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[Illustration: image of the book's cover]
_The Story of Seville_
"He who Seville has not seen,
Has not seen a marvel great."
"To whom God loves He gives a house in Seville."
_Popular Spanish Sayings._
[Illustration: _Saints Justa y Rufina_
_From the painting by Goya_]
_The Story of Seville
by Walter M. Gallichan_
_With Three Chapters on the Artists
of Seville by C. Gasquoine Hartley
Illustrated by Elizabeth Hartley_
[Illustration: colophon]
_London: J. M. Dent & Co.
Aldine House, 29 and 30 Bedford Street
Covent Garden, W.C._ * * 1903
_All Rights Reserved_
PREFACE
In the story of Seville I have endeavoured to interest the reader in the
associations of the buildings and the thoroughfares of the city.
I do not claim to have written a full history of Seville, though I have
sketched the salient events in its annals in the opening chapters of
this book. The history of Seville is the history of Spain, and if I have
omitted many matters of historical importance from my pages, it is
because I wished to focus attention upon the city itself. I trust that I
have succeeded in awaking here and there an echo of the past, and in
bringing before the imagination the figures of Moorish potentate or
sage, and of Spanish ruler, artist, priest and soldier.
Those who are acquainted with the history of Spain will appreciate the
difficulty that besets the historian in the matter of chronological
accuracy, and even in a narration of many of the main events. The
chronicles of the Roman, Gothic and Moorish epochs are hardly accepted
as reliable. Patriotic bias and religious enthusiasm are elements that
frequently mislead in the making of history, though the Spaniard is not
alone in the commission of error in this respect.
Seville abounds with human interest. The city may at the first glance
slightly disappoint the visitor, but he cannot wander far without a
growing sense of its fascination. Most of the noteworthy buildings are
hidden amidst narrow alleys, for the designers of the city have shown
great economy in utilising space. It is therefore difficult to gain
large general views of Seville, unless one ascends the Giralda, while
the obtrusion of modern dwelling-houses and stores often mars the view
of fine public edifices. But the modernity of Seville seldom strikes one
as wholly out of place and in sharp contrast to the ancient monuments.
The plan is Morisco, and the impression conveyed is partly Moorish and
partly mediæval. In a word, Seville brings us at every step closely in
touch with antiquity.
For the chapters on the Artists of Seville I am indebted to C. Gasquoine
Hartley (Mrs. Walter M. Gallichan), who has devoted much study to the
art of Spain. The drawings by Miss Elizabeth Hartley were prepared while
I was gathering material for the book in Seville, and the illustrations
will be found to refer to the text. I have also to thank my brother, Mr.
F. H. Gallichan, for his plan of the city.
The frontispiece photograph of Goya's picture of SS. Justa and Rufina
was reproduced in the _Art Journal_ as an illustration to an article on
"Goya" by C. Gasquoine Hartley. My thanks are due to Messrs. Virtue &
Company for permission to reproduce the picture in this book.
WALTER M. GALLICHAN.
THE CRIMBLES,
YOULGREAVE, BAKEWELL,
_August 20, 1903_.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PAGE
_Romans, Goths and Moors_ 1
CHAPTER II
_The City Regained_ 26
CHAPTER III
_Seville under the Catholic Kings_ 62
CHAPTER IV
_The Remains of the Mosque_ 73
CHAPTER V
_The Cathedral_ 85
CHAPTER VI
_The Alcázar_ 110
CHAPTER VII
_The Literary Associations of the City_ 129
CHAPTER VIII
_The Artists of Seville_ 146
CHAPTER IX
_Velazquez and Murillo_ 165
CHAPTER X
_The Pictures in the Museo_ 176
CHAPTER XI
_The Churches of the City_ 187
CHAPTER XII
_Some Other Buildings_ 201
CHAPTER XIII
_Seville of To-day_ 213
CHAPTER XIV
_The Alma Mater of Bull-fighters_ 242
CHAPTER XV
_Information for the Visitor_ 262
_Index_ 269
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
_SS. Justa and Rufina, from the painting by_
GOYA (_photogravure_) _Frontispiece_
_Roman Amphitheatre at Italica_ 1
_The Guadalquivir_ 3
_Roman Walls_ 8
_The Pillars of Hercules and Julius Cæsar_ 11
_Moorish Fountain in the Court of Oranges_ 23
_Roman Capital_ 25
_Old Walls of the Alcázar_ 41
_Sword of Isabella_ 49
