet apart, they need be but _three_ feet deep;
while, if they are _eighty_ feet apart, they must be _five_ feet deep,
to produce the same effect. The reason for this is, that the water in
the drained soil is not level, but is higher midway between the drains,
than at any other point. It is necessary that this highest point should
be sufficiently far from the surface not to interfere with the roots of
plants, consequently, as the water line between two drains is _curved_,
the most distant drains must be the deepest. This will be understood by
referring to the following diagram.
[Illustration: Fig. 7.
_aa_--5 feet drains, 80 ft. apart. _bb_--3 feet drains, 20 ft. apart.]
The curved line represents the position of the water.
In most soils it will be easier to dig one trench five feet deep, than
four trenches three feet deep, and the deep trenches will be equally
beneficial; but where the soil is very hard below a depth of three feet,
the shallow trenches will be the cheapest, and in such soils they will
often be better, as the hard mass might not allow the water to pass down
to enter the deeper drains.
By following out these instructions, land may be cheaply, thoroughly,
and permanently drained.
FOOTNOTES:
[AK] It is probable that a composition of hydraulic cement and some
soluble material will be invented, by which a continuous pipe may be
laid in the bottoms of trenches, becoming porous as the soluble material
is removed by water.
CHAPTER III.
ADVANTAGES OF UNDER-DRAINING.
The advantages of under-draining are many and important.
1. It entirely prevents drought.
2. It furnishes an increased supply of atmospheric fertilizers.
3. It warms the lower portions of the soil.
4. It hastens the decomposition of roots and other organic matter.
5. It accelerates the disintegration of the mineral matters in the soil.
6. It causes a more even distribution of nutritious matters among those
parts of soil traversed by roots.
7. It improves the mechanical texture of the soil.
8. It causes the poisonous excrementitious matter of plants to be
carried out of the reach of their roots.
9. It prevents grasses from running out.
10. It enables us to deepen the surface soil.
By removing excess of water--
11. It renders soils earlier in the spring.
12. It prevents the throwing out of grain in winter.
13. It allows us to work sooner after rains.
14. It keeps off the effects of cold weather longer in the fall.
15. It prevents the formation of _acetic_ and other organic acids, which
induce the growth of sorrel and similar weeds.
16. It hastens the decay of vegetable matter, and the finer comminution
of the earthy parts of the soil.
17. It prevents, in a great measure, the evaporation of water, and the
consequent abstraction of heat from the soil.
18. It admits fresh quantities of water from rains, etc., which are
always more or less imbued with the fertilizing gases of the atmosphere,
to be deposited among the absorbent parts of soil, and given up to the
necessities of plants.
19. It prevents the formation of so hard a crust on the surface of the
soil as is customary on heavy lands.
* * * * *
[How does under-draining prevent drought?]
1. Under-draining _prevents drought_, because it gives a better
circulation of air in the soil; (it does so by making it more open).
There is always the same amount of water _in_ and _about_ the surface of
the earth. In winter, there is more in the soil than in summer, while in
summer, that which has been dried out of the soil exists in the
atmosphere in the form of a _vapor_. It is held in the vapory form by
_heat_, which acts as _braces_ to keep it distended. When vapor comes in
contact with substances sufficiently colder than itself, it gives up its
heat--thus losing its braces--contracts, and becomes liquid water.
This may be observed in hundreds of common operations.
[Why is there less water in the soil in summer than in winter,
and where does it exist?
What holds it in its vapory form?
How is it affected by cold substances?
Describe the deposit of moisture on the outside of a pitcher in summer.
What other instances of the same action can be named?]
It is well known that a cold pitcher in summer robs the vapor in the
atmosphere of its heat, and causes it to be deposited on its own
surface. It looks as though the pitcher were _sweating_, but the water
all comes from the atmosphere, not, of course, through the sides of the
pitcher.
If we breathe on a knife-blade, it condenses in the same manner the
moisture of the breath, and becomes covered with a film of water.
Stone houses are damp in summer, because the inner surfaces of the
walls, being cooler than the atmosphere, cause its moisture to be
deposited in the manner described. By leaving a space, however, between
the walls and the plaster, this moisture is prevented from being
troublesome.
[How does this principle affect the soil?
Explain the experiment with the two boxes of soil.]
Nearly every night in the summer season, the cold earth receives
moisture from the atmosphere in the form of dew.
A cabbage, which at night is very cold, condenses water to the amount of
a gill or more.
The same operation takes place in the soil. When the air is allowed to
circulate among its lower and _cooler_ particles, they receive moisture
from the same process of condensation. Therefore, when, by the aid of
under-drains, the lower soil becomes sufficiently open to admit of a
circulation of air, the deposit of atmospheric moisture will keep the
soil supplied with water at a point easily accessible to the roots of
plants.
If we wish to satisfy ourselves that this is _practically_ correct, we
have only to prepare two boxes of finely pulverized soil, one, five or
six inches deep, and the other fifteen or twenty inches deep, and place
them in the sun at mid-day in summer. The thinner soil will be
completely dried, while the deeper one, though it may have been
perfectly dry at first, will soon accumulate a large amount of water on
those particles which, being lower and more sheltered from the sun's
heat than the particles of the thin soil, are made cooler.
With an open condition of subsoil, then, such as may be secured by
under-draining, we entirely overcome drought.
[How does under-draining supply to the soil an increased
amount of atmospheric fertilizers?
How does it warm the lower parts of the soil?]
2. Under-draining _furnishes an increased supply of atmospheric
fertilizers_, because it secures a change of air in the soil. This
change is produced whenever the soil becomes filled with water, and then
dried; when the air above the earth is in rapid motion, and when the
comparative temperature of the upper and lower soils changes. It causes
new quantities of the ammonia and carbonic acid which it contains to be
presented to the absorbent parts of the soil.
3. Under-draining _warms the lower parts of the soil_, because the
deposit of moisture (1) is necessarily accompanied by an abstraction of
heat from the atmospheric vapor, and because heat is withdrawn from the
whole amount of air circulating through the cooler soil.
When rain falls on the parched surface soil, it robs it of a portion of
its heat, which is carried down to equalize the temperature for the
whole depth. The heat of the rain-water itself is given up to the soil,
leaving the water from one to ten degrees cooler, when it passes out of
the drains, than when received by the earth.
There is always a current of air passing from the lower to the upper end
of a well constructed drain; and this air is always cooler in warm
weather, when it issues from, than when it enters the drain. Its lost
heat is imparted to the soil.
[How does it hasten the decomposition of roots and other
organic matter in the soil?
How does it accelerate the disintegration of its mineral parts?
Why is this disintegration necessary to fertility?]
This heating of the lower soil renders it more favorable to vegetation,
partially by expanding the spongioles at the end of the roots, thus
enabling them to absorb larger quantities of nutritious matters.
4. Under-draining _hastens the decomposition of roots and other organic
matters in the soil_, by admitting increased quantities of air, thus
supplying _oxygen_, which is as essential in decay as it is in
combustion. It also allows the resultant gases of decomposition to pass
away, leaving the air around the decaying substances in a condition to
continue the process.
This organic decay, besides its other benefits, produces an amount of
heat perfectly perceptible to the smaller roots of plants, though not so
to us.
5. Draining _accelerates the disintegration of the mineral matters in
the soil_, by admitting water and oxygen to keep up the process. This
disintegration is necessary to fertility, because the roots of plants
can feed only on matters dissolved from _surfaces_; and the more finely
we pulverize the soil, the more surface we expose. For instance, the
interior of a stone can furnish no food for plants; while, if it were
finely crushed, it might make a fertile soil.
Any thing, tending to open the soil to exposure, facilitates the
disintegration of its particles, and thereby increases its fertility.
[How does under-draining equalize the distribution of the
fertilizing parts of the soil?
Why does this distribution lessen the impoverishment of the soil?
How does under-draining improve the mechanical texture of the soil?
How do drains affect the excrementitious matter of plants?]
6. Draining _causes a more even distribution of nutritious matters among
those parts of soil traversed by roots_, because it increases the ease
with which water travels around, descending by its own weight, moving
sideways by a desire to find its level, or carried upward by attraction
to supply the evaporation at the surface. By this continued motion of
the water, soluble matter of one part of the soil may be carried to some
other part; and another constituent from this latter position may be
carried back to the former. Thus the food of vegetables is continually
circulating around among their roots, ready for absorption at any point
where it is needed, while the more open character of the soil enables
roots to occupy larger portions, making a more even drain on the whole,
and preventing the undue impoverishment of any part.
7. Under-drains _improve the mechanical texture of the soil_; because,
by the decomposition of its parts, as previously described (4 and 5), it
is rendered of a character to be more easily worked; while smooth round
particles, which have a tendency to pack, are roughened by the oxidation
of their surfaces, and move less easily among each other.
8. Drains _cause the excrementitious matter of plants to be carried out
of the reach of their roots_. Nearly all plants return to the soil those
parts of their food, which are not adapted to their necessities, and
usually in a form that is poisonous to plants of the same kind. In an
open soil, this matter may be carried by rains to a point where roots
cannot reach it, and where it may undergo such changes as will fit it to
be again taken up.
[Why do they prevent grasses from running out?]
9. By under-draining, _grasses are prevented from running out_, partly
by preventing the accumulation of the poisonous excrementitious matter,
and partly because these grasses usually consist of _tillering_ plants.
These plants continually reproduce themselves in sprouts from the upper
parts of their roots. These sprouts become independent plants, and
continue to tiller (thus keeping the land supplied with a full growth),
until the roots of the _stools_ (or clumps of tillers), come in contact
with an uncongenial part of the soil, when the tillering ceases; the
stools become extinct on the death of their plants, and the grasses run
out.
The open and healthy condition of soil produced by draining prevents the
tillering from being stopped, and thus keeps up a full growth of grass
until the nutriment of the soil is exhausted.
10. Draining _enables us to deepen the surface-soil_, because the
admission of air and the decay of roots render the condition of the
subsoil such that it may be brought up and mixed with the surface-soil,
without injuring _its quality_.
The second class of advantages of under-draining, arising in the removal
of the excess of water in the soil, are quite as important as those just
described.
[How does the removal of water render soils earlier in spring?
Why does it prevent the throwing out of grain in winter?
Why does it enable us to work sooner after rains?
Why does it keep off the effects of cold weather longer in the fall?]
11. _Soils are, thereby, rendered earlier in spring_, because the water,
which rendered them cold, heavy, and untillable, is earlier removed,
leaving them earlier in a growing condition.
12. _The throwing out of grain in winter_ is prevented, because the
water falling on the earth is immediately removed instead of remaining
to throw up the soil by freezing, as it always does from the upright
position taken by the particles of ice.
13. _We are enabled to work sooner after rains_, because the water
descends, and is immediately removed instead of lying to be taken off by
the slow process of evaporation, and sinking through a heavy soil.
14. _The effects of cold weather are kept off longer in the fall_,
because the excess of water is removed, which would produce an unfertile
condition on the first appearance of cold weather.
The drains also, from causes already named (3), keep the soil warmer
than before being drained, thus actually lengthening the season, by
making the soil warm enough for vegetable growth earlier in spring, and
later in autumn.
[How does it prevent lands from becoming sour?
Why does it hasten the decay of roots, and the comminution of mineral
matters?
How does it prevent the abstraction of heat from the soil?]
