=Extent of Mārwār.=—The extreme breadth of Marwar lies between two
points in the parallel of the capital, namely, Girab, west, and
Shamgarh, on the Aravalli range, east. This line measures two hundred
and seventy British miles. The greatest length, from the Sirohi frontier
to the northern boundary, is about two hundred and twenty miles.[5.16.1]
From the remote angle, N.N.E., in the Didwana district, to the extremity
of Sanchor, S.W., the diagonal measurement is three hundred and fifty
miles. The limits of Marwar are, however, so very irregular, and present
so many salient angles and abutments into other States, that without a
trigonometrical process we cannot arrive at a correct estimate of its
superficial extent: a nicety not, indeed, required.
=Physical Features, Population.=—The most marked feature that
diversifies the face of Maru is the river Luni, which, rising on her
eastern frontier at Pushkar, and pursuing a westerly course, nearly
bisects the country, and forms the boundary between the fertile and
sterile lands of Maru. But although the tracts south of this stream,
between it and the Aravalli, are by far the richest part of Marwar, it
would be erroneous to describe all the northern part as sterile. An
ideal line, passing through Nagor and Jodhpur, to Balotra, will mark the
just distinction. South of this line will lie the districts of Didwana,
Nagor, Merta, Jodhpur, Pali, Sojat, Godwar, Siwana, Jalor, Bhinmal, and
Sanchor, most of which are fertile and populous; and we may [163] assign
a population of eighty souls to the square mile. The space north of this
line is of a very different character, but this requires a subdivision;
for while the north-east portion, which includes a portion of Nagor, the
large towns of Phalodi, Pokaran, etc., may be calculated at thirty, the
remaining space to the south-west, as Gugadeo-ka-thal, or ‘desert of
Guga,’ Sheo, Barmer, Kotra, and Chhotan, can scarcely be allowed ten. In
round numbers, the population of Marwar may be estimated at two millions
of souls.[5.16.2]
=Classes of Inhabitants.=—Of this amount, the following is the
classification of the tribes. The Jats constitute five-eighths, the
Rajputs two-eighths,[5.16.3] while the remaining classes,
sacerdotal,[5.16.4] commercial, and servile, make up the integral
number. If this calculation be near the truth, the Rajputs, men, women,
and children, will amount to five hundred thousand souls, which would
admit of fifty thousand men capable of bearing arms, especially when we
recollect that the Jats or Jāts are the industrious class.
=The Rāthors.=—It is superfluous to expatiate on the peculiarities of
the Rathor character, which we have endeavoured to extract from their
own actions. It stands deservedly high in the scale of the “Thirty-six
Tribes,” and although debased by one besetting sin (the use of opium),
the Rathor is yet a noble animal, and requires only some exciting cause
to show that the spirit, which set at defiance the resources of the
empire in the zenith of its prosperity, is dormant only, not extinct.
The reign of the present prince has done more, however, than even the
arms of Aurangzeb, to deteriorate the Rathors. Peace would recruit their
thinned ranks, but the mistrust sown in every house by unheard-of
duplicity, has greatly demoralized the national character, which until
lately stood higher than that of any of the circumjacent tribes. A
popular prince, until within these very few years, could easily have
collected a magnificent army, _ek bap ke bete_, ‘the sons of one
father,’ round the ‘_gaddi_ of Jodha’: in fact, the _panchas hazar
tarwar Rathoran_, meaning the ‘fifty thousand Rathor swords,’ is the
proverbial phrase to denote the muster of Maru, of which they estimated
five thousand cavalry. This was exclusive of the household and foreign
troops supported on the fiscal lands. The Rathor cavalry was the best in
India. There were several horse-fairs, especially those of Balotra and
Pushkar where the horses of [164] Cutch and Kathiawar, the Jungle, and
Multan, were brought in great numbers. Valuable horses were also bred on
the western frontier, on the Luni, those of Rardara being in high
estimation. But the events of the last twenty years appear to have dried
up every source of supply. The breeding studs of Rardara, Cutch, and the
Jungle are almost extinct, and supplies from the west of the Indus are
intercepted by the Sikhs.[5.16.5] The destruction of the predatory
system, which created a constant demand, appears to have lessened the
supply. So much for the general peace which the successes of Britain
have produced.