_Plaza San Francisco_ 55
_Fountain in Bath, Alcázar_ 66
_Puerta del Perdón_ 75
_Stone Pulpit in Court of Oranges_ 78
_Cuerpo de Azucenas_ 79
_The Giralda_ 84
_Pinnacle of the Cathedral_ 87
_Puerta Mayor--The Central Door of the
Cathedral_ 89
_Pinnacle of the Cathedral_ 91
_Interior of the Cathedral_ 97
_Patio de las Doncellas_ 111
_In the Garden of the Alcázar_ 125
_Cancela of the Casa Pilatos_ 133
_The Guardian Angel_ (MURILLO) _facing_ 172
_The Conception_ (MURILLO) _facing_ 178
_The Road to Calvary_ (VALDÉS LEAL) _facing_ 180
_Saint Hugo in the Refectory_ (ZURBARAN) _facing_ 182
_The Crucifixion_ (MONTAÑES) _facing_ 186
_Minaret of San Marcus_ 190
_Puerta de Santa Maria_ 195
_Patio del Casa Murillo_ 203
_Amphora_ 212
_Patio del Colegio_, _San Miguel_ 215
_The Golden Tower_ 223
_A Roof Garden_ 238
_Arms of Seville_ 241
_Plan of City_ _facing_ 268
[Illustration: Roman Amphitheatre at Italica]
The Story of Seville
CHAPTER I
_Romans, Goths and Moors_
'The sound, the sight
Of turban, girdle, robe, and scimitar
And tawny skins, awoke contending thoughts
Of anger, shame and anguish in the Goth.'
ROBERT SOUTHEY, _Roderick_.
Seville the sunny, the gem of Andalusia, is a city in the midst of a
vast garden. Within its ancient walls, the vine, the orange tree, the
olive, and the rose flourish in all open spaces, while every _patio_, or
court, has its trellises whereon flowers blossom throughout the year.
Spreading palms overshadow the public squares and walks, and the banks
of the brown Guadalquivir are densely clothed with an Oriental verdure.
The surrounding country of the Province of Sevilla, _La Tierra de Maria
Santisima_, is flat, and in the neighbourhood of the city sparsely
wooded. On the low hills of Italica and San Juan de Aznalfarache, the
Hisn-al-Faradj of the Moors, olive groves cover many thousands of acres.
The plain is a _parterre_ of wide grain fields, and meadows of rife
grass, divided by straight white roads, with their trains of picturesque
mule teams and waggons, and their rows of tall, straight trees. Here and
there the cold grey cactus serves as a fence, but there is no other kind
of hedgerow.
Far away, across the yellow wheatfields, and beyond the vine-clad slopes
of the middle distance, rise the huge shoulders and purple peaks of wild
sierras.
The Guadalquivir, rolling and eddying in a wide bed, takes its tint from
the light soil and sand, and is always turbid, as though in spate. Below
Seville, on the left bank of the river, stretch the great salt marshes,
or Marismas, haunted by the stork, the heron, and innumerable wildfowl.
Here, among the arms of the tidal water, the cotton plant is cultivated.
Winter floods are a source of danger to Seville, especially when a
south-west wind is blowing and the tide ascending the river. Then the
Guadalquivir overflows its banks and deluges the town and the flat land,
drowning live stock and destroying buildings. In 1595 and 1626 occurred
two of the worst floods, or _avenidas_, on record. The flood of 1626
washed away the foundations of about three thousand houses.
[Illustration: The Guadalquivir]
It is probable that the southern kingdom of Andalusia derived its name
from the Vandals, who overran the country after the Roman occupation.
The region was then known as Vandalitia, or Vandalusia. Lower Andalusia
has been said to be the Tarshish of the Bible. The Phoenicians called
the land Tartessus, or Tartessii. Nowadays Andalusia includes the
provinces of Sevilla, Huelva, Cadiz, Córdova, Jaén, Granada and
Almeria, and has a population of over three millions. Seville is the
capital, the seat of an archbishop, and a university town. The traveller
from Northern Europe will feel the spirit of Spain upon him as he
approaches Seville from Cadiz or Córdova through a semi-tropical country
under a burning blue sky. He will note everywhere the influence of the
Arab in the architecture of modern public buildings, churches and
dwelling-houses, in the tortuous, narrow streets, in the features,
language, music and garb of the people, and in many of the customs of
the district. The character of the landscape is strange, the atmosphere
vivid, and the distant objects show sharply against the horizon. For
leagues he will traverse groves of olive, or vineyards, and pass across
wastes purple with the flower of the lavender or scarlet with poppies.