15. _Lands are prevented from becoming sour by the formation of acetic
acid_, etc., because these acids are produced in the soil only when the
decomposition of organic matter is arrested by the _antiseptic_
(preserving) powers of water. If the water is removed, the decomposition
of the organic matter assumes a healthy form, while the acids already
produced are neutralized by atmospheric influences, and the soil is
restored from sorrel to a condition in which it is fitted for the growth
of more valuable plants.
16. _The decay of roots_, etc., is allowed to proceed, because the
preservative influence of too much water is removed. Wood, leaves, or
other vegetable matter kept continually under water, will last for ages;
while, if exposed to the action of the weather, as in under-drained
soils, they soon decay.
The presence of too much water, by excluding the oxygen of the air,
prevents the _comminution of matters_ necessary to fertility.
[How much heat does water take up in becoming vapor?
Why does water sprinkled on a floor render it cooler?
Why is not a cubic inch of vapor warmer than a cubic inch of water?
Why does a wet cloth on the head make it cooler when fanned?
How does this principle apply to the soil?]
17. _The evaporation of water, and the consequent abstraction of heat
from the soil, is in a great measure prevented_ by draining the water
out at the _bottom_ of the soil, instead of leaving it to be dried off
from the surface.
When water assumes the gaseous (or vapory) form, it takes up 1723 times
as much _heat_ as it contained while a liquid. A large part of this heat
is derived from surrounding substances. When water is sprinkled on the
floor, it cools the room; because, as it becomes a vapor, it takes heat
from the room. The reason why vapor does not feel hotter than liquid
water is, that, while it contains 1723 times as much heat, it is 1723 as
large. Hence, a cubic inch of vapor, into which we place the bulb of a
thermometer, contains no more heat than a cubic inch of water. The
principle is the same in some other cases. A sponge containing a
table-spoonful of water is just as _wet_ as one twice as large and
containing two spoonsful.
If a wet cloth be placed on the head, and the evaporation of its water
assisted by fanning, the head becomes cooler--a portion of its heat
being taken to sustain the vapory condition of the water.
The same principle holds true with the soil. When the evaporation of
water is rapidly going on, by the assistance of the sun, wind, etc., a
large quantity of heat is abstracted, and the soil becomes cold.
When there is no evaporation taking place, except of water which has
been deposited on the lower portions of soil, and carried to the surface
by capillary attraction (as is nearly true on under-drained soils), the
loss of heat is compensated by that taken from the moisture in the
atmosphere by the soil, in the above-named manner.
This cooling of the soil by the evaporation of water, is of very great
injury to its powers of producing crops, and the fact that under-drains
avoid it, is one of the best arguments in favor of their use. Some idea
may, perhaps, be formed of the amount of heat taken from the soil in
this way, from the fact that, in midsummer, 25 hogsheads of water may be
evaporated from a single acre in twelve hours.
[When rains are allowed to _enter_ the soil, how do they
benefit it?
How do under-drains prevent the formation of a crust on the surface of a
soil?]
18. When not saturated with water the soil admits the water of rains,
etc., which bring with them _fertilizing gases from the atmosphere_, to
be deposited among the absorbent parts of soil, and given up to the
necessities of the plant. When this rain falls on lands already
saturated, it cannot enter the soil, but must run off from the surface,
or be removed by evaporation, either of which is injurious. The first,
because fertilizing matter is washed away. The second, because the soil
is deprived of necessary heat.
19. _The formation of crust on the surface of the soil_ is due to the
evaporation of water, which is drawn up from below by capillary
attraction. It arises from the fact that the water in the soil is
saturated with mineral substances, which it leaves at its point of
evaporation at the surface. This soluble matter from below, often forms
a very hard crust, which is a complete shield to prevent the admission
of air with its ameliorating effects, and should, as far as possible, be
avoided. Under-draining is the best means of doing this, as it is the
best means of lessening the evaporation.
The foregoing are some of the more important reasons why under-draining
is always beneficial. Thorough experiments have amply proved the truth
of the theory.
[What kinds of soil are benefited by under-draining?]
The _kinds of soil benefited by under-draining_ are nearly as unlimited
as the kinds of soil in existence. It is a common opinion, among
farmers, that the only soils which require draining are those which are
at times covered with water, such as swamps and other low lands; but the
facts stated in the early part of this chapter, show us that every kind
of soil--wet, dry, compact, or light--receives benefit from the
treatment. The fact that land is _too dry_, is as much a reason why it
should be drained, as that it is _too wet_, as it overcomes drought as
effectually as it removes the injurious effects of too much water.
All soils in which the water of heavy rains does not immediately pass
down to a depth of at least _thirty inches_, should be under-drained,
and the operation, if carried on with judgment, would invariably result
in profit.
[What do English farmers name as the profits of
under-draining?
What stand has been taken by the English government with regard to
under-draining?]
Of the precise _profits_ of under-draining this is not the place to
speak: many of the agricultural papers contain numerous accounts of its
success. It may be well to remark here, that many English farmers give
it, as their experience, that under-drains pay for themselves every
three years, or that they produce a perpetual profit of 33-1/3 per
cent., or their original cost. This is not the opinion of _theorists_
and _book farmers_. It is the conviction of practical men, who know,
_from experience_, that under-drains are beneficial.
The best evidence of the utility of under-draining is the position, with
regard to it, which has been taken by the English national government,
which affords much protection to the agricultural interests of her
people--a protection which in this country is unwisely and unjustly
withheld.
In England a very large sum from the public treasury has been
appropriated as a fund for loans, on under-drains, which is lent to
farmers for the purpose of under-draining their estates, the only
security given being the increased value of the soil. The time allowed
for payments is twenty years, and only five per cent. interest is
charged. By the influence of this patronage, the actual wealth of the
kingdom is being rapidly increased, while the farmers themselves, can
raise their farms to any desired state of fertility, without immediate
investment.
[How does under-draining affect the healthfulness of marshy
countries?
Describe the sub-soil plow.]
The best proof that the government has not acted injudiciously in this
matter is, that private capitalists are fast employing their money in
the same manner, and loans on under-drains are considered a very safe
investment.
There is no doubt that we may soon have similar facilities for improving
our farms, and when we do, we shall find that it is unnecessary to move
West to find good soil. The districts nearer market, where the expense
of transportation is much less, may, by the aid of under-drains, and a
judicious system of cultivation, be made equally fertile.
One very important, though not strictly agricultural, effect of thorough
drainage is its removal of certain local diseases, peculiar to the
vicinity of marshy or low moist soils. The health-reports in several
places in England, show that where _fever and ague_ was once common, it
has almost entirely disappeared since the general use of under-drains in
those localities.
CHAPTER IV.
SUB-SOIL PLOWING.
[Describe the Mapes plow.
Why is the motion in the soil of one and a half inches sufficient?
How does the oxidation of the particles of the soil resemble the rusting
of cannon balls in a pile?]
The _sub-soil plow_ is an implement differing in figure from the surface
plow. It does not turn a furrow, but merely runs through the subsoil
like a mole--loosening and making it finer by lifting, but allowing it
to fall back and occupy its former place. It usually follows the surface
plow, entering the soil to the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches
below the bottom of the surface furrow.
The best pattern now made (the Mapes plow) is represented in the
following figure.
[Illustration: Fig. 8.
The Mapes plow and its mode of action. _a_--Shape of the foot of the
plow, _b_--Its effect on the soil.]
The sub-soil plows first made raised the whole soil about eight inches,
and required very great power in their use often six, eight, or even ten
oxen. The Mapes plow, raising the soil but slightly, may be worked with
much less power, and produces equally good results. It may be run to its
full depth in most soils by a single yoke of oxen.
Of course a motion in the soil of but one and a half inches is very
slight, but it is sufficient to move each particle from the one next to
it which, in dry soils, is all that is necessary. Whoever has examined a
pile of cannon-balls must have observed that at the points where they
touch each other, there is a little rust. In the soil, the same is often
the case. Where the particles touch each other, there is such a chemical
change produced as renders them fit for the use of plants. While these
particles remain in their first position, the changed portions are out
of the reach of roots; but, if, by the aid of the sub-soil plow, their
position is altered, these parts are exposed for the uses of plants. If
we hold in the hand a ball of dry clay, and press it hard enough to
produce the least motion among its particles, the whole mass becomes
pulverized. On the same principle, the sub-soil plow renders the compact
lower soil sufficiently fine for the requirements of fertility.
[Why are the benefits of sub-soiling not permanent on wet
lands?
Does sub-soiling overcome drought?
How does it deepen the surface soil?]
Notwithstanding its great benefits on land, which is sufficiently dry,
sub-soiling cannot be recommended for wet lands; for, in such case, the
rains of a single season would often be sufficient to entirely overcome
its effects by packing the subsoil down to its former hardness.
On lands not overcharged with water, it is productive of the best
results, it being often sufficient to turn the balance between a gaining
and a losing business in farming.
It increases nearly every effect of under-draining; especially does it
overcome drought, by loosening the soil, and admitting air to circulate
among the particles of the subsoil and deposit its moisture on the
principle described in the chapter on under-draining.
It deepens the surface-soil, because it admits roots into the subsoil
where they decay and leave carbon, while the circulation of air so
affects the mineral parts, that they become of a fertilizing character.
The deposit of carbon gives to the subsoil the power of absorbing, and
retaining the atmospheric fertilizers, which are more freely presented,
owing to the fact that the air is allowed to circulate with greater
freedom. As a majority of roots decay in the surface-soil, they there
deposit much mineral matter obtained from the subsoil.
[Why is the retention of atmospheric manures ensured by
sub-soiling?
Why are organic manures plowed deeply under the soil, less liable to
evaporation than when deposited near the surface?
How does sub-soiling resemble under-draining in relation to the
tillering of grasses?
When the subsoil consists of a thin layer of clay on a sandy bed, what
use may be made of the sub-soil plow?]
The retention of atmospheric manures is more fully ensured by the
better exposure of the clayey portions of the soil.
Those manures which are artificially applied, by being plowed under to
greater depths, are less liable to evaporation, as, from the greater
amount of soil above them, their escape will more probably be arrested;
and, from the greater prevalence of roots, they are more liable to be
taken up by plants.
The subsoil often contains matters which are deficient in the
surface-soil. By the use of the sub-soil plow, they are rendered
available.
Sub-soiling is similar to under-draining in continuing the tillering of
grasses, and in getting rid of the poisonous excrementitious matter of
plants.
When the subsoil is a thin layer of clay on a sandy bed (as in some
plants of Cumberland Co. Maine), the sub-soil plow, by passing through
it, opens a passage for water, and often affords a sufficient drainage.
[To how great a depth will the roots of plants usually occupy
the soil?
What is the object of loosening the soil?
How are these various effects better produced in deep than in shallow
soils?]
If plants will grow better on a soil six inches deep than on one of
three inches, there is no reason why they should not be benefited in
proportion, by disturbing the soil to the whole depth to which roots
will travel--which is usually more than two feet. The minute rootlets
of corn and most other plants, will, if allowed by cultivation, occupy
the soil to the depth or thirty-four inches, having a fibre in nearly
every cubic inch of the soil for the whole distance. There are very few
cultivated plants whose roots would not travel to a depth of thirty
inches or more. Even the onion sends its roots to the depth of eighteen
inches when the soil is well cultivated.
The object of loosening the soil is to admit roots to a sufficient depth
to hold the plant in its position--to obtain the nutriment necessary to
its growth--to receive moisture from the lower portions of the
soil--and, if it be a bulb, tuber, or tap, to assume the form requisite
for its largest development.