In periods of civil commotion, or when the safety of the State was
perilled, we hear of one clan (the Champawat) mustering four thousand
horse. But if ever so many of “the sons of Champa” were congregated at
one time, it is an extraordinary occurrence, and far beyond the demand
which the State has upon their loyalty. To estimate what may be demanded
of them, we have only to divide the rent-roll by five hundred rupees,
the qualification for a cavalier in Maru, and to add, for each horse,
two foot-soldiers. A schedule of the greater feudal estates shall be
appended.
=Soil, Agriculture, Products.=—The following is the classification of
the different heads of soil in Marwar: Bekal, Chikni, Pīla, and Safed.
The first (whose etymology I know not) pervades the greater part of the
country, being a light sand, having little or no earthy admixture, and
only fit to produce _bajra_ (millet), _mung_, _moth_ (pulse), _til_
(sesamum), melons and _gawar_.[5.16.6] Chikni (fat), a black earth,
pervades the district of Didwana, Merta, Pali, and several of the feudal
lands in Godwar. Wheat and grain are its products. The Pīla (yellow) is
a sandy clay, chiefly about Khinwasar[5.16.7] and the capital, also
Jalor and Balotra, and portions of other districts. It is best adapted
for barley, and that kind of wheat called _pattagehun_ (the other is
_kathagehun_);[5.16.8] also tobacco, onions, and other vegetables: the
staple millets are seldom grown in this. The Safed (white) is almost
pure silex, and grows little or nothing, but after heavy falls of
rain.[5.16.9]
The districts south of the Luni, as Pali, Sojat, and Godwar, fertilized
by the numerous petty streams flowing from the Aravalli, produce
abundantly every species of grain with the exception of _bajra_, which
thrives best in a sandy soil; and in Nagor and Merta considerable
quantities of the richer grains are raised by irrigation from wells. The
extensive western divisions of Jalor, Sanchor, and Bhinmal, containing
[165] five hundred and ten towns and villages, which are Khalisa, or
‘fiscal land,’ possess an excellent soil, with the advantage of the
rills from Abu, and the great southern barrier; but the demoralized
government of Raja Man never obtains from them one-third of their
intrinsic capability, while the encroachment of the Sahariyas, and other
robbers from the Sindi desert, encroach upon them often with impunity.
Wheat, barley, rice, _juar_ (millet), _mung_ (pulse), _til_ (sesamum),
are the chief products of the richer lands; while amidst the sandy
tracts they are confined to _bajra_, _mung_, and _til_. With good
government, Marwar possesses abundance of means to collect stores
against the visitations which afflict these northern regions: but
prejudice steps in to aid the ravages of famine, and although water is
near the surface in all the southern districts, the number of wells
bears no proportion to those in Mewar. The great district of Nagor, of
five hundred and sixty towns and villages, the appanage of the
heirs-apparent of Maru, in spite of physical difficulties, is, or has
been made, an exception; and the immense sheet of sandstone, on which a
humid soil is embedded, has been pierced throughout by the energies of
ancient days, and contains greater aids to agriculture than many more
fertile tracts in the country.
=Natural Productions.=—Marwar can boast of some valuable productions of
her sterile plains, which make her an object of no little importance in
the most distant and more favoured regions of India. The salt lakes of
Pachbhadra, Didwana, and Sambhar, are mines of wealth, and their produce
is exported over the greater part of Hindustan; while to the marble
quarries of Makrana (which gives its name to the mineral), on her
eastern frontier, all the splendid edifices of the imperial cities owe
their grandeur. The materials used in the palaces of Delhi, Agra, their
mosques, and tombs, have been conveyed from Marwar.[5.16.10] The
quarries, until of late years, yielded a considerable revenue; but the
age for palace-building in these regions is no more, and posterity will
ask with surprise the sources of such luxury. There are also limestone
quarries near Jodhpur and Nagor; and the concrete called _kankar_ is
abundant in many of the districts, and chiefly used for mortar. Tin and
lead are found at Sojat; alum about Pali, and iron is obtained from
Bhinmal and the districts adjoining Gujarat.
=Manufactures.=—The manufactures of Marwar are of no great importance in
a commercial point of view. Abundance of coarse cotton cloths, and
blankets, are [166] manufactured from the cotton and wool produced in
the country, but they are chiefly used there. Matchlocks, swords, and
other warlike implements are fabricated at the capital and at Pali; and
at the latter place they make boxes of iron, tinned, so as to resemble
the tin boxes of Europe. Iron platters for culinary purposes are in such
great demand as to keep the forges constantly going.