Seville of to-day is white, clean and bright. Gautier noted that the
shadows of the houses in the narrow thoroughfares are blue, in contrast
to the white of the dazzling buildings at noon. During the _siesta_ of
the hot months, the streets are deserted daily for about four hours,
shutters screen the rooms from the blinding sunshine, and awnings are
drawn across the roofs of the _patios_. In the evening the town awakens,
and the _plazas_ and alleys are thronged and gay until two in the
morning. Everyone endeavours to lead an _al fresco_ life, and to
conserve physical energy in this city of eternal sunshine. Unlike Toledo
and Avila, where the houses are sombre and the doors heavy and barred,
as though the towns were inhospitable, Seville opens wide the gates of
its beautiful courts so that the passer-by may peep within.
'Seville is a fine town,' wrote Lord Byron, in a letter, during his stay
in Spain in 1809. We may regret that he had so little to say about the
fascinating capital. George Borrow, who lived for a time in the Plazuela
de la Pila Seca, near the Cathedral, speaks in rapturous phrases of the
view of Seville and the Guadalquivir. 'Cold, cold must the heart be
which can remain insensible to the beauties of this magic scene, to do
justice to which the pencil of Claude himself were barely equal. Often
have I shed tears of rapture whilst I beheld it, and listened to the
thrush and the nightingale piping their melodious songs in the woods,
and inhaled the breeze laden with the perfume of the thousand orange
gardens of Seville.'
The city is rich in antiquities, in historic buildings associated with
illustrious names, in works of art and in sumptuous palaces. A great
company of the spirits of famous kings, warriors, explorers, authors,
painters and priests spring up in the imagination as one stands in the
aisles of the splendid Cathedral, or dreams amid the roses and the
tinkling fountains of the secluded gardens of the Alcázar. Here, to this
prized and fertile territory of southernmost Spain, came Publius
Cornelius Scipio and Cato. Trajan, Hadrian and Theodosius were born at
the municipium of Italica, a few miles from modern Seville. El Begi,
'the most accomplished scholar of Spain,' spent the greater part of his
life in the city.
San Isidoro and San Leandro lived here. Moorish monarchs and Christian
sovereigns ruled from the palace, and in their turn attacked and
defended the fair city. The figures crowd before the mind's
eye--Ferdinand III., who redeemed the town from the Moriscoes, Alfonso
(_El Sabio_) the Learned, Pedro I. the Cruel, and Ferdinand and Isabella
the Catholic. We see the fair, blue-eyed Genoese youth, Christoforo
Colombo, or Columbus, the maker of the modern prosperity of Seville,
who, after achieving fame, was alternately petted and punished by his
sovereigns. We picture the triumphant return of Hernando Pizarro to the
city, with half a million pesos of gold, and a great treasure of silver.
Lope de Rueda, 'the real father of the Spanish theatre,' a gold-worker
of Seville; Fernando de Herrera, the poet; the mighty Cervantes, who
spent three years of his life in the Andalusian capital; Velazquez,
Zurbaran, Roelas, Murillo and minor artists of note were either born in
the city or closely associated with it.
For the present we must take a look back into the dim and remote period
when the Phoenicians came to wrest the soil of Southern Spain from the
race of mingled Celtic and Iberian blood. It is at this uncertain date
that the history of Seville may be said to begin.
* * * * *
We learn from the historians of Phoenicia that the shrewd, practical
and industrious people of that marvellous ancient civilisation were
great colonisers. 'The south of Spain,' writes Professor George
Rawlinson, 'was rich in metallic treasures, and yielded gold, silver,
copper, iron, lead and tin.' In their quest for valuable metal, certain
Phoenician explorers discovered the Peninsula of Iberia, and in the
mineral-yielding region watered by the Guadalquivir they founded the
colony of Tartessii. Doubt exists whether Tartessii was the name given
to the plains of the Guadalquivir or to a town. Strabo, Mela and Pliny
state that the Phoenicians built a town and called it Tartessus. Was
this town the foundation of Seville? No one will attempt to give an
authoritative answer, though it has been stated that the town was not
Cadiz, the Gades of the Phoenicians. Two cities of considerable
importance appear to have been the marts of the Phoenician _Sephela_,
or plain, and it is not wholly improbable that Seville was one of them.
[Illustration: Roman Walls]
In the choice of new territory for the development of mining and
agriculture, the enterprising colonists displayed much intelligence.
They settled upon a soil that will bring forth richly without artificial
stimulation.
The hill ranges produced vines and olive trees, yielding fine wine and
ample oil. Tunny and other fish were plentiful in the sea, and the
rivers afforded large eels.