It must be evident that roots, penetrating the soil to a depth of two
feet, anchor the plant with greater stability than those which are
spread more thinly near the surface.
The roots of plants traversing the soil to such great distances, and
being located in nearly every part, absorb mineral and other food, in
solution in water, only through the _spongioles at their ends_.
Consequently, by having these ends in _every part_ of the soil, it is
_all_ brought under contribution, and the amount supplied is greater,
while the demand on any particular part may be less than when the whole
requirements of plants have to be supplied from a depth of a few inches.
[May garden soils be profitably imitated in field culture?]
The ability of roots, to assume a natural shape in the soil, and grow to
their largest sizes, must depend on the condition of the soil. If it is
finely pulverized to the whole depth to which they ought to go, they
will be fully developed; while, if the soil be too hard for penetration,
they will be deformed or small. Thus a carrot may grow to the length of
two and a half feet, and be of perfect shape, while, if it meet in its
course at a depth of eight or ten inches a _cold, hard_ subsoil, its
growth must be arrested, or its form injured.
Roots are turned aside by a hard sub-soil, as they would be if received
by the surface of a plate of glass.
Add to this the fact that cold, impenetrable subsoils are _chemically_
uncongenial to vegetation, and we have sufficient evidence of the
importance, and in many cases the absolute necessity of sub-soiling and
under-draining.
It is unnecessary to urge the fact that a garden soil of two feet is
more productive than a field soil of six inches; and it is certain that
proper attention to these two modes of cultivation will in a majority of
cases make a garden of the field--more than doubling its value in ease
of working, increased produce, certain security against drought, and
more even distribution of the demands on the soil--while the outlay will
be immediately repaid by an increase of crops.
[Is the use of the sub-soil plow increasing?
Will its use ever injure crops?]
The subsoil will be much improved in its character the first year, and a
continual advancement renders it in time equal to the original
surface-soil, and extending to a depth of two feet or more.
The sub-soil plow is coming rapidly into use. There are now in New
Jersey more foundries casting sub-soil plows than there were sub-soil
plows in the State six years ago. The implement has there, as well as in
many other places, ceased to be a curiosity; and the man who now objects
to its use, is classed with him who shells his corn on a shovel over a
half-bushel, instead of employing an improved machine, which will enable
him to do more in a day than he can do in the "good old way" in a week.
Had we space, we might give many instances of the success of
sub-soiling, but the agricultural papers of the present day (at least
one of which every farmer should take) have so repeatedly published its
advantages, that we will not do so.
In no case will its use be found any thing but satisfactory, except in
occasional instances where there is some chemical difficulty in the
subsoil, which an analysis will tell us how to overcome.
As was before stated, its use on wet lands is not advisable until they
have been under-drained, as excess of water prevents its effects from
being permanent.
CHAPTER V.
PLOWING AND OTHER MODES OF PULVERIZING THE SOIL.
[May the satisfaction attending labor be increased by an
understanding of the natural laws which regulate our operations?
On what depends the kind of plow to be used?]
The advantages of pulverizing the soil, and the _reasons_ why it is
necessary, are now too well known to need remark. Few farmers, when they
plow, dig, or harrow, are enabled to give substantial reasons for so
doing. If they will reflect on what has been said in the previous
chapters, concerning the supply of mineral food to the plant by the
soil, and the effect of air and moisture about roots, they will find
more satisfaction in their labor than it can afford when applied without
thought.
PLOWING.
[What is a general rule with regard to this?
Should deep plowing be immediately adopted? Why?
Why is this course of treatment advisable for garden culture?]
The kind of plow used in cultivating the surface-soil must be decided
by the kind of soil. This question the practical, _observing_ farmer
will be able to solve.
As a general rule, it may be stated that the plow which runs the
_deepest_, with the same amount of force, is the best.
We might enter more fully into this matter but for want of space.
The advantages of _deep plowing_ cannot be too strongly urged.
The statement that the _deeper_ and the _finer_ the soil is rendered,
the more productive it will become, is in every respect true, and which
no single instance will contradict.
It must not be inferred from this, that we would advise a farmer, who
has always plowed his soil to the depth of only six inches, to double
the depth at once. Such a practice in some soils would be highly
injurious, as it would completely bury the more fertile and better
cultivated soil, and bring to the top one which contains no organic
matter, and has never been subject to atmospheric influences. This
would, perhaps, be so little fitted for vegetation that it would
scarcely sustain plants until their roots could reach the more fertile
parts below. Such treatment of the soil (turning it upside down) is
excellent in _garden_ culture, where the great amount of manures
applied is sufficient to overcome the temporary barrenness of the soil,
but it is not to be recommended for all _field_ cultivation, where much
less manure is employed.
[How should field plowing be conducted?
How does such treatment affect soils previously limed?
How may it sometimes improve sandy or clay soils?]
The course to be pursued in such cases is to _plow one inch deeper each
year_. By this means the soil maybe gradually deepened to any desired
extent. The amount of uncongenial soil which will thus be brought up, is
slight, and will not interfere at all with the fertility of the soil,
while the elevated portion will become, in one year, so altered by
exposure, that it will equal the rest of the soil in fertility.
Often where lime has been used in excess, it has sunk to the subsoil,
where it remains inactive. The slight deepening of the surface plowing
would mix this lime with the surface-soil, and render it again useful.
When the soil is light and sandy, resting on a heavy clay subsoil, or
clay on sand, the bringing up of the mass from below will improve the
texture of the soil.
As an instance of the success of deep plowing, we call to mind the case
of a farmer in New Jersey, who had a field which had yielded about
twenty-five bushels of corn per acre. It had been cultivated at ordinary
depths. After laying it out in eight step lands (24 feet), he plowed it
at all depths from five to ten inches, on the different lands, and
sowed oats evenly over the whole field. The crop on the five inch soil
was very poor, on the six inch rather better, on the seven inch better
still, and on the ten inch soil it was as fine as ever grew in New
Jersey; it had stiff straw and broad leaves, while the grain was also
much better than on the remainder of the field.
[What kind of soils are benefited by fall plowing?]
There is an old anecdote of a man who died, leaving his sons with the
information that he had buried a pot of gold for them, somewhere on the
farm. They commenced digging for the gold, and dug over the whole farm
to a great depth without finding the gold. The digging, however, so
enriched the soil that they were fully compensated for their
disappointment, and became wealthy from the increased produce of their
farm.
Farmers will find, on experiment, that they have gold buried in their
soil, if they will but dig deep enough to obtain it. The law gives a man
the ownership of the soil for an indefinite distance from the surface,
but few seem to realize that there is _another farm_ below the one they
are cultivating, which is quite as valuable as the one on the surface,
if it were but properly worked.
_Fall plowing_, especially for heavy lands, is a very good means of
securing the action of the frosts of winter to pulverize the soil. If it
be a stiff clay, it may be well to throw the soil up into ridges (by
ridging and back furrowing), so as to expose the largest possible amount
of surface to the freezing and thawing of winter. Sandy soils should not
be plowed in the fall, as it renders them too light.
DIGGING MACHINES.
[What is the digging machine?]
A recent invention has been made in England, known as the digging
machine or rotary spade, which--although from having too much gearing
between the power and the part performing the labor, it is not adapted
to general use--has given such promise of future success, that Mr. Mechi
(an agricultural writer of the highest standing) has said that "the plow
is doomed." This can hardly be true, for the varied uses to which it may
be applied, will guarantee its continuance in the favor of the farmer.
Already, in this country, Messrs. Gibbs & Mapes, have invented a digging
machine of very simple construction, which seems calculated to serve an
excellent purpose, even in the hands of the farmer of limited means.
Its friends assert that, with one pair of oxen, it will dig perfectly
three feet wide, and for a depth of fifteen inches. An experiment with
an unperfected machine, in the presence of the writer, seemed to justify
their hopes.
This machine thoroughly pulverizes the soil to a considerable depth, and
for smooth land must prove far superior to the plow.
THE HARROW AND CULTIVATOR.
[Why is the harrow a defective implement?
Why is the cultivator superior to the harrow?]
The _harrow_, an implement largely used in all parts of the world, to
pulverize the soil, and break clods, has become so firmly rooted in the
affections of farmers, that it must be a very long time before they can
be convinced that it is not the best implement for the use to which it
is devoted. It is true that it pulverizes the soil for a depth of two or
three inches, and thus much improves its appearance, benefiting it,
without doubt, for the earliest stages of the growth of plants. Its
action, however, is very defective, because, from the _wedge_ shape of
its teeth, it continually acts to _pack_ the soil; thus--although
favorable for the germination of the seed--it is not calculated to
benefit the plant during the later stages of its growth, when the roots
require the soil to be pulverized to a considerable depth.
The _cultivator_ may be considered an _improved harrow_. The principal
difference between them being, that while the teeth of the harrow are
pointed at the lower end, those of the cultivator are shaped like a
small double plow, being large at the bottom and growing smaller
towards the top. They lift the earth up, instead of pressing it
downwards, thus loosening instead of compacting the soil.
Many styles of cultivators are now sold at agricultural warehouses. A
very good one, for field use, may be made by substituting the cultivator
teeth for the spikes in an old harrow frame.
CHAPTER VI.
ROLLING, MULCHING, WEEDING, ETC.
ROLLING.
[Name some of the benefits of rolling?]
_Rolling_ the soil with a large roller, arranged to be drawn by a team,
is in many instances a good accessory to cultivation. By its means, the
following results are obtained:--
1. The soil at the surface is pulverized without the compacting of the
lower parts, the area of contact being large.
2. The stones on the land are pressed down so as to be out of the way of
the scythe in mowing.
3. The soil is compacted around seeds after sowing in such a manner as
to exclude light and to _touch_ them in every part, both of which are
essential to their germination and to the healthfulness of the plants.
[Under what circumstances should the roller be used?]
4. The soil is so compacted at the surface, that it is less frequented
by _grubs_, etc., than when it is more loose.
5. When the soil is smoothed in this manner, there is less surface
exposed for the evaporation of water with its cooling effect.
6. Light sandy lands, by being rolled in the fall, are rendered more
compact, and the loosening effects of frequent freezing and thawing are
avoided.
Although productive of these various effects, rolling should be adopted
only with much care, and should never be applied to very heavy lands,
except in dry weather when lumpy after plowing, as its tendency in such
cases would be to render them still more difficult of cultivation. Soils
in which air does not circulate freely, are not improved by rolling, as
it presses the surface-particles still more closely together, and
prevents the free admission of the atmosphere.
If well _under-drained_, a large majority of soils would doubtless be
benefited by a judicious use of the roller.[AL]
MULCHING.
[What is mulching?
What are some of its benefits?]
_Mulching_ (called Gurneyism in England) consists in covering the soil
with salt hay, litter, seaweed, leaves, spent tanbark, chips, or other
refuse matter.
Every farmer must have noticed that, if a board or rail, or an old
brush-heap be removed in spring from soil where grass is growing, the
grass afterwards grows in those places much larger and better than in
other parts of the field.
This improvement arises from various causes.
1. The evaporation of water from the soil is prevented during drought by
the shade afforded by the mulch; and it is therefore kept in better
condition, as to moisture and temperature, than when evaporation goes on
more freely. This condition is well calculated to advance the chemical
changes necessary to prepare the matters--both organic and mineral--in
the soil for the use of plants.