=Commercial Marts.=—None of these States are without traffic; each has
her mart, or entrepôt; and while Mewar boasts of Bhilwara, Bikaner of
Churu, and Amber of Malpura (the city of wealth), the Rathors claim
Pali, which is not only the rival of the places just mentioned, but may
make pretensions to the title of emporium of Rajputana. These
pretensions we may the more readily admit, when we recollect that
nine-tenths of the bankers and commercial men of India are natives of
Marudes, and these chiefly of the Jain faith. The laity of the Khadatara
sect send forth thousands to all parts of India, and the Oswals, so
termed from the town of Osian, near the Luni, estimate one hundred
thousand families whose occupation is commerce. All these claim a Rajput
descent, a fact entirely unknown to the European enquirer into the
peculiarities of Hindu manners. The wealth acquired in foreign lands,
from the Sutlej to the ocean, returns chiefly to their native soil; but
as neither primogeniture nor _majorats_ are sanctioned by the Jain
lawgivers, an equal distribution takes place amongst all the sons,
though the youngest (as amongst the Getae of Asia, and the Jutes of
Kent), receives often a double portion. This arises when the division
takes place while the parent is living, being the portion set apart for
his own support, which ultimately falls to the youngest, with whom he
probably resides. It would be erroneous to say this practice is
extensive; though sufficient instances exist to suppose it once was a
principle.[5.16.11] The bare enumeration of the tribes following
commerce would fill a short chapter. A priest of the Jains [167] (my own
teacher), who had for a series of years devoted his attention to form a
catalogue, which then amounted to nearly eighteen hundred classes,
renounced the pursuit, on obtaining from a brother priest, from a
distant region, one hundred and fifty new names to add to his list.
Pali was the entrepôt for the eastern and western regions, where the
productions of India, Kashmir, and China, were interchanged for those of
Europe, Africa, Persia, and Arabia. Caravans (_kitars_), from the ports
of Cutch and Gujarat, imported elephants’ teeth, copper, dates,
gum-arabic, borax, coco-nuts, broadcloths, silks, sandal-wood, camphor,
dyes, drugs, oxide and sulphuret of arsenic, spices, coffee, etc. In
exchange, they exported chintzes, dried fruits, _jira_,[5.16.12]
asafoetida from Multan, sugar, opium (Kotah and Malwa), silks and fine
cloths, potash, shawls, dyed blankets, arms, and salt of home
manufacture.
=Caravans.=—The route of the caravans was by Suigam,[5.16.13] Sanchor,
Bhinmal, Jalor to Pali, and the guardians of the merchandise were almost
invariably Charans, a character held sacred by the Rajput. The most
desperate outlaw seldom dared to commit any outrage on caravans under
the safeguard of these men, the bards of the Rajputs. If not strong
enough to defend their convoy with sword and shield, they would threaten
the robbers with the _chandni_, or ‘self-immolation’;[5.16.14] and
proceed by degrees from a gash in the flesh to a death-wound, or if one
victim was insufficient a whole body of women and children was
sacrificed (as in the case of the Bamaniya Bhats), for whose blood the
marauder is declared responsible hereafter.
=Decay of Commerce. The Opium Trade.=—Commerce has been almost
extinguished within these last twenty years; and paradoxical as it may
appear, there was tenfold more activity and enterprise in the midst of
that predatory warfare, which rendered India one wide arena of conflict,
than in these days of universal pacification. The torpedo touch of
monopoly has had more effect on the Kitars than the spear of the desert
Sahariya, or Barwatia (outlaw) Rajput—against its benumbing qualities
the Charan’s dagger would fall innocuous; it sheds no blood, but it
dries up its channels. If the products of the salt-lakes of Rajputana
were preferred, even at Benares, to the sea-salt of Bengal, high impost
duties excluded it from the market. If the opium of Malwa and Haraoti
competed in the China market with our Patna monopoly, again we
intervened, not with high export duties, which we were competent to
impose, but by laying our shackles upon it at the fountain-head. “_Aut
Caesar, aut nullus_,” is our maxim [168] in these regions; and in a
country where our Agents are established only to preserve political
relations and the faith of treaties, the basis of which is
non-interference in the internal arrangement of their affairs—albeit we
have not a single foot of land in sovereignty—we set forth our
_parwanas_, as peremptory as any Russian ukase, and command that no
opium shall leave these countries for the accustomed outlets, under pain
of confiscation. Some, relying on their skill in eluding our vigilance,
or tempted by the high price which these measures produce, or perhaps
reckoning upon our justice, and upon impunity if discovered, tried new
routes, until confiscation brought them to submission.