This is all that can be known of the Phoenician colony in Southern
Spain. We are beginning to tread upon firmer historic ground when
Hamilcar Barca landed at Cadiz in 237 B.C., after a series of victories
in Africa, and subdued Andalusia. Hasdrubal, son-in-law of the
conqueror, was the founder of Cartagena, or New Carthage, the centre of
Carthaginian rule in Spain, and the wealthiest city of the Peninsula.
But during the second Punic War the Romans invaded Iberia, and gained
all the eastern coast from New Carthage to the Pyrenees. Plutarch says
that Publius Cornelius Scipio came to Spain with eleven thousand
soldiers, seized Cartagena, reduced Cadiz, and founded the city of
Italica, near Seville. Hispalis was the Roman name given to the city on
the Guadalquivir until Cæsar changed the name to Julia Romula. The city
then became the capital of Roman Spain, a centre of industry, and a
fortress. A splendid aqueduct, which has partly endured to this day, was
constructed to bring a plentiful supply of water from the hills. The
aqueduct was extended by the Almohades in 1172, and forms one of the
interesting monuments of the Roman and Arab colonisers. Around the city
were reared high walls, with watch towers, and many strong gates. It is
said that the walls of Seville were five miles in length, and it has
been stated that they were once ten miles long. Within the gates were
palaces, temples to the honour of the Sun, Hercules, Bacchus and Venus,
and other fine edifices.
Under Augustus, Spain was part of the Roman Empire. In Seville the rule
of the conquerors was beneficent, and the original inhabitants were
fairly governed, while the city was extended and new crafts introduced.
Under the Romans, Christianity came to the Peninsula, and Seville was
made the seat of a bishop. The remaining portions of the great aqueduct,
the wall, the two high granite columns in the Alameda de Hercules, with
the statues of Julius Cæsar and Hercules upon them, the shafts of the
columns discovered in the Calle Abades, and the beautiful fragments of
capitals and statues in the Museo Arqælógico are the chief vestiges of
Seville in the days of the Romans. At Urbs Italica, 'the camp of the
Italians,' there still exists a grass-grown, mouldered amphitheatre, the
only remnant of a mighty town.
Built on the slopes once dotted with the tents of the aboriginal hamlet
of Sancios, Italica lies about five miles to the west of Seville, amid
olive gardens and wheatfields. The circus is a ruin; but the passages
can be followed below the tiers of seats, and one may peer into the dens
once tenanted by the lions and other fierce beasts. Bees hum amongst the
wild thyme, lizards creep on the worn stones, and a tethered ass grazes
in the arena. The glory of Rome has departed; the plaudits from those
deserted and grassy seats have not been heard for centuries; and blood
has ceased to redden the floor, where fragrant herbs now spring and
butterflies sun themselves on fallen masonry. Here is all that is left
of Italica, the home of Trajan and Hadrian, and the asylum for Scipio's
aged warriors. For a period the decaying town was known as Old Seville,
and tons of its masonry were removed to build Seville the New.
Rome fell, and the Silingi Vandals swarmed into the country, captured
Hispalis, and made it the seat of their empire. This period in the
history of Seville is dark, and beset with difficulty for the annalist.
About the year 520 a great horde of Goths spread over Andalusia. They
seized the Vandal capital, but afterwards established a new capital of
their own at Toledo.
[Illustration: The Pillars of Hercules and Julius Ceásar]
Amalaric was the first of the Gothic monarchs who sat on the throne in
Seville. He reigned probably from about the year 522. Theudis ruled in
Seville (531 to 548), and we read that he was murdered there after an
attempt to expel the Byzantine troops of Justinian from Africa.
Theudisel, or Theudigisel, was general to Theudis, whom he succeeded as
ruler at Seville. Theudisel shared the fate of his predecessor on the
throne. After a reign of eighteen months, he was killed by the
sword-thrusts of a dozen nobles of his retinue, while taking supper in
his palace. This 'monster of licentiousness' was wont to kill all women
who repelled his addresses, and his assassination was a work of
vengeance on the part of outraged fathers and husbands among his
courtiers.
Schlegel says the Goths were ready converts to Christianity, but 'in the
Arian form.' At a later period of their supremacy in Spain there came a
wider adherence to orthodox Catholicism, and the civil power was largely
in the hands of the bishops and clergy. The most influential bishop of
this day was Saint Isidore (San Isidoro) who held office in Seville. His
brothers, Leander and Fulgentius, were also prelates, and his sister,
Florentina, was made a saint. Saint Leander was the elder brother of
Isidore, and through him the youth received his education after the
death of his parents. The pupil was earnest and diligent in his studies,
and as he grew to manhood he zealously assisted his brother, who then
held the See of Seville, in converting the Goths from the heresy of
Arius.