2. By preventing evaporation, we partially protect the soil from losing
ammonia resultant from decaying organic matter.
3. A heavy mulch breaks the force of rains, and prevents them from
compacting the soil, as would be the result, were no such precaution
taken.
4. Mulching protects the surface-soil from freezing as readily as when
exposed, and thus keeps it longer open for the admission of air and
moisture. When unprotected, the soil early becomes frozen; and all water
falling, instead of entering as it should do, passes off on the surface.
[Why does mulching take the place of artificial watering?
Why is the late sowing of oats beneficial?
From what arises the chief benefit of top dressing the soil with manure
in autumn?]
5. The throwing out of winter grain is often prevented, because this is
due to the freezing of the surface-soil.
6. Mulching prevents the growth of some weeds, because it removes from
them the fostering heat of the sun.
Many of the best nursery-men keep the soil about the roots of young
trees mulched continually. One of the chief arguments for this treatment
is, that it prevents the removal of the moisture from the soil and the
consequent loss of heat. Also that it keeps up a full supply of water
for the uses of the roots, because it keeps the soil cool, and causes a
deposit of dew.
7. It also prevents the "baking" of the soil, or the formation of a
crust.
It is to be recommended in nearly all cases to sow oats very thinly over
land intended for winter fallow after the removal of crops, as they will
grow a little before being killed by the frost, when they will fall
down, thus affording a very beneficial mulch to the soil.
When farmers spread manure on their fields in the fall to be plowed
under in the spring, they benefit the land by the mulching more than by
the addition of fertilizing matter, because they give it the protecting
influence of the straw, etc., while they lose much of the ammonia of
their manure by evaporation. The same mulching might be more cheaply
done with leaves, or other refuse matter, and the ammonia of the manure
made available by composting with absorbents.
[Why is snow particularly beneficial?]
It is an old and true saying that "snow is the poor man's manure." The
reason why it is so beneficial is, chiefly, that it acts as a most
excellent mulch. It contains no more ammonia than rain-water does; and,
were it not for the fact that it protects the soil against loss of heat,
and produces other benefits of mulching, it would have no more
advantageous effect. The severity of winters at the North is partially
compensated by the long duration of snow.
It is a well known fact that when there is but little snow in cold
countries, wheat is very liable to be _winter killed_. The same
protection is afforded by artificial mulching.
This treatment is peculiarly applicable to the cultivation of flowers,
both in pots and in beds out of doors. It is almost indispensable to the
profitable production of strawberries, and many other garden crops, such
as asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Many say that the best treatment for trees
is to put stones about their roots. This is simply _mulching_ them, and
might be done more cheaply by the use of leaves, copying the action of
nature in forests;[AM] for, unless these stones be removed in spring,
they will sink and compact the soil in part during open weather.
WEEDING.
[What are some of the uses of weeds? Their disadvantages?]
If a farmer were asked--what is the use of _weeds_? he might make out
quite a list of their benefits, among which might be some of the
following:--
1. They shade tender plants, and in a measure serve as a mulch to the
ground.
2. Some weeds, by their offensive odor, drive away many insects.
3. They may serve as a green crop to be plowed into the soil, and
increase its organic matter.
4. _They make us stir the soil_, and thus increase its fertility.
Still, while thinking out these excuses for weeds, he would see other
and more urgent reasons why they should not be allowed to grow.
1. They occupy the soil to the disadvantage of crops.
2. They exclude light and heat from cultivated plants, and thus
interfere with their growth.
3. They take up mineral and other matters from the soil, and hold them
during the growing season, thus depriving crops of their use.
It is not necessary to argue the injury done by weeds. Every farmer is
well convinced that they should be destroyed, and the best means of
accomplishing this are of the greatest importance.
[How may we protect ourselves against their increase?
Why is it especially important for this purpose to maintain the balance
of the soil?]
In the first place, we should protect ourselves against their increase.
This may be done:--
By decomposing all manures in compost, whereby the seeds contained will
be killed by the heat of fermentation; or, if one bushel of salt be
mixed through each cord of compost (as before recommended), it will kill
seeds as well as grubs,--
By hoeing, or, otherwise, destroying growing weeds before they mature
their seeds, and
By keeping the soil in the best chemical condition.
This last point is one of much importance. It is well known that soils
deficient in potash, will naturally produce one kind of plants, while
soils deficient in phosphoric acid will produce plants of another
species, etc. Many soils produce certain weeds which would not grow on
them if they were made chemically perfect, as indicated by analysis. It
is also believed that those weeds, which naturally grow on the most
fertile soils, are the ones most easily destroyed. There are exceptions
(of which the Thistle is one), but this is given as a general rule.
[How much salt may be used with advantage?
Why is the scuffle-hoe superior to the common hoe?]
By careful attention to the foregoing points, weeds may be kept from
increasing while those already in the soil may be eradicated in various
ways, chiefly by mechanical means, such as hoeing, plowing, etc.[AN]
Prof. Mapes says that six bushels of salt annually sown broadcast over
each acre of land, will destroy very many weeds as well as grubs and
worms.
The _common hoe_ is a very imperfect tool for the purpose of removing
weeds, as it prepares a better soil for, and replants in a position to
grow, nearly as many weeds as it destroys.
The _scuffle-hoe_ (or push-hoe) is much more effective, as, when worked
by a man walking backwards, and retiring as he works, it leaves nearly
all of the weeds on the surface of the soil to be killed by the sun.
When used in this way, the earth is not trodden on after being hoed--as
is the case when the common hoe is employed. This treading, besides
compacting the soil, covers the roots of many weeds, and causes them to
grow again.
[How may much labor be saved in removing weeds?
What is the Langdon horse-hoe?
Describe the _universal_ cultivator?]
Much of the labor of weeding usually performed by men, might be more
cheaply done by horses. There are various implements for this purpose,
some of which are coming, in many parts of the country, into very
general use.
One of the best of these is the _Langdon Horse Hoe_, which is a
shovel-shaped plow, to be run one or two inches deep. It has a wing on
each side to prevent the earth from falling on to the plants in the
rows. At the rear, or upper edge, is a kind of rake or comb, which
allows the earth to pass through, while the weeds pass over the comb and
fall on the surface of the soil, to be killed by the heat of the sun. It
is a simple and cheap tool, and will perform the work of twenty men with
hoes. The hand hoe will be necessary only in the rows.
CULTIVATOR.
The _cultivator_, which was described in the preceding chapter, and of
which there are various patterns in use, is excellent for weeding, and
for loosening the soil between the rows of corn, etc. The one called
the _universal_ cultivator, having its side bars made of iron, curved so
that at whatever distance it is placed the teeth will point _straight
forward_, is a much better tool than those of the older patterns, which
had the teeth so arranged that when set for wide rows, they pointed
towards the clevis. It is difficult to keep such a cultivator in its
place, while the "_universal_" is as difficult to move out of a straight
line.
IMPROVED HORSE-HOE.
[What is the improved horse-hoe?]
The _improved horse-hoe_ is a combination of the "Langdon" horse hoe and
the cultivator, and is the best implement, for many purposes, that has
yet been made.[AO]
[Illustration: Fig. 9]
HARVESTING MACHINES.
Until within a comparatively short period, but little attention has been
paid to the production of machines for harvesting the various crops.
During the past few years, however, many valuable inventions have
appeared. Among these we notice Ketchum's mower, Hussey's mower and
reaper, and Wagener's grain and grass seed harvester. The latter machine
gathers only the grain and seeds of the crop, leaving the straw to be
plowed under the soil, thus maintaining its supply of soluble silicates,
and increasing its amount of organic matter. After taking the seed heads
from the standing straw and grasses, it thrashes them, blows out the
chaff, separates the different kinds of seeds, and discharges them into
bags ready for market. It consists of a car containing the machinery; to
this may be attached any required number of horses. The inventor affirms
that it has harvested the grain of two acres in one hour, performing the
work with accuracy.[AP]
* * * * *
There is much truth in the following proverbs:
"A garden that is well kept, is kept easily."
"You must conquer weeds, or weeds will conquer you."
[What are the two great rules in mechanical cultivation?]
It is almost impossible to give a _recapitulation_ of the matters
treated in this section, as it is, itself, but an outline of subjects
which might occupy our whole book. The scholar and the farmer should
understand every principle which it contains, as well as they understand
the multiplication table; and their application will be found, in every
instance, to produce the best results.
The two great rules of mechanical cultivation are--
THOROUGH UNDER-DRAINING.
DEEP AND FREQUENT DISTURBANCE OF THE SOIL.
FOOTNOTES:
[AL] Field rollers should be made in sections, for ease of turning.
[AM] The beneficial effects of mulching is so great as to lead us to the
conclusion that it has other means of action than those mentioned in
this book. Future experiments may lead to more knowledge on this
subject.
[AN] It is possible that the excrementitious matter thrown out by some
plants may be sufficiently destructive to other kinds to exterminate
them from the soil--thus, farmers in Maine say that a single crop of
turnips will entirely rid the soil of _witch grass_. This is,
undoubtedly, the effect of the excrementitious matter of the turnips.
This subject is one of practical importance, and demands close
investigation by farmers, which may lead to its being reduced to a
system.
[AO] The improved horse-hoe is made and sold by Ruggles, Nourse & Mason,
of Worcester, Mass., and Quincy Hall, Boston.
[AP] This machine is more fully noticed in the advertising pages.
SECTION FIFTH.
ANALYSIS.
CHAPTER I.
[Why does true practical economy require that the soil should
be analyzed?]
At the present time, when such marked improvements have been, and are
still being made, in the practice of agriculture, the farmer cannot be
too strongly advised to procure an analysis of his soil, and for obvious
reasons.
It has been sufficiently proved that the plant draws from the soil
certain kinds of mineral matter, in certain proportions; also, that if
the soil do not contain the constituents required, the plants cannot
obtain them, and consequently cannot grow. Furthermore, in proportion to
the ability of the soil to supply these materials, in exactly the same
proportion will it, when under good treatment, produce good and
abundant crops.
[Can each farmer make his own analyses?
Why will not travelling chemists answer the purpose?
How must an analysis be used?]
All admit the value and the necessity of manures; they are required to
make up deficiencies in the soil, and consequently, they must supply to
it the matters which are wanting. In order to know what is wanting, we
must know the composition of the soil. This can be learned only by
accurate chemical analysis. Such an analysis every farmer must possess
before he can conduct his operations with _true practical economy_.
An important question now arises as to whether each farmer can make his
own analyses. He cannot do so without long study and practice. The late
Prof. Norton said that, at least _two years'_ time would be necessary to
enable a man to become competent to make a reliable analysis. When we
reflect that a farmer may never need more than five or six analyses, we
shall see that the time necessary to learn the art would be much more
valuable than the cost of the analyses (at $5 or $10 each), setting
aside the cost of apparatus, and the fact that while practising in the
laboratory, he must not use his hands for any labor that would unfit
them for the most delicate manipulations.
Neither will _travelling_ chemists be able to make analyses as
accurately and as cheaply as those who work in their own laboratories,
where their apparatus is not liable to the many injuries consequent on
frequent removal. The cost of sending one hundred samples of soil to a
distant chemist, would be much less than the expense of having his
apparatus brought to the town where his services are required.
[How may a farmer obtain the requisite knowledge?
When are the services of a consulting agriculturist required?]