We then put an arbitrary value upon the drug, and forced the grower to
come to us, and even take credit to ourselves for consulting his
interests. Even admitting that such price was a remunerating one,
founded upon an average of past years, still it is not the less
arbitrary. No allowance is made for plentiful or bad seasons, when the
drug, owing to a scarcity, will bear a double price. Our legislation is
for “all seasons and their change.” But this virtual infraction of the
faith of treaties is not confined to the grower or retailer; it affects
others in a variety of ways; it injures our reputation and the welfare
of those upon whom, for benevolent purposes, we have forced our
protection. The transit duties levied on opium formed an item in the
revenues of the princes of Rajputana; but confiscation guards the passes
of the Aravalli and Gujarat, and unless the smuggler wrap up his cargo
in ample folds of deceit, the Rajput may go without his _amal-pani_, the
infusion of this poison, dearer to him than life. It is in vain to urge
that sufficient is allowed for home consumption. Who is to be the judge
of this? or who is so blind as not to see that any latitude of this kind
would defeat the monopoly, which, impolitic in its origin, gave rise in
its progress to fraud, gambling, and neglect of more important
agricultural economy. But this policy must defeat itself: the excess of
quantity produced will diminish the value of the original (Patna)
monopoly, if its now deteriorated quality should fail to open the eyes
of the quick-sighted Chinese, and exclude it from the market
altogether.[5.16.15]
=Fairs.=—There were two annual fairs in his country, Mundwa and Balotra;
the first chiefly for cattle. The merchandise of various countries was
exposed [169] and purchased by the merchants of the adjoining States. It
commenced with the month of Magh, and lasted during six weeks. The other
was also for cattle of all kinds, horses, oxen, camels, and the
merchandise enumerated amongst the imports and exports of Pali. Persons
from all parts of India frequented them; but all these signs of
prosperity are vanishing.[5.16.16]
=Administration of Justice.=—The administration of justice is now very
lax in these communities; but at no time were the customary criminal
laws of Rajputana sanguinary, except in respect to political crimes,
which were very summarily dealt with when practicable. In these feudal
associations, however, such crimes are esteemed individual offences, and
the whole power of the government is concentrated to punish them; but
when they are committed against the community, justice is tempered with
mercy, if not benumbed by apathy. In cases even of murder, it is
satisfied with fine, corporal punishment, imprisonment, confiscation, or
banishment. Inferior crimes, such as larcenies, were punished by fine
and imprisonment, and, when practicable, restitution; or, in case of
inability to pay, corporal punishment and confinement. But under the
present lax system, when this impoverished government has to feed
criminals, it may be supposed that their prisons are not overstocked.
Since Raja Bijai Singh’s death, the judgment-seat has been vacant. His
memory is held in high esteem for the administration of justice, though
he carried clemency to excess. He never confirmed a sentence of death;
and there is a saying of the criminals, yet extant, more demonstrative
of his humanity than of good policy: “When at large we cannot even get
_rabri_ (porridge), but in prison we eat _laddu_ (sweetmeat).” Here, as
at Jaipur, confined criminals are maintained by individual charity; and
it is a well-known fact, that at the latter place, but for the humanity
of the mercantile classes, especially those of the Jain persuasion, they
might starve. Perhaps it is the knowledge of this circumstance, which
holds back the hand of the government, or its agents, who may apply to
their own uses the prison-fare. When once confined, the criminals are
little thought of, and neglect answers all the ends of cruelty. They
have, however, a source of consolation unknown to those who have passed
“the bridge of sighs,” or become inmates of the oubliettes of more
civilized regions. That fortitude and resignation which religion alone
can bestow on the one is obtained through superstition by the other; and
the prayers of the prison are poured forth for one of those visitations
of Providence [170], which, in humbling the proud, prompts acts of mercy
to others in order to ensure it to themselves.[5.16.17] The celestial
phenomena of eclipses, whether of the sun or moon, although predicted by
the Pandits, who for ages have possessed the most approved theory for
calculation, are yet looked upon with religious awe by the mass, and as
“foreboding change to princes.” Accordingly, when darkness dims the
beams of Surya or Chandra, the face of the prisoner of Maru is lighted
up with smiles; his deliverance is at hand, and he may join the crowd to
hoot and yell, and frighten the monster Rahu[5.16.18] from his hold of
the “silver-moon.”[5.16.19] The birth of a son to the prince, and a new
reign, are events likewise joyful to him.