Dissensions between the orthodox and the Arians caused great strife and
family bitterness among the ruling class. During the reign of King
Leovigild rebellions broke out in Castile and León. The leader of the
rebels was Leovigild's own son, Ermenigild, who had married Ingunda,
daughter of Brunichilda and of Sigebert. Ingunda professed the orthodox
faith, while Gosvinda, the second wife of Leovigild, was of the Arian
sect. A rivalry arose between the two dames. According to Gregory of
Tours, Gosvinda determined that Ingunda should be compelled to embrace
the heterodox creed. One day when the two disputants were together,
engaged in hot controversy, the fanatical Gosvinda gripped Ingunda by
the hair of her head, threw her to the ground, trod upon her, and bade
an Arian priest baptize the prostrate woman.
This incident not unnaturally brought about a quarrel between Leovigild
and his son. Ermenigild was then ruling in Seville, while Leovigild
maintained his court at Toledo. The trouble grew when Leander, the uncle
of Ermenigild, persuaded the young man to forsake Arianism. His father
was deeply angered, and vowed that the Gothic crown should never come to
an apostate. The Archbishop of Tours states that the father was the
first to take up arms after the rupture, but other historians suppose
that the turbulent Ermenigild began the hostilities.
This domestic difference led to serious warfare. Ermenigild was besieged
in Seville by his father's forces, after begging aid from Mir, King of
the Suevi, in Galicia. Mir started with an army to assist the rebellious
prince, but on the way he was defeated by Leovigild, and forced to aid
the monarch. For a year Ermenigild resisted the siege of Seville. The
people were on the point of starvation when he resolved upon
capitulation. Nothing remained but flight, and the prince made his
escape from the city and reached Córdova. There he was captured,
divested of his regal garments and authority, and banished to Valencia.
Very soon the strife was renewed. Ermenigild, panting for a reprisal,
solicited aid from the Greeks and rebels of the east coast, and invaded
Estremadura. His father went to meet him with a force of his bravest
men. The attack was made by Leovigild, who drove his son's army from
Merida into Valencia, and took the young man a prisoner.
The King was stern, but he could not act ungenerously towards his foe
and son. He offered Ermenigild pardon and favour on condition that he
would reject his heretical faith. The rebel refused the terms; he would
rather remain in his dungeon than practise hypocrisy. Again the father
besought the son, through an Arian priest, to renounce his false
doctrine, and again Ermenigild was resolute. In a passion, he cursed the
cleric, crying: 'As the minister of the devil, thou canst only guide to
hell! Begone, wretch, to the punishments which are prepared for thee!'
This was more than Leovigild could bear. He immediately sentenced his
son to death. The legend of Ermenigild's last days relates that on the
night of his execution a light from Paradise shone in his cell, and that
angels watched over the grave, singing hymns in his praise. Ermenigild
was sainted, and one of his bones is at Zaragoza.
It was in this time of religious stress and civil discord that Saint
Isidore of Seville began his labours. For about thirty-six years he
ruled as governor of the church in the city. His hand was open towards
the poor, and he preached with fervid eloquence. It is to the industry
of Isidore that Spain owes respect, for his writings are the only basis
for a history of the chief events during the Gothic epoch. He wrote the
_Historia de Regibus Gothorum, Wandalorum et Suevorum_, and one of the
celebrated books of study of mediævalism, _The Etymologies or Origins of
Things_.
San Isidore's philosophy was Platonic and Aristotelian. In theology he
followed the teaching of St. Gregory the Great. He was a puritan in his
attitude towards the play.
'What connection,' he writes, 'can a Christian have with the folly of
the circus games, with the indecency of the theatre, with the cruelty of
the amphitheatre, with the wickedness of the arena, or with the
lasciviousness of the plays? They who enjoy such spectacles deny God,
and, as backsliders in the faith, hunger after that which they renounced
at their baptism, enslaving themselves to the devil with his pomps and
vanities.'
The gift of oratory possessed by Saint Isidore was predicted in his
infancy by the issue of a swarm of bees from his mouth. His body was
laid to rest, in 636, in Seville.
When King Fernando decided to collect all the bones of martyrs and
saints that he could find in the cathedrals and burial grounds, he
raised an army and came to Seville, which was then under the Moors. Ibn
Obeid, the chief of the Moriscoes, favoured Fernando's scheme, and
allowed the King to enter the city to search for the remains of Justus.