_The way in which an analysis should be used_ is a matter of much
importance. To a man who knows nothing of chemistry (be he ever so
successful a farmer), an analysis, as received from a chemist, would be
as useless and unintelligible as though it were written in Chinese;
while, if a chemist who knew nothing of farming, were to give him advice
concerning the application of manures, he would be led equally astray,
and his course would be any thing but _practical_. It is necessary that
chemical and practical knowledge should be combined, and then the value
of analysis will be fully demonstrated. The _amount_ of knowledge
required is not great, but it must be _thorough_. The information
contained in this little book is sufficient, but it would be folly for a
man to attempt to use an analysis from reading it once hurriedly over.
It must be studied and thought on with great care, before it can be of
material assistance. The evenings of one winter, devoted to this
subject, will enable a farmer to understand the application of analysis
to practical farming, especially if other and more compendious works
are also read. A less time could hardly be recommended.
[Is there any doubt as to the practical value of analysis?
How should samples of soil for analysis be selected?]
Where this attention cannot be given to the subject, the services of a
Consulting Agriculturist should be employed to advise the treatment
necessary to render fertile the soil analyzed.
Every farmer, however, should learn enough of the principles of
agriculture to be able to use an analysis, when procured, without such
assistance.[AQ]
Nearly all scientific men (all of the highest merit) are unanimous in
their conviction of the _practical_ value of an analysis of soils; and a
volume of instances of their success, with hardly a single failure,
might be published.
Prof. Mapes says, in the _Working Farmer_, that he has given advice on
hundreds of different soils, and _not a single instance_ can be found
where he has failed to produce a profit greater than the cost of
analysis and advice. Dr. T. C. Jackson, of Boston, the late Prof.
Norton, of Yale College, and others, have had universal success in this
matter.
Analysis must be considered the only sure road to economical farming.
_To select samples of soil for analysis_, take a spadeful from various
parts of the field--going to exactly the depth to which it has been
plowed--until, say a wheel-barrow full, has been obtained. Mix this
well together, and send about a quart or a pint of it (free from stones)
to the chemist. This will represent all of that part of the farm which
has been subject to the same cultivation, and is of the same mechanical
character. If there are marked differences in the kinds of soil,
separate analyses will be necessary.
[Give an instance of the success of treatment according to
analysis?]
When an analysis is obtained, a regular debtor and creditor account may
be kept with the soil; and the farmer may know by the composition of the
ashes of his crops, and the manures supplied, whether he is maintaining
the fertility of his soil.
Prof. Mapes once purchased some land which could not produce corn at
all, and by applying only such manures as analysis indicated to be
necessary, at a cost of less than $2 per acre, he obtained the first
year over _fifty bushels of shelled corn per acre_. The land has since
continued to improve, and is as fertile as any in the State. It has
produced in one season a sufficient crop of cabbages to pay the expense
of cultivation, and over $250 per acre besides, though it was apparently
_worthless_ when he purchased it.
These are strong facts, and should arouse the farmers of the whole
country to their true interests. Let them not call the teachings of
science "book-farming," but "prove all things--hold fast that which is
good."
FOOTNOTES:
[AQ] See Author's card in the front of the book.
CHAPTER II.
TABLES OF ANALYSIS.
ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF CROPS.
No. I.
------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------
| Wheat. | Wheat | Rye. | Rye
| | Straw. | | Straw.
------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------
Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 20 | 60 | 24 | 40
------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------
Silica (_sand_) | 16 | 654 | 5 | 645
Lime | 28 | 67 | 50 | 91
Magnesia | 120 | 33 | 104 | 24
Peroxide of Iron | 7 | 13 | 14 | 14
Potash | 237 | 124 | 221 | 174
Soda | 91 | 2 | 116 | 3
Chlorine | | 11 | | 5
Sulphuric Acid | 3 | 58 | 10 | 8
Phosphoric Acid | 498 | 31 | 496 | 38
------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------
No. II.
------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+---------
| Corn. | Corn | Barley. | Barley
| | Stalks. | | Straw.
------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+---------
Ashes in 1000 dry parts. | 15 | 44 | 28 | 61
------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+---------
Silica (_sand_) | 15 | 270 | 271 | 706
Lime | 15 | 86 | 26 | 95
Magnesia | 162 | 66 | 75 | 32
Peroxide of Iron | 3 | 8 | 15 | 7
Oxide of Manganese | | | | 1
Potash | 261 | 96 | 136 | 62
Soda | 63 | 277 | 81 | 6
Chlorine | 2 | 20 | 1 | 10
Sulphuric Acid | 23 | 5 | 1 | 16
Phosphoric Acid | 449 | 171 | 389 | 31
------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+---------
No. III.
------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+----------
| Oats. | Oat | Buck | Potatoes.
| | Straw. | Wheat. |
------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+----------
Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 20 | 51 | 21 | 90
------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+----------
Silica (_sand_) | 7 | 484 | 7 | 42
Lime | 60 | 81 | 67 | 21
Magnesia | 99 | 38 | 104 | 53
Peroxide of Iron | 4 | 18 | 11 | 5
Potash | {262} | 191 | 87 | 557
Soda | { } | 97 | 201 | 19
Chlorine | 3 | 32 | | 43
Sulphuric Acid | 104 | 33 | 22 | 137
Phosphoric Acid | 438 | 27 | 500 | 126
Organic Matter | | | | 750
| | | | Water.
------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+---------
No. IV.
------------------------+---------+--------+----------+--------
| Peas. | Beans. | Turnips. | Turnip
| | | | Tops.
------------------------+---------+--------+----------+--------
Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 25 | 27 | 76 | 170
------------------------+---------+--------+----------+--------
Silica (_sand_) | 5 | 12 | 71 | 8
Lime | 53 | 58 | 128 | 233
Magnesia | 85 | 80 | 48 | 31
Peroxide of Iron | 10 | 6 | 9 | 8
Potash | 361 | 336 | 398 | 286
Soda | 91 | 106 | 108 | 54
Chlorine | 23 | 7 | 37 | 160
Sulphuric Acid | 44 | 10 | 131 | 125
Phosphoric Acid | 333 | 378 | 67 | 93
Organic Matter | | |870 Water.|
------------------------+---------+--------+----------+--------
No. V.
--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------
| Flax. | Linseed. | Meadow | Red
| | | Hay. | Clover.
--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------
Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 50 | 46 | 60 | 75
--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------
Silica (_sand_) | 257 | 75 | 344 | 48
Alumina (_clay_) | 37? | | |
Lime | 148 | 83 | 196 | 371
Magnesia | 44 | 146 | 78 | 46
Peroxide of Iron | 36? | 9 | 7 | 2
Potash | 117 | 240 | 236 | 267
Soda | 118 | 45 | 19 | 71
Chlorine | 29 | 2 | 28 | 48
Sulphuric Acid | 32 | 23 | 29 | 60
Phosphoric Acid | 130 | 365 | 58 | 88
--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------
No. VI.
Amount of Inorganic Matter removed from the soil by ten bushels of
grains, etc., and by the straw, etc., required in their
production--estimated in pounds:
-------------------+--------+-----------+----------+----------
| | 1200 lbs. | | 1620 lbs.
| Wheat. | Wheat | Rye. | Rye
| | Straw. | | Straw.
-------------------+--------+-----------+----------+----------
Potash | 2.86 | 8.97 | 2.51 | 11.34
Soda | 1.04 | .12 | 1.33 | .20
Lime | .34 | 4.84 | .56 | 5.91
Magnesia | 1.46 | 2.76 | 1.18 | 1.58
Oxide of Iron | .08 | .94 | .15 | .88
Sulphuric Acid | .03 | 4.20 | .11 | .05
Phosphoric Acid | 6.01 | 2.22 | 5.64 | 2.49
Chlorine | | .79 | | .30
Silica | .14 | 47.16 | .05 | 42.25
-------------------+--------+-----------+----------+----------
Pounds carried off | 12 | 72 | 11-1/2 | 66
-------------------+--------+-----------+----------+----------
No. VII.
-------------------+-------+----------+-------+----------
| | 1620 lbs.| | 700 lbs.
| Corn. | Corn | Oats. | Oat
| | Stalks. | | Straw.
-------------------+-------+----------+-------+----------
Potash | 2.78 | 6.84 | 1.69 | 12.08
Soda | | 19.83 | |
Lime | .12 | 6.02 | .39 | 3.39
Magnesia | 1.52 | 4.74 | .64 | 1.59
Oxide of Iron | | .57 | .02 | .78
Sulphuric Acid | | .36 | .66 | 1.41
Phosphoric Acid | 4.52 | 12.15 | 2.80 | 1.07
Chlorine | | 1.33 | .02 | 1.36
Silica | .06 | 19.16 | .18 | 20.32
-------------------+-------+----------+-------+----------
Pounds carried off | 9 | 71 | 6-1/2| 42
-------------------+-------+----------+-------+----------
No. VIII.
-------------------+--------+---------+----------+----------
| Buck | | 660 lbs. | 2000 lbs.
| Wheat. | Barley. | Barley | Flax.
| | | Straw. |
-------------------+--------+---------+----------+----------
Potash | 1.01 | 1.90 | 2.57 | 11.78
Soda | 2.13 | 1.18 | .23 | 11.82
Lime | .78 | .96 | 3.88 | 11.85
Magnesia | 1.20 | 1.00 | 1.31 | 9.38
Oxide of Iron | .14 | .20 | .90 | 7.32
Sulphuric Acid | .25 | .01 | .66 | 3.19
Phosphoric Acid | 5.40 | 5.35 | 1.25 | 13.05
Chlorine | | .01 | .40 | 2.90
Silica | .09 | 3.90 | 28.80 | 25.71
-------------------+--------+---------+----------+----------
Pounds carried off | 11 | 14 | 40 | 100
-------------------+--------+---------+----------+----------
No. IX.
--------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------
| | 1120 lbs.| |1366 lbs.
| Beans. | Bean | Field | Pea
| | Straw. | Peas. | Straw.
--------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------
Potash | 5.54 | 36.28 | 5.90 | 3.78
Soda | 1.83 | 1.09 | 1.40 |
Lime | 98.98 | 13.60 | .81 | 43.93
Magnesia | .28 | 4.55 | 1.30 | 5.50
Oxide of Iron | .10 | .20 | .15 | 1.40
Sulphuric Acid | .16 | .64 | .64 | 5.43
Phosphoric Acid | 7.80 | 5.00 | 5.50 | 3.86
Chlorine | .13 | 1.74 | .23 | .08
Silica | .18 | 4.90 | .7 | 16.02
--------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------
Pounds carried off | 17 | 68 | 16 | 80
--------------------+----------+----------+----------+---------
No. X.
--------------------+------------+----------+-------------+-----------
| | 635 lbs. | | 2000 lbs.
| 1 Ton | Turnip | 1 Ton | Red
| Turnips. | Tops. | Potatoes. | Clover.
--------------------+------------+----------+-------------+-----------
Potash | 7.14 | 4.34 | 27.82 | 31.41
Soda | .86 | .84 | .93 | 8.34
Lime | 2.31 | 3.61 | 1.03 | 43.77
Magnesia | .91 | .48 | 2.63 | 5.25
Oxide of Iron | .23 | .13 | .26 | .23
Sulphuric Acid | 2.30 | 1.81 | 6.81 | 7.05
Phosphoric Acid | 1.29 | 1.31 | 6.25 | 10.28
Chlorine | .61 | 2.35 | 2.13 | 5.86
Silica | 1.36 | .13 | 2.14 | 5.81
--------------------+------------+----------+-------------+-----------
Pounds carried off | 17 | 15 | 50 | 118
--------------------+------------+----------+-------------+-----------
No. XI.