=Trial by Ordeal.=—The trial by _sagun_, literally ‘oath of purgation,’
or ordeal, still exists, and is occasionally had recourse to in Maru, as
in other parts of Rajputana; and, if fallen into desuetude, it is not
that these judgments of God (as they were styled in the days of European
barbarism) are less relied on, but that society is so unhinged that even
these appeals to chance find no subjects for practice, excepting by
Zalim Singh; and he to the last carried on his antipathy to the Dakins
(witches) of Haraoti, who were always submitted to the process by
‘water.’ Trial by ordeal is of very ancient date in India: it was by
‘fire’ that Rama proved the purity of Sita, after her abduction by
Ravana, and in the same manner as practised by one of our Saxon kings,
by making her walk over a red-hot ploughshare.[5.16.20] Besides the two
most common tests, by fire and water, there is a third, that of washing
the hands in boiling oil. It should be stated, that, in all cases, not
only the selection but the appeal to any of these ordeals is the
voluntary act of the litigants, and chiefly after the Panchayats, or
courts of arbitration, have failed. Where justice is denied, or bribery
shuts the door, the sufferer will dare his adversary to the _sagun_, or
submission to the judgment of God; and the solemnity of the appeal
carries such weight, that it brings redress of itself, though cases do
occur where the challenge is accepted, and the author has conversed with
individuals who have witnessed the operation of each of the
ordeals.[5.16.21]
=Panchayats.=—The Panchayats arbitrate in civil cases. From these courts
of equity, there is an appeal to the Raja; but as unanimity is required
in the judges, and a fee or fine must be paid by the appellant, ere his
case can come before the prince [171], litigation is checked. The
constitution of this court is simple. The plaintiff lays his case before
the Hakim of the district, or the Patel of the village where he resides.
The plaintiff and defendant have the right of naming the villages (two,
each), from whence the members of the Panchayat are to be drawn.
Information is accordingly sent to the Patels of the villages specified,
who, with their respective Patwaris (Registers), meet at the Atai or
‘village-court.’ Witnesses are summoned and examined on oath, the most
common of which is the _gaddi-ki-an_, ‘allegiance to the throne,’
resembling the ancient adjuration of the Scythians as recorded by
Herodotus.[5.16.22] This oath is, however, more restricted to Rajputs;
the other classes have various forms based upon their religious notions.
When the proceedings are finished, and judgment is given, the Hakim puts
his seal thereto, and carries it into effect, or prepares it for appeal.
It is affirmed that, in the good times of Rajputana, these simple
tribunals answered every purpose.
=Fiscal Revenues.=—The fiscal revenues of Marwar are derived from
various sources; the principal are—
1. The Khalisa, or ‘crown-lands.’
2. The salt lakes.
3. Transit and impost duties.
4. Miscellaneous taxes, termed Hasil.
The entire amount of personal revenue of the princes of Marwar does not
at present exceed ten lakhs of rupees (£100,000 sterling), though in the
reign of Bijai Singh half a century ago, they yielded full sixteen
lakhs, one-half of which arose from the salt lakes alone. The aggregate
revenue of the feudal lands is estimated as high as fifty lakhs, or
£500,000. It may be doubted whether at present they yield half this
sum.[5.16.23] The feudal contingents are estimated at five thousand
horse, besides foot, the qualification being one cavalier and two
foot-soldiers for every thousand rupees of income.[5.16.24] This low
estimate is to keep up the nominal value of estates, notwithstanding
their great deterioration; for a ‘knight’s fee’ of Marwar was formerly
estimated at five hundred rupees.
The sum of ten lakhs, mentioned as the gross income of the prince, is
what is actually realized by the treasury, for there are many public
servants provided for out of the crown-lands, whose estates are not
included.
=Methods of Revenue Collection.=—The revenues are collected from the
ryots in kind. A corn-rent, the only one recognized in ancient India,
and termed Batai, or ‘division,’ is apportioned equally [172] between
the prince and the husbandman: a deviation from the more lenient
practice of former times, which gave one-fourth, or one-sixth to the
sovereign. Besides this, the cultivator has to pay the expense of
guarding the crops, and also those who attend the process of division.