These bones could not be found; but while the seekers were at their task
the spirit of Saint Isidore appeared to them, and said that the remains
of Justus could not be discovered, as it was ordained that they should
rest at Seville. Saint Isidore then offered his own remains for removal,
and his embalmed corpse was taken to the Church of John the Baptist, in
León, in 1063.
Until the time of Recared I. the Goths in Spain remained Arians. When
they forsook their early faith, they adopted a ritual which differed
from that of the Catholics. It was not until the reign of Alfonso VI.
that the Roman service was used throughout the land. The civil law of
the Goths was founded on the _Forum Judicum_ of the Romans. This lengthy
code became later the _Fuero Juzgo_, and was eventually adapted to the
community by Alfonso X. in 1258, and known as the _Siete Partidas_, or
Seven Sections. Under the Gothic code slavery was permitted, and great
power was vested in the hands of the nobility.
'The old Roman civilisation,' writes Mr. H. E. Watts, in his _Spain_,
'which the Celtiberians had been so quick to adopt, sat awkwardly on
these newer barbarians. It was a heritage to which they had not
succeeded of nature, and a burden too great for them to support? The
Romans had made one nation of Spain. The Visigoths were not much more
than an encampment.' When the Berbers, new converts to Mohammedanism,
began to cast envious eyes upon lovely Andalusia, the Goths were
demoralised through easy living in a southern clime. Spain had become a
nation of lords and serfs, and the slaves, the mass of the people, had
no heart to fight for the land that had been wrested from them.
When Tarik, lieutenant of Musa, came with a force of seven thousand
Berbers to battle for the Prophet and to conquer Spain, the Gothic King,
Roderic, hastily collected an army of defence and advanced towards
Xeres. Theodomir, Governor of Andalusia, had learned that the invaders
were marching from Algeciras, where they landed on the 30th of April
711. The Berbers had many horsemen, well-equipped and valiant, while
Roderic possessed only a small number of mounted men.
It was not until 19th July that the decisive and memorable battle was
fought. The Gothic King met his foes on the banks of the Guadalete
(_Wad-el-leded_) 'the river of delight.' It is said that the combat
lasted for seven days. The Goths, though enervated, had not wholly lost
their prowess, and they strove desperately with the fierce host of
Tarik. So bravely fought the defenders that the Moors grew disheartened;
but their leader, sword in hand, and calling upon Allah, told his troops
that they had no vessels with which to escape from the country. The
Berbers must win or perish. Spurring his steed, Tarik dashed into the
Gothic ranks, cleaving a way as he rode, and inspiring his followers to
a supreme effort. Roderic also rallied his soldiers to a last stand. His
army numbered more than that of the Berber general, but the men were
ill-trained, and no match for the desperate enemies who had battled in
many campaigns.
Some Spanish historians assert that the sons of Witiza, the King
dethroned by Roderic and sentenced to death, aided by other traitors,
deserted their companies and joined the Berbers. It has also been
recorded that Count Julian, whose daughter was dishonoured by Roderic,
had allied himself with the foe in Africa. These stories have not,
however, been accepted by later chroniclers.
The battle was to the Moors. Roderic was either killed on the field by
Tarik himself, or taken prisoner and released to spend the rest of his
days in a monastery. One account states that Tarik slew his opponent,
and sent the head to Musa, who had it conveyed to the Court at Damascus.
The beaten Goths retreated rapidly before the advancing army. Some
followed Theodomir into Murcia, others went to the Asturian mountains.
The band of the Andalusian Governor was pursued by the enemy and routed;
and Theodomir was compelled to surrender and to confess fealty to the
Khalif. Upon this condition the Governor was allowed to possess Murcia
and parts of Valencia and Granada, his territory being known as Tadmir.
Seville was soon in a state of siege. Envious of the good fortune of his
lieutenant, Musa came to Andalusia with eighteen thousand Arabs of
valour. He was assisted in command by his sons Abdelola and Meruan. His
eldest son, Abdelasis, remained in authority in Africa. The Sevillians
made a valiant defence of their beautiful city; but after several weeks
of siege Musa led his army through the gates. From that hour, until its
capture by Fernando III., the Andalusian capital was in the hands of the
Moors. Carmona and neighbouring towns were also seized by Musa.