----------------------------------+----------+-----------
| 2000 lbs.| 2000 lbs.
| Meadow | Cabbage
| Hay. | Water 9-10
----------------------------------+----------+-----------
Potash | 18.11 | 5.25
Soda | 1.35 | 9.20
Lime | 22.95 | 9.45
Magnesia | 6.75 | 2.70
Oxide of Iron | 1.69 | .25
Sulphuric Acid | 2.70 | 9.60
Phosphoric Acid | 5.97 | 5.60
Chlorine | 2.59 | 2.60
Silica | 37.89 | .35
----------------------------------+----------+-----------
Pounds carried off | 100 | 45
----------------------------------+----------+-----------
No. XII.
Composition of Ashes, leached and unleached, showing their manurial
value:
-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------
| Oak | Oak | Beech | Beech
|unleached. | leached. |unleached. | leached.
-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------
Potash | 84 | -- | 158 | --
Soda | 56 | -- | 29 | --
Lime | 750 | 548 | 634 | 426
Magnesia | 45 | 6 | 113 | 70
Oxide of Iron | 6 | -- | 8 | 15
Sulphuric Acid | 12 | -- | 14 | --
Phosphoric Acid | 35 | 8 | 31 | 57
Chlorine | | | 2 |
-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------
No. XIII.
------------------+-----------+------------+------------
| Birch | Seaweed | Bituminous
| leached. | unleached. | Coal
| | | unleached.
------------------+-----------+------------+------------
Potash | -- | 180 | 2
Soda | -- | 210 | 2
Lime | 522 | 94 | 21
Magnesia | 30 | 99 | 2
Oxide of Iron | 5 | 3 | 40
Sulphuric Acid | -- | 248 | 9
Phosphoric Acid | 43 | 52 | 2
Chlorine | -- | 98 | 1
------------------+-----------+------------+------------
No. XIV.
TOBACCO.
Analysis of the ash of the PLANT [Will & Fresedius]--
Potash 19.55
Soda 0.27
Magnesia 11.07
Lime 48.68
Phosphoric Acid 3.66
Sulphuric Acid 3.29
Oxide of Iron 2.99
Chloride of Sodium 3.54
Loss 6.95
------
100.00
Analysis of the ash of the ROOT [Berthier]--
Soluble Matter 12.3
Insoluble 87.7
The Soluble parts consist of nearly--
Carbonic Acid 10.0
Sulphuric Acid 10.3
Muriatic Acid (Chlorine, &c.) 18.26
Potash and Soda 61.44
------
100.00
No. XV.
Composition of some of the more common Compounds of Acids and Alkalies.
--------------------------------------+----------------+------------------
100 Parts of | Contain of the | Contain of the
| Alkalies | Acids
--------------------------------------+----------------+------------------
Carbonate of Potash (Pearlash) | Potash 68.09 | Carbonic 31.91
Bi-Carbonate of Potash (Saleratus) | do. 51.62 | Carbonic 48.38
Nitrate of Potash (Saltpetre) | do. 46.56 | Nitric 53.44
Silicate of Potash | do. 50.54 | Silicic 49.46
Carbonate of Soda | Soda 58.58 | Carbonic 41.42
Bi-Carbonate of Soda (Common Soda)[AR]| do. 41.42 | Carbonic 58.58
Nitrate of Soda | do. 36.60 | Nitric 63.40
Sulphate of Soda (Glauber Salts)[AR] | do. 19.38 | Sulphuric 24.85
Silicate of Soda | do. 40.37 | Silicic 59.63
Carbonate of Lime (Limestone) | Lime 56.29 | Carbonic 43.71
Sulphate of Lime (Plaster Paris)[AR] | do. 32.90 | Sulphuric 46.31
Sulphate of Lime (Burned) | do. 41.53 | Sulphuric 58.47
Phosphate of Lime | do. 54.48 | Phosphoric 45.52
Super-Phosphate of Lime | do. 28.52 | Phosphoric 71.48
Silicate of Lime | do. 38.15 | Silicic 61.85
Carbonate of Magnesia | Magnesia 48.31 | Carbonic 51.69
Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom Salts)[AR]| do. 16.70 | Sulphuric 32.40
Silicate of Alumina | Alumina 17.05 | Silicic 72.95
Sulphate of Iron (Green Vitriol)[AR] | Oxide of | Sulphuric 31.03
| Iron 27.19 |
--------------------------------------+----------------+------------------
No. XVI.
Proximate Analyses of Crops, showing the amount of the different Organic
Compounds contained in Grain, Roots, Hay, etc.--estimated in pounds:
--------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------+--------
| Water. | Husk or | Starch, | Gluten, | Fatty
| | Woody | Gum and | Albumen, | Matter.
| | Fibre. | Sugar. | Legumin. |
+--------+---------+---------+----------+--------
10 Bushels. | | | | |
Wheat 600 lbs. | 90 | 90 | 330 | 87 | 18
Barley 515 lbs. | 77 | 77 | 309 | 70 | 13
Oats 425 lbs. | 68 | 85 | 255 | 70 | 25
Rye 520 lbs. | 62 | 78 | 312 | 65 | 18
Indian Corn 600 lbs. | 84 | 36 | 420 | 72 | 42
Buck Wheat 425 lbs. | 64 | 106 | 212 | 34 | 2?
Beans 640 lbs. | 90 | 61 | 256 | 166 | 16
Peas 640 lbs. | 90 | 58 | 320 | 154 | 14
| | | | |
2000 lbs. | | | | |
Potatoes | 1500 | 80 | 360 | 40 | 6
Turnips | 1760 | 40 | 180[AS]| 30 | 6
Carrots | 1700 | 60 | 200[AS]| 30 | 8
Mangold Wurtzel | 1700 | 40 | 220[AS]| 40 | ?
Meadow Hay | 280 | 600 | 800 | 140 | 70
Clover Hay | 280 | 500 | 800 | 186 | 80
Pea Straw | 250 | 500 | 900 | 246 | 30
Rye Straw | 270 | 900 | 760 | 26 | ?
Corn Stalks | 240 | 500 | 1040 | 60 | 34
100 lbs. Fine Wheat Flour | 10 | | 79 | 11 |
100 lbs. Wheat Bran | 13 | | 55 | 19 | 5
--------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------+--------
No. XVII.
Amount of Ash left after burning 1000 lbs. of various plants, ordinarily
dry--
Wheat 20 its straw 50
Barley 30 " 50
Oats 40 " 60
Rye 20 " 40
Indian Corn 15 " 50
Pea 30 " 50
Bean 30
Meadow Hay 50 to 100
Clover " 90
Rye Grass " 95
Potato 8 to 15
Turnip 5 to 8
Carrot 15 to 20
--------------------------------------------------------------
No. XVIII.
MANURES.
HORSE MANURE.
Solid Dung--
Combustible Matter 19.68
Ash 3.07
Water 77.25
------
100.00
Composition of the Ash--
Silica 62.40
Potash 11.30
Soda 1.98
Oxide of Iron 1.17
Lime 4.63
Magnesia 3.84
Oxide of Manganese 2.13
Phosphoric Acid 10.49
Sulphuric Acid 1.89
Chlorine 0.03
Loss 0.14
------
100.00
No. XIX.
NIGHT SOIL.
Solid (Ash)--
Earthy Phosphates and a trace of Sulphate of Lime 100
Sulphate of Soda and Potash, and Phosphate of Soda 8
Carbonate of Soda 8
Silica 16
Charcoal and Loss 18
---
150
Urine
Urea[AT] 30.10
Uric Acid 1.00
Sal Ammoniac[AT] 1.50
Lactic Acid, etc. 17.14
Mucus .32
Sulphate of Potash 3.71
Sulphate of Soda 3.16
Phosphate of Ammonia[AT] 1.65
Earthy Phosphates 3.94
Salt (Chloride of Sodium) 4.45
Silica 0.03
------
67.00
Water 933.00
------
1000.00
No. XX.
COW MANURE.
Solid (Ash)--
Phosphates 20.9
Peroxide of Iron 8.8
Lime 1.5
Sulphate of Lime (Plaster) 3.1
Chloride of Potassium trace
Silica 63.7
Loss 2.0
-----
100.0
No. XXI.
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE URINE OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS.
Solid Matter.
Organic. Inorganic. Total.
Man 23.4 7.6 31
Horse 27. 33. 60
Cow 50. 20. 70
Pig 56. 18. 74
Sheep 28. 12. 40
No. XXII.
GUANO.
Water 6.40
Ammonia 2.71
Uric Acid 34.70
Oxalic Acid, etc. 26.79
Fixed Alkaline Salts.
Sulphate of Soda 2.94
Phosphate of Soda .48
Chloride of Sodium (salt) .86
Earthy Salts.
Carbonate of Lime 1.36
Phosphates 19.24
Foreign Matter.
Silicious grit and sand 4.52
------
100.00
For the analysis of fertile and barren soils, see page 72.
FOOTNOTES:
[AR] Contain a large amount of Water.
[AS] Pectic Acid.
[AT] Supply Ammonia.
THE PRACTICAL FARMER.
Who is the _practical farmer_? Let us look at two pictures and decide.
Here is a farm of 100 acres in ordinary condition. It is owned and
tilled by a hard-working man, who, in the busy season, employs one or
two assistants. The farm is free from debt, but it does not produce an
abundant income; therefore, its owner cannot afford to purchase the best
implements, or make other needed improvements; besides, he don't
_believe_ in such things. His father was a good solid farmer; so was his
grandfather; and so is he, or thinks he is. He is satisfied that 'the
good old way' is best, and he sticks to it. He works from morning till
night; from spring till fall. In the winter, he _rests_, as much as his
lessened duties will allow. During this time, he reads little, or
nothing. Least of all does he read about farming. He don't want to learn
how to dig potatoes out of a book. Book farming is nonsense. Many other
similar ideas keep him from agricultural reading. His house is
comfortable, and his barns are quite as good as his neighbors', while
his farm gives him a living. It is true that his soil does not produce
as much as it did ten years ago; but prices are better, and he is
satisfied.
Let us look at his premises, and see how his affairs are managed. First,
examine the land. Well, it is good fair land. Some of it is a little
springy, but is not to be called _wet_. It will produce a ton and a half
of hay to the acre--it used to produce two tons. There are some stones
on the land, but not enough in his estimation to do harm. The plowed
fields are pretty good; they will produce 35 bushels of corn, 13 bushels
of wheat, or 30 bushels of oats per acre, when the season is not dry.
His father used to get more; but, somehow, the _weather_ is not so
favorable as it was in old times. He has thought of raising root crops,
but they take more labor than he can afford to hire. Over, in the back
part of the land there is a muck-hole, which is the only piece of
_worthless_ land on the whole farm.
Now, let us look at the barns and barn-yards. The stables are pretty
good. There are some wide cracks in the siding, but they help to
ventilate, and make it healthier for the cattle. The manure is thrown
out of the back windows, and is left in piles under the eaves on the
sunny side of the barn. The rain and sun make it nicer to handle. The
cattle have to go some distance for water; and this gives them exercise.
All of the cattle are not kept in the stable; the fattening stock are
kept in the various fields, where hay is fed out to them from the stack.