An assessment of two rupees is made on every ten maunds,[5.16.25] which
more than covers the salaries paid to the Shahnas (watchmen), and
Kanwaris,[5.16.26] and leaves a surplus divided by the Patel and village
register (Patwari). A cart-load of _karbi_ (the stalks of _juar_ and
_bajra_) is exacted from every cultivator as fodder for the prince’s
cattle; but this is commuted for a rupee, except in seasons of scarcity,
when it is stored up. The other officers, as the Patwaris and Patels,
are paid out of the respective shares of the farmer and the crown,
namely, one-fourth of a ser each, from every maund of produce, or an
eightieth part of the gross amount. The cultivators of the Pattawats or
feudal chiefs are much better off than those of the Khalisa: from them
only two-fifths are exacted; and in lieu of all other taxes and charges,
a land-tax of twelve rupees is levied on every hundred bighas of land
cultivated. The cultivators repay this mild assessment by attachment to
the chiefs.
=Poll Tax.=—Anga is a poll-tax (from _anga_, ‘the body’) of one rupee,
levied on adults of either sex throughout Marwar.
=Cattle Tax.=—Ghasmali is a graduated tax on cattle, or, as the term
imports, the right of pasture. A sheep or goat is estimated at one anna
(one-sixteenth of a rupee); a buffalo eight annas, or half a rupee; and
each camel, three rupees.
=Door Tax.=—Kewari is a tax on doors (_kewar_), and is considered
peculiarly oppressive. It was first imposed by Bijai Singh, when,
towards the latter end of his reign, his chiefs rebelled, and retired in
a body to Pali to concert schemes for deposing him. Thither he
fruitlessly followed in order to pacify them, and on his return found
the gates (_kewar_) of his capital shut in his face, and Bhim Singh
placed upon the _gaddi_. To supply the pecuniary exigencies consequent
upon this embarrassing situation, he appealed to his subjects, and
proposed a ‘benevolence,’ in aid of his necessities, of three rupees for
each house, giving it a denomination from the cause whence it
originated. Whether employed as a punishment of those who aided his
antagonist, or as a convenient expedient of finance, he converted this
temporary contribution into a permanent tax, which continued until the
necessities of the confederacy against the [173] present prince, Raja
Man, and the usurpation of the fiscal lands by the Pathans, made him
raise it to ten rupees on each house. It is, however, not equally
levied; the number of houses in each township being calculated, it is
laid on according to the means of the occupants, and the poor man may
pay two rupees, while the wealthy pays twenty. The feudal lands are not
exempted, except in cases of special favour.
=Sāīr.=—In estimating the amount of the sair, or imposts of Marwar, it
must be borne in mind that the schedule appended represents what they
have been, and perhaps might again be, rather than what they now are.
These duties are subject to fluctuation in all countries, but how much
more in those exposed to so many visitations from predatory foes, civil
strife, and famine! There is no reason to doubt that, in the “good old
times” of Maru, the amount, as taken from old records, may have been
realized:—
Jodhpur Rs. 76,000
Nagor 75,000
Didwana 10,000
Parbatsar 44,000
Merta 11,000
Kolia 5,000
Jalor 25,000
Pali 75,000
Jasol and Balotra fairs 41,000
Bhinmal 21,000
Sanchor 6,000
Phalodi 41,000
—-——
TOTAL 430,000
The Danis, or collectors of the customs, have monthly salaries at the
large towns, while the numerous petty agents are paid by a percentage on
the sums collected. The sair, or imposts, include all those on grain,
whether of foreign importation, or the home-grown, in transit from one
district to another.
The revenue arising from the produce of the salt lakes has deteriorated
with the land and commercial revenues; and, though affected by political
causes, is yet the most certain branch of income. The following schedule
exhibits what has been derived from this lucrative source of wealth
[174]:—
Pachbhadra Rs.
200,000
Phalodi 100,000
Didwana 115,000
Sambhar 200,000
Nawa 100,000
—-—-—
TOTAL 715,000
=Banjāras: Salt Trade.=—This productive branch of industry still employs
thousands of hands, and hundreds of thousands of oxen, and is almost
entirely in the hands of that singular race of beings called Banjaras,
some of whose _tandas_, or caravans, amount to 40,000 head of oxen. The
salt is exported to every region of Hindustan, from the Indus to the
Ganges, and is universally known and sold under the title of Sambhar
Lun, or ‘salt of Sambhar,’ notwithstanding the quality of the different
lakes varies, that of Pachbhadra, beyond the Luni, being most
esteemed.[5.16.27] It is produced by natural evaporation, expedited by
dividing the surface into pans by means of mats of the Sarkanda
grass,[5.16.28] which lessens the superficial agitation. It is then
gathered and heaped up into immense masses, on whose summit they burn a
variety of alkaline plants, such as the _sajji_,[5.16.29] by which it
becomes impervious to the weather.
habits of secreting money. A very large treasure was discovered in Nagor
by Bijai Singh, when demolishing some old buildings.