After the subjection of Seville, the Arab general started upon a
campaign. It appears that Musa had not left an efficient force within
the city walls, for the inhabitants rose and attempted to expel their
victors. Hearing of the trouble, Musa sent his son Abdelasis into Spain
to quell the revolt in Seville. Abdelasis used suasion first; but the
natives were in arms and ardent to regain the city. They prepared for a
second siege. With much slaughter, the son of Musa put down the
rebellion of the newly-conquered citizens, and proceeded through the
south of Spain, winning battles everywhere. Musa was so gratified by his
son's successes that he appointed him ruler of the annexed territory.
Abdelasis had a reputation for humane conduct towards the vanquished
people. He fell in love with Egilona, widow of the unfortunate Roderic,
and made her first a member of his harem and afterwards his wife. That
he respected her is shown by the fact that her counsel was always sought
in affairs of government.
The Berber King of Seville was to learn that the throne is not the most
peaceful resting-place after war's alarms. Scandal was set abroad that
Abdelasis was scheming to become sole ruler of the Berber dominion, and
this report reached the ears of Suleyman, brother and heir of the
Khalif. There is no doubt that Suleyman resented the favour shown to
Musa and his sons, while he feared that Abdelasis might one day contest
with him for sovereignty. Seized by this fear, the heir to the crown
gave secret orders for the killing of the three sons of the great
commander, Musa.
One day, while Abdelasis was taking part in the devotions within the
Mosque of Seville, hired murderers crept up to him and stabbed him to
death. The two brothers of Abdelasis shared the like fate. The head of
the King was sent to the Khalif at Damascus, who caused it to be shown
to Musa. Then the brave general, gazing in anger upon his sovereign,
cried aloud: 'Cursed be he who has destroyed a better man than himself!'
The distracted Musa fell sick through grief, and soon died.
There is another account of the death of Musa. His jealousy of Tarik,
who conducted the first successful campaign in the Peninsula, led the
general to treat his inferior officer with indignity. The friends of
Tarik at Damascus, in the Court of the Khalif, breathed vengeance upon
Musa, and prevailed upon the monarch to punish his commander-in-chief. A
party of arrest seized Musa in his camp, and brought him before the
Khalif, who commanded that he should be degraded and publicly beaten.
The disgrace broke Musa's heart and caused his death.
Abdelasis was succeeded by Ayub, who acted as Viceroy of the Khalif. The
new ruler preferred Córdova to Seville, and thither he removed with his
retinue. For a long period the city was one of lesser importance; but it
gained greatness and independence under Abul Kâsein Mohammed in 1021. In
the time of Abbad and Al-Motamid II. the population of the town rose to
four hundred thousand, and the grandeur of the place rivalled, if it did
not exceed, that of Córdova. In 1078 proud Córdova was subject to
Seville, and the ancient metropolis of the Moors in Spain was falling
into decay, while 'the pearl of Andalusia' was shining in its chief
splendour.
Abderahman I., Emir of Córdova, in 777, made a bold stroke by
proclaiming himself Khalif and sole ruler of Spain. It is not necessary
to recount the victories of Abderahman. He came in triumph to Seville
and was bade welcome. 'His appearance, his station, his majestic mien,
his open countenance,' writes Dunham, 'won the multitude even more
perhaps than the prospect of the blessings which he was believed to have
in store for them.' Abderahman's rule in Seville laid the foundation of
the city's prosperity. He narrowed the channel of the Guadalquivir, and
made the river navigable; he built residences, and laid out gardens, and
transplanted the palm tree into Spain. We read that the Moorish King was
honourable, bold and generous, and possessed of a fine sense of justice.
He encouraged letters, and was a benefactor of educational institutions.
The King was also a poet, and loved the society of intellectual men.
Although the peaceful arts flourished in Seville at this period, the
city was frequently the scene of battle. Conspiracies, factions and
revolts constantly disturbed Spain, and during the reign of Abderahman
several rival chiefs made assault upon Seville. One of these was Yusuf,
who raised troops, took the fort of Almodovar, and moved towards Lorca.
There he was met by Abdelmelic, general of Abderahman, who overcame the
rebel force, killed the leader, and sent his head, after the Oriental
manner, to the King. The trophy was displayed at Córdova. But the
rebellion was not quelled by Abdelmelic's victory. Yusuf's three sons
gathered an army and made attacks upon Toledo, Sidonia, and Seville.
Another insurrection broke out at Toledo, under one of Yusuf's
relatives, Hixem ben Adri el Fehri.