The barn-yard is often occupied by cattle, and is covered with their
manure, which lies there until it is carted on to the land. In the shed
are the tools of the farm, consisting of carts, plows--not deep plows,
this farmer thinks it best to have roots near the surface of the soil
where they can have the benefit of the sun's heat,--a harrow, hoes,
rakes, etc. These tools are all in good order; and, unlike those of his
less prudent neighbor, they are protected from the weather.
The crops are cultivated with the plow, and hoe, as they have been since
the land was cleared, and as they always will be until this man dies.
Here is the 'practical farmer' of the present day. Hard working, out of
debt, and economical--of dollars and cents, if not of soil and manures.
He is a better farmer than two thirds of the three millions of farmers
in the country. He is one of the best farmers in his town--there are but
few better in the county, not many in the State. He represents the
better class of his profession.
With all this, he is, in matters relating to his business, an unreading,
unthinking man. He knows nothing of the first principles of farming, and
is successful by the _indulgence_ of nature, not because he understands
her, and is able to make the most of her assistance.
This is an unpleasant fact, but it is one which cannot be denied. We do
not say this to disparage the farmer, but to arouse him to a realization
of his position and of his power to improve it.
But let us see where he is wrong.
He is wrong in thinking that his land does not need draining. He is
wrong in being satisfied with one and a half tons of hay to the acre
when he might easily get two and a half. He is wrong in not removing as
far as possible every stone that can interfere with the deep and
thorough cultivation of his soil. He is wrong in reaping less than his
father did, when he should get more. He is wrong in ascribing to the
weather, and similar causes, what is due to the actual impoverishment of
his soil. He is wrong in not raising turnips, carrots, and other roots,
which his winter stock so much need, when they might be raised at a cost
of less than one third of their value as food. He is wrong in
considering worthless a deposit of muck, which is a mine of wealth if
properly employed. He is wrong in _ventilating_ his stables at the cost
of _heat_. He is wrong in his treatment of his manures, for he loses
more than one half of their value from evaporation, fermentation, and
leaching. He is wrong in not having water at hand for his cattle--their
exercise detracts from their accumulation of fat and their production of
heat, and it exposes them to cold. He is wrong in not protecting his
fattening stock from the cold of winter; for, under exposure to cold,
the food, which would otherwise be used in the formation of _fat_, goes
to the production of the animal heat necessary to counteract the
chilling influence of the weather, p. 50. He is wrong in allowing his
manure to lie unprotected in the barn-yard. He is wrong in not adding to
his tools the deep surface plow, the subsoil plow, the cultivator, and
many others of improved construction. He is wrong in cultivating with
the plow and hoe, those crops which could be better or more cheaply
managed with the cultivator or horse-hoe. He is wrong in many things
more, as we shall see if we examine all of his yearly routine of work.
He is right in a few things; and but a few, as he himself would admit,
had he that knowledge of his business which he could obtain in the
leisure hours of a single winter. Still, he thinks himself a _practical_
farmer. In twenty years, we shall have fewer such, for our young men
have the mental capacity and mental energy necessary to raise them to
the highest point of practical education, and to that point they are
gradually but surely rising.
Let us now place this same farm in the hands of an educated and
understanding cultivator; and, at the end of five years, look at it
again.
He has sold one half of it, and cultivates but fifty acres. The money
for which the other fifty were sold has been used in the improvement of
the farm. The land has all been under-drained, and shows the many
improvements consequent on such treatment. The stones and small rocks
have been removed, leaving the surface of the soil smooth, and allowing
the use of the sub-soil plow, which with the under-drains have more than
doubled the productive power of the farm. Sufficient labor is employed
to cultivate with improved tools, extensive root crops, and they
invariably give a large yield. The grass land produces a yearly average
of 2-1/2 tons of hay per acre. From 80 to 100 bushels of corn, 30
bushels of wheat, and 45 bushels of oats are the average of the crops
reaped. The soil has been analyzed, and put in the best possible
condition, while it is yearly supplied with manures containing every
thing taken away in the abundant crops. The analysis is never lost sight
of in the regulation of crops and the application of manures. The
_worthless_ muck bed was retained, and is made worth one dollar a load
to the compost heap, especially as the land requires an increase of
organic matter. A new barn has been built large enough to store all of
the hay produced on the farm. It has stables, which are tight and warm,
and are well ventilated _above_ the cattle. The stock being thus
protected from the loss of their heat, give more milk, and make more fat
on a less amount of food than they did under the old system. Water is
near at hand, and the animals are not obliged to over exercise. The
manure is carefully composted, either under a shed constructed for the
purpose with a tank and pump, or is thrown into the cellar below, where
the hogs mix it with a large amount of muck, which has been carted in
after being thoroughly decomposed by the lime and salt mixture.
They are thus protected against all loss, and are prepared for the
immediate use of crops. No manures are allowed to lie in the barn-yard,
but they are all early removed to the compost heap, where they are
preserved by being mixed with carbonaceous matter. In the tool shed, we
find deep surface-plows, sub-soil plows, cultivators, horse-hoes,
seed-drills, and many other valuable improvements.
This farmer takes one or more agricultural papers, from which he learns
many new methods of cultivation, while his knowledge of the _reasons_ of
various agricultural effects enables him to discard the injudicious
suggestions of mere _book farmers_ and uneducated dreamers.
Here are two specimens of farmers. Neither description is over-drawn.
The first is much more careful in his operations than the majority of
our rural population. The second is no better than many who may be found
in America.
We appeal to the common sense of the reader of this work to know which
of the two is the _practical farmer_--let him imitate either as his
judgment shall dictate.
FINIS.
EXPLANATION OF TERMS.
ABSORB--to soak in a liquid or a gas.
ABSTRACT--to take from.
ACID--sour; a sour substance.
AGRICULTURE--the art of cultivating the soil.
ALKALI--the direct opposite of an _acid_, with which it has a tendency
to unite.
ALUMINA--the base of clay.
ANALYSIS--separating into its primary parts any compound substance.
CARBONATE--a compound, consisting of carbonic acid and an alkali.
CAUSTIC--burning.
CHLORIDE--a compound containing chlorine.
CLEVIS--that part of a plow by which the drawing power is attached.
DECOMPOSE--to separate the constituents of a body from their
combinations, forming new kinds of compounds.
DIGESTION--the decomposition of food in the stomach and intestines of
animals (agricultural).
DEW--deposit of the insensible vapor of the atmosphere on cold bodies.
EXCREMENT--the matter given out by the organs of plants and animals,
being those parts of their food which they are unable to assimilate.
FERMENTATION--a kind of decomposition.
GAS--air--aeriform matter.
GURNEYISM--see _Mulching_.
INGREDIENT--component part.
INORGANIC--mineral, or earthy.
MOULDBOARD--that part of a surface plow which turns the sod.
MULCHING--covering the soil with litter, leaves, or other refuse matter.
See p. 247.
NEUTRALIZE--To overcome the characteristic properties of.
ORGANIC MATTER--that kind of matter which at times possesses an
organized (or living) form, and at others exists as a gas in the
atmosphere.
OXIDE--a compound of oxygen with a metal.
PHOSPHATE--a compound of phosphoric acid with an alkali.
PROXIMATE--an organic compound, such as wood, starch, gum, etc.; a
product of life.
PUNGENT--pricking.
PUTREFACTION--rotting.
SATURATE--to _fill_ the pores of any substance, as a sponge with water,
or charcoal with ammonia.
SILICATE--a compound of silica with an alkali.
SOLUBLE--capable of being dissolved.
SOLUTION--a liquid containing another substance dissolved in it.
SATURATED SOLUTION--one which contains as much of the foreign substance
as it is capable of holding.
SPONGIOLES--the mouths at the ends of roots.
SULPHATE--a compound of sulphuric acid with an alkali.
VAPOR--gas.
KETCHUM'S
PATENT MOWING MACHINES
[Illustration]
=The greatest Improvement ever made for Simplicity, Durability, and Ease
of Action.=
It is now beyond a question, from the complete triumph over all other
machines this season, that this is the _only_ successful Grass Cutter
known. It is in fact the _only_ machine that has ever cut _all kinds of
grass_ without _clogging_ or _interruption_. More than 1000 have been
sold the present season under the following warranty, and not in a
single instance have we been called on to take one back.
(Warranty:) That said machines are capable of Cutting and Spreading,
with one span of horses and driver, from ten to fifteen acres per day,
_of any kind of grass, heavy or light, wet or dry, lodged or standing_,
and do it as well as is done with a scythe by the best mowers.
The price of our machine, with two sets of knives and extras, is $110,
cash, delivered on board of cars or boat, free of charge.
HOWARD & CO.,
Manufacturers and Proprietors, Buffalo, N. Y.
_Buffalo_, Aug. 1, 1853.
RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & Co., Manufacture Ketchum's Mower for New
England.
WARDER & BROKAW, Springfield, Ohio; for Southern Ohio and Kentucky.
SEYMOUR & MORGAN, Brockport, N. Y.; for Michigan and Illinois.
NEW AND USEFUL WORKS.
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PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY;
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[***] The author of these works, stands in the very front rank
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_D. APPLETON AND CO.'S PUBLICATIONS._
Popular Science.
The Chemistry of Common Life.
BY JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, M.A., F.R.S.S. L. & E., &c.
Author of "Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," a "Catechism
of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," &c.
ADVERTISEMENT.
The common life of man is full of wonders, Chemical and
Physiological. Most of us pass through this life without seeing
or being sensible of them, though every day our existence and
our comforts ought to recall them to our minds. One main cause
of this is, that our schools tell us nothing about them--do not
teach those parts of modern learning which would fit us for
seeing them. What most concerns the things that daily occupy our
attention and cares, are in early life almost sedulously kept
from our knowledge. Those who would learn any thing regarding
them, must subsequently teach themselves through the help of the
press: hence the necessity for a Popular Chemical Literature.
It is with a view to meet this want of the Public, and at the
same time to supply a Manual for the Schools, that the present
work has been projected. It treats, in what appears to be their
natural order, of THE AIR WE BREATHE and THE WATER WE DRINK, in
their relations to human life and health--THE SOIL WE CULTIVATE
AND THE PLANT WE REAR, as the sources from which the chief
sustenance of all life is obtained--THE BREAD WE EAT AND THE
BEEF WE COOK, as the representatives of the two grand divisions
of human food--THE BEVERAGES WE INFUSE, from which so much of
the comfort of modern life, both savage and civilized, is
derived--THE SWEETS WE EXTRACT, the history of which presents so
striking an illustration of the economical value of chemical
science--THE LIQUORS WE FERMENT, so different from the sweets in
their action on the system, and yet so closely connected with
them in chemical history--THE NARCOTICS WE INDULGE IN, as
presenting us with an aspect of the human constitution which,
both chemically and physiologically, is more mysterious and
wonderful than any other we are acquainted with--THE ODOURS WE
ENJOY AND THE SMELLS WE DISLIKE; the former because of the
beautiful illustration it presents of the recent progress of
organic chemistry in its relations to comforts of common life,
and the latter because of its intimate connection with our most
important sanitary arrangements--WHAT WE BREATHE FOR and WHY WE
DIGEST, as functions of the body at once the most important to
life, and the most purely chemical in their nature--THE BODY WE
CHERISH, as presenting many striking phenomena, and performing
many interesting chemical functions not touched upon in the
discussion of the preceding topics--and lastly, THE CIRCULATION
OF MATTER, as exhibiting in one view the end, purpose, and
method of all the changes in the natural body, in organic
nature, and in the mineral kingdom, which are connected with and
determine the existence of life.