=Military Forces.=—It only remains to state the military resources of
the Rathors, which fluctuate with their revenues. The Rajas maintain a
foreign mercenary force upon their fiscal revenues to overawe their own
turbulent vassalage. These are chiefly Rohilla and Afghan infantry,
armed with muskets and matchlocks; and having cannon and sufficient
discipline to act in a body, they are formidable to the Rajput
cavaliers. Some years ago, Raja Man had a corps of three thousand five
hundred foot, and fifteen hundred horse, with twenty-five guns,
commanded by Hindal Khan, a native of Panipat. He has been attached to
the family ever since the reign of Bijai Singh, and is (or was)
familiarly addressed _kaka_, or ‘uncle,’ by the prince. There was also a
brigade of those monastic militants, the Bishanswamis, under their
leader, Kaimdas, consisting of seven hundred foot, three hundred horse,
and an establishment of rockets (_bhan_), a very ancient instrument of
Indian warfare, and mentioned long before gunpowder was used in Europe.
At one period, the Raja maintained a foreign force amounting to, or at
least mustered as, eleven thousand men, of which number two thousand
five hundred were cavalry, with fifty-five guns, and a rocket
establishment. Besides a monthly pay, lands to a considerable amount
were granted to the commanders of the different legions. By these
overgrown establishments, to maintain a superiority over the feudal
lords which has been undermined by the causes related, the
demoralization and ruin of this country have been accelerated. The
existence of such a species of force, opposed in moral and religious
sentiment to the retainers of the State, has only tended to widen the
breach between them and their head, and to destroy every feeling of
confidence.
In Mewar there are sixteen great chiefs; in Amber, twelve; in Marwar,
eight. The following table exhibits their names, clans, residences, and
rated revenue. The contingent required by their princes may be estimated
by the qualification of a cavalier, namely, one for every five hundred
rupees of rent [176].
────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Names of │Clans. │Places of │ Revenue.│Remarks.
Chiefs. │ │Abode. │ │
───────────────────┴──────────┴─────────────┴──────────┴────────────────────
FIRST CLASS.
1. Kesari Singh │Champawat │Awa │ 100,000│Premier noble of
2. Bakhtawar │Kumpawat │Asop │ 50,000│Marwar. Of this
Singh │ │ │ │sum, half is the
│ │ │ │original grant: the
│ │ │ │rest is by
│ │ │ │usurpation
│ │ │ │of the inferior
│ │ │ │branches of his
│ │ │ │clan.
3. Salim Singh │Champawat │Pokaran │ 100,000│The Pokaran
│ │ │ │chief is by far the
│ │ │ │most powerful in
│ │ │ │Marwar.
4. Surthan │Udawat │Nimaj │ 50,000│The fief of Nimaj
Singh │ │ │ │is now under
│ │ │ │sequestration,
│ │ │ │since the last
│ │ │ │incumbent was put to
│ │ │ │death by the Raja.
5. .. │Mertia │Rian │ 25,000│The Mertia is deemed
│ │ │ │the bravest of all
│ │ │ │the Rathor clans.
6. Ajit Singh │Mertia │Ghanerao │ 50,000│This feoff formed
│ │ │ │one
│ │ │ │of the sixteen great
│ │ │ │feoffs of Mewar.
7. .. │Karamsot │Khinwasar │ 40,000│The town, which is
│ │ │ │large, has been
│ │ │ │dismantled, and
│ │ │ │several
│ │ │ │villages
│ │ │ │sequestrated.
8. .. │Bhatti │Khejarla │ 25,000│The only foreign
│ │ │ │chief
│ │ │ │in the first grade
│ │ │ │of
│ │ │ │the nobles of
│ │ │ │Marwar.
SECOND CLASS.
1. Sheonath Singh │Udawat │Kuchaman │ 50,000│A chief of
│ │ │ │considerable power.