Upon the advice of Abderahman's first minister, the King proposed an
amnesty, to last for three days. Hixem accepted the terms, and gained
pardon. But he abused the King's clemency at a later date, and came
with a body of troops to the gates of Seville. There was hard fighting,
but the Governor, Abdelmelic, preserved the city and drove away the foe.
Strife was again caused by the Wali of Mequinez, one Abdelgafar, who
came bent upon the capture of Seville. The Wali was encountered by
Cassim, young son of Abdelmelic. Fear seized the youthful officer, and
he fled with his soldiers. He was met by his father, who drew his dagger
and killed the young man, saying: 'Die, coward! thou art not my son, nor
dost thou belong to the noble race of Meruan!' The Governor then pursued
the enemy, but they escaped him, and came near again to Seville.
Abdelmelic hurried to the Guadalquivir, and in a night fight he was
overcome and received a wound. The troops of the Wali poured into the
city. But in spite of his injury the Governor entered Seville, and after
a furious combat expelled the host of Abdelgafar. The Wali was
afterwards caught and killed on the bank of the Xenil. In reward for his
bravery, the King made Abdelmelic Governor of Eastern Spain.
It is stated that, in 843, a fleet of ships, manned by Norman pirates,
sailed up the Guadalquivir. The pirates made a sudden raid upon Seville.
The inhabitants were taken by surprise, the town was robbed, and the
thieves made good their escape to the river.
Seville in the days of Moorish might was one of the fairest cities on
earth. Beautiful palaces were built upon the sites of the Roman halls,
gardens were shady with palms, and odorous with the blossom of orange
trees, and there were hundreds of public baths. The streets were paved
and lighted. In winter the houses were warmed, and in summer cooled by
scented air brought by pipes from beds of flowers.
Poetry, music and the arts were cultivated; the philosopher and the
artist were held in respect. There were halls of learning and great
libraries, which were visited by scholars from all parts of Europe.
[Illustration: Moorish fountain in the Court of Oranges]
The Alcázar, the Mosque, the lordly Giralda Tower and other remains
testify to the ancient splendour of Seville. It was the Moor who applied
the method of science to the cultivation of the plains, who bred the
cattle, introduced the orange tree, and planted the palm in the city.
Granada and Seville were centres of silk-growing. Here were manufactured
the damascened swords and other weapons, and beautiful metal work of
divers kinds, which was in demand all over Spain for centuries. Moorish
civilisation was unsurpassed for its handicrafts and architectural
decorations. Long after the Christian reclamation of Seville, the
_Mudéjar_, or Moor, living under the new rule, was employed by the State
to construct bridges and to build castles, to design houses, and to
decorate them with the wonderful glazed tiles and imperishable colours.
Among the learned Moors of Seville the most eminent was Abu Omar Ahmed
Ben Abdallah, known as El Begi. Abu Omar's father had spared no cost in
providing for his son's education. He employed as tutors the greatest
scholars of the time, and sent the lad to Africa, Syria, Egypt and
Khorassan in order to confer with sage men and doctors of repute. At the
age of eighteen years Abu Omar was wonderfully cultured, and as he grew
to middle age there was no man who could surpass him in knowledge of
arts and sciences. 'Even in his earliest youth, the Cadi of that city,
Aben Faweris,' says Condé, 'very frequently consulted him in affairs of
the highest importance.' El Begi, the Sage, was born in Seville and
lived there during most of his life.
Many philosophers must have mused in this cultured age amid the orange
trees of the court of the magnificent mosque. From the summit of the
Giralda, astronomers surveyed the spangled sky, making observations for
the construction of astronomical tables. Chemists questioned nature in
the laboratories by means of careful experiments, and mathematicians
taught in the schools. There were seventy public libraries in Andalusia;
the library of the State contained six hundred thousand volumes, and the
catalogue included forty-four tomes. Scholars also possessed large
private libraries. There was no censorship, no meddling with the works
of genius. Men of science were encouraged to investigate every problem
of human existence. Abu Abdallah wrote an encyclopædia of the sciences.
The theory of the evolution of species was part of the Arab education.
Moorish thought was destined to influence Spain for ages. The discovery
of the New World was due to the Mohammedan teaching of the sphericity
of the earth, and it was the work of Averroes that set Christopher
Columbus thinking upon his voyage of exploration.
The Moors in Seville were not only a cultured and devout community. They
were commercial and manufacturing, weavers of cotton, silk and wool,
makers of leather and paper, and growers of grain. In their hours of
recreation they played chess, sang and danced. Their dances have
survived to this day in the south of Spain, and may be witnessed in the
_cafés_ of Seville and Malaga.
[Illustration: Roman Capital.]