It has been the object of the Author in this Work to exhibit the
present condition of chemical knowledge and of matured
scientific opinion upon the subjects to which it is devoted. The
reader will not be surprised, therefore, should he find in it
some things which differ from what is to be found in other
popular works already in his hands or on the shelves of his
library.
The Work is being published in 5 or 6 NUMBERS, price 25 cents
each, in the following order, forming 1 vol. 12mo. of about 400
pages.
1. The AIR we Breathe and
2. The WATER we Drink.
3. The SOIL we Cultivate and
4. The PLANT we Rear.
5. The BREAD we Eat and
6. The BEEF we Cook.
7. The BEVERAGES we Infuse.
8. The SWEETS we Extract.
9. The LIQUORS we Ferment.
10. The NARCOTICS we Indulge in.
11. The ODOURS we Enjoy and
12. The SMELLS we Dislike.
13. What we BREATHE and BREATHE FOR, and
14. What, How, and Why we DIGEST
15. The BODY we Cherish, and
16. The CIRCULATION of MATTER, a Recapitulation.
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, THE HORSE, & DOG.
_Published by D. Appleton, & Co._
THE FARMER'S HAND-BOOK
Being a Full and Complete Guide for the Farmer and Emigrant.
Comprising--The Clearing of Forest and Prairie Lands; Gardening; Farming
Generally; Farriery; The Management and Treatment of Cattle; Cookery;
The Construction of Dwellings; Prevention and Cure of Disease; with
copious Tables, Recipes, Hints, &c., &c. By JOSIAH T. MARSHALL. One
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Price $1; paper cover, 62-1/2 cents.
"One of the most useful books we ever saw."--_Boston Post._
RURAL ECONOMY,
In its relations with Chemistry, Physics, and Meteorology; or, Chemistry
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etc., by George Law, Agriculturist. 12mo, over 500 pages, $1 50.
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and its perusal will aid the farmer greatly in obtaining a
practical and scientific knowledge of his profession."--_American
Agriculturist._
THE FARMER'S MANUAL:
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Experiments on various Crops, with a brief account of the most Recent
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Climate, by A. B. ALLEN. 12mo, illustrated with 23 Engravings, $1.
"No one should build a stable or own a horse without consulting
the excellent directions for stabling and using the horse, in
this book of Stewart's. It is an invaluable _vade mecum_ for all
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THE HORSE'S FOOT; AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND.
With Illustrations by WILLIAM MILES, Esq., from the Third London
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This work has received the unqualified recommendation of the Quarterly,
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This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever
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pages. Price $2 25, bound.
TREATISE ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING:
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Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for
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Water, Flower Gardens, etc., with remarks on Rural
Architecture. A new edition, enlarged,
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By A. J. DOWNING, author of "Designs for Cottage Residences," etc.
A new and improved edition, 8vo., illustrated, $3 50.
"Insult not Nature with absurd expense,
Nor spoil her simple charms by vain pretense;
Weigh well the subject, be with caution bold,
Profuse of genius, not profuse of gold."
RIKER, THORPE & CO., 129 Fulton st., New York.
"There is no work extant which can be compared in ability to Downing's
volume on this subject. It is not overlaid with elaborate and learned
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practical."--_Louisville Journal._
"Mr. Downing's works have been greatly influential in recommending among
us that life which has always seemed to us the perfection of human
existence--the life of men of education, living upon and cultivating
their own farms."--_Cour. and Enq._
"The principles he lays down are not only sound, but are developed on a
uniform system, which is not paralleled in any English work."--_Prof.
Lindley's Chronicle, London._
=RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & CO.=,
_MANUFACTURERS AT WORCESTER_,
And Wholesale and Retail Dealers in
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES,
=Garden, Field and Flower Seeds=,
FRUIT AND ORNAMENTAL TREES, SHRUBS, ROSES, VINES AND PLANTS,
GUANO, BONE DUST, PHOSPHATES, POUDRETTE, &c.
Also, Agricultural and Horticultural Publications, and Agents for
Principal Nurseries,
AT THE
QUINCY HALL
=AGRICULTURAL WAREHOUSE AND SEED STORE=,
OVER QUINCY MARKET, SOUTH MARKET ST.,
=BOSTON, MASS.=
WAGENER'S AMERICAN SEED
=HARVESTER.=
HIGHEST PREMIUMS AWARDED
=At the World's Fair Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, 1853.=
ALSO BY THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, NEW YORK.
VARIOUS OTHER APPROBATIONS HAVE BEEN RECEIVED.
This Machine consists of a simple frame and box mounted on wheels, in
front of which is a cylinder, set with spiral knives, acting in concert
with curved spring teeth, in combination with a straight knife, which
forms a perfect shear, and severs the head from the stalk; the heads are
at the same time discharged into the box. The teeth being made to spring
and vibrate, not a particle of clover, however stalky or thick, can
possibly escape being cut, or allow the teeth to become clogged. The
Cylinder and Knives are protected by an adjustible guard plate, thus
allowing only the heads to pass to the Knives, retaining the head, and
the head only--thus leaving the stalk to enrich the soil. The machine is
so constructed that it can be made adjustible to the height of the
Clover and Timothy.
To be seen at the Crystal Palace. Price of the machines moderate.
The Farmer will find that by this process, he may save two crops
of Timothy per year. When the seed is ripe the tops can be
clipped, and the straw left until fall to mature. You now have
your seed and hay in two crops of equal value; in case of
clover, you mow the first crop for hay, the second for seed; you
in both cases get better seed and hay with less labor and
expense than grain crops, at the same time leaving the soil
clothed with a coat of straw, for the coming season, which will
increase the value of the soil for crops, make fine pastures and
fine stock, while it fits the land for fine grain. In this way
lands in our states have been raised in production from five to
twenty-five or thirty bushels of wheat per acre, in the course
of a few years.
This is within the reach of every farmer, without money or
labor, as organic matter accumulates from the atmosphere and is
deposited in the soil.
Manufactured and for sale by the Patentee and Proprietor,
JEPTHA A. WAGENER.
_Office 348 West Twenty-Fourth Street, New York._
All orders for Machines this season should be sent in immediately, in
order to have them in readiness for harvest time.
=Price of Machines, $100 and $110, two sizes, at the Manufactory.=
--> Rights of States and Counties on favorable terms.
"Wagener's Clover and Timothy Seed Harvester has been in
successful operation two seasons, and has received the premium
at the World's Fair and at the Fair of the American Institute,
and various other testimonials of superior value. They are
manufactured and for sale by the inventor, Jeptha A. Wagener, at
348 West 24th street, New York."--_U. S. Journal._
The Grain Harvester is in course of preparation, and will soon be
offered for sale.
THE WORKING FARMER,
PUBLISHED ON THE FIRST OF EACH MONTH,
At 143 Fulton St., (upper side,) a few doors east of Broadway, New York.
TERMS.
One year, _payable in advance_, $1 00
Clubs of six subscribers, 5 00
Clubs of twelve subscribers, 10 00
Clubs of twenty-five subscribers, 20 00
Single copies, 10
Volume one, in paper cover, 50
Volumes two, three, four and five, in paper cover, each 1 00
Postage on the WORKING FARMER, _if paid at the Subscriber's Post
Office_, is, for
Any distance within the United States, 3000 miles and under, _one cent_
for each paper. If paid at a Subscriber's Post Office, _in advance_,
1-3/4 cents per quarter, or 7 cents per year.
Postage on bound volumes in _paper covers, if pre-paid at the New York
Post Office_,
Vol. I. | Vols. II., III., IV & V.
Any distance within United cts. | cts.
States, 3000 miles and under 22 | 26 each volume.
If not pre-paid at the New York Post Office, double the above rates will
be charged.
Subscriptions must commence with the year, namely, March; or the even
half year, September; and for not less than one year.
Remittances can be made, from such States as have no small paper
circulation, in gold dollars, Post Office stamps, or the bills of other
States.
=ADVERTISEMENTS.=
Five lines, one dollar each insertion, and in the same ratio for more
lengthy advertisements.
Post-paid Letters, addressed to the Publisher, will meet with prompt
attention.
FRED'K McCREADY,
143 Fulton street, upper side, a few doors east of Broadway.
MAPES'
IMPROVED
SUPER
PHOSPHATE OF LIME
160 lbs.
FREDK. McCREADY
WHOLESALE AGT. 143 FULTON STREET,
KEEP DRY. N.Y.
SEVERAL IMITATIONS of this celebrated fertilizer having been introduced
among the dealers since the introduction of the _Improved
Super-Phosphate of Lime_, I beg to state that all manufactured under the
recipe of Prof. J. J. Mapes, is
MARKED ON THE BAGS AS ABOVE,
and each bag contains his certificate of having been made under his
superintendence.
--> Orders for the above fertilizer by mail, from strangers, should be
accompanied with the money, a draft, or proper references. The bags
contain exactly 160 lbs., which at two and a half cents per pound,
amounts to four dollars.
FRED'K McCREADY, 143 Fulton street, New York.
[Illustration]
THE UNIVERSAL CULTIVATOR,
Described on page 254,
Is represented in the above cut. It is manufactured by us, and is sold
by all implement dealers.
OUR
IMPROVED HORSE HOE,
Of which a cut may be seen on p. 254,
Is now manufactured at our establishment, and is sold throughout the
Union. It is the best implement for weeding, etc. ever made.
THE SOD AND SUB-SOIL PLOW,
(Sometimes called the MICHIGAN PLOW,)
Consists of two plows on the same beam. The first inverts the sod to the
depth of a few inches, and the hindmost plow brings up the lower soil,
depositing it on the inverted sod.
FOR DEEP TILLAGE, especially on prairie land, this is superior to any of
its competitors.
RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & CO.
Worcester, Mass., and Quincy Hall, Boston.
TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES
Page 8 Page number added for tables of analysis
Page 22 Period added after "great brilliancy"
Page 33 seashore standardised to sea-shore; genii standardised to genie
Page 39 No footnote anchor was in place. Anchor added after "are
formed," as this seemed most reasonable in context.
Page 52 quanties corrected to quantities; nutricious corrected to
nutritious
Page 53 Footnote marker added for "See Johnston's Elements, page 41."
Page 55 ? added after "in their composition" in footer
Page 74 Removed second "the" in "is the the foundation of Agricultural
Geology."
Page 142 pigstye standardised to pig-stye
Page 144 plough standardised to plow
Pages 145, 211 subsoil plow standardised to sub-soil plow [Note that in
line with the more common usage in this work, the phrases
sub-soil plow and sub-soiling have retained their hyphens]
Page 148 Removed second n in mannures
Page 152 postash corrected to potash
Page 157 suplying corrected to supplying
Page 167 carbonia corrected to carbonic
Page 174 buck-wheat standardised to buckwheat
Pages 196, 232, 234, 235, 237, 238, 241 sub-soil standardised to subsoil
Page 204 ? Added after Mineral in the question section
Page 211 water tight standardised to water-tight
Page 223 Second 6. changed to 7.
Page 232 oxydation standardised to oxidation
Page 266 Period added after lbs in 1620 lbs rye straw
Page 272 Title No. XVI. added to table
Page 273 10,000 corrected to 100.00
Page 290 accurracy corrected to accuracy
Page 292 Number of pages unclear. 464 Guessed.
End of Project Gutenberg's The Elements of Agriculture, by George E. Waring