2. Surthan Singh │Jodha │Khari-ka-dewa│ 25,000│
3. Prithi Singh │Udawat │Chandawal │ 25,000│
4. Tej Singh │ Do. │Khada │ 25,000│
5. Anar Singh │Bhatti │Ahor │ 11,000│In exile.
6. Jeth Singh │Kumpawat │Bagori │ 40,000│
7. Padam Singh │ Do. │Gajsinghpura │ 25,000│
8. .. │Mertia │Mehtri │ 40,000│
9. Kartan Singh │Udawat │Marot │ 15,000│
10. Zalim Singh │Kumpawat │Rohat │ 15,000│
11. Sawai Singh │Jodha │Chaupar │ 15,000│
12. .. │ .. │Budsu │ 20,000│
13. Sheodan Singh │Champawat │Kaota (great)│ 40,000│
14. Zalim Singh │ Do. │Harsola │ 10,000│
15. Sawal Singh │ Do. │Degod │ 10,000│
16. Hukm Singh │ Do. │Kaota │ 11,000│
│ │(little) │ │
───────────────────┴──────────┴─────────────┴──────────┴────────────────────
These are the principal chieftains of Marwar, holding lands on the
tenure of service. There are many who owe allegiance and service on
emergencies, the allodial vassals of Marwar, not enumerated in this
list; such as Barmer, Kotra, Jasol, Phulsund, Birganw, Bankaria,
Kalindri, Barunda, who could muster a strong numerical force if their
goodwill were conciliated, and the prince could enforce his requisition.
The specified census of the estates may not be exactly correct. The
foregoing is from an old record, which is in all probability the best
they have; for so rapid are the changes in these countries, amidst the
anarchy and rebellion we have been describing, that the civil officers
would deem it time thrown away, to form, as in past times, an exact
_pattabahi_, or ‘register’ of feoffs. The ancient qualification was one
horseman and two foot soldiers, “when required,” for each five hundred
rupees in the rental; but as the estates have been curtailed in extent
and diminished in value, in order to keep up their nominal amount, one
thousand is now the qualification [178].[5.16.30]
BOOK VI
ANNALS OF BĪKANER
CHAPTER 1
Bikaner holds a secondary rank amongst the principalities of Rajputana.
It is an offset of Marwar, its princes being scions of the house of
Jodha, who established themselves by conquest on the northern frontier
of the parent State; and its position, in the heart of the desert, has
contributed to the maintenance of their independence.
=Rāo Bīka, A.D. 1465-1504.=—It was in S. 1515 (A.D. 1459), the year in
which Jodha transferred the seat of government from Mandor to Jodhpur,
that his son Bika,[6.1.1] under the guidance of his uncle Kandhal, led
three hundred of the sons of Siahji to enlarge the boundaries of Rathor
dominion amidst the sands of Maru. Bika was stimulated to the attempt by
the success of his brother Bida, who had recently subjugated the
territory inhabited by the Mohils for ages.
Such expeditions as that of Bika, undertaken expressly for conquest,
were almost [179] uniformly successful. The invaders set out with a
determination to slay or be slain; and these forays had the additional
stimulus of being on “fated days,” when the warlike creed of the Rajputs
made the abstraction of territory from foe or friend a matter of
religious duty.
Bika, with his band of three hundred, fell upon the Sankhlas[6.1.2] of
Janglu, whom they massacred. This exploit brought them in contact with
the Bhattis of Pugal,[6.1.3] the chief of which gave his daughter in
marriage to Bika, who fixed his headquarters at Kuramdesar, where he
erected a castle, and gradually augmented his conquests from the
neighbourhood.
=The Conquest of the Jats.=—Bika now approximated to the settlements of
the Jats or Getae, who had for ages been established in these arid
abodes; and as the lands they held form a considerable portion of the
State of Bikaner, it may not be uninteresting to give a sketch of the
condition of this singular people prior to the son of Jodha establishing
the feudal system of Rajwara amongst their pastoral commonwealths.
Of this celebrated and widely spread race we have already given a
succinct account.[6.1.4] It appears to have been the most numerous as
well as the most conspicuous of the tribes of ancient Asia, from the
days of Tomyris and Cyrus to those of the present Jat prince of Lahore,
whose successor, if he be endued with similar energy, may, on the reflux
of population, find himself seated in their original haunts of Central
Asia, to which they have already considerably advanced.[6.1.5] In the
fourth century we find a Yuti or Jat kingdom established in the
Panjab;[6.1.6] but how much earlier this people colonized those regions
we are ignorant. At every step made by Muhammadan power in India it
encountered the Jats. On their memorable defence of the passage of the
Indus against Mahmud, and on the war of extirpation waged against them
by Timur, both in their primeval seats in Mawaru-l-nahr,[6.1.7] as well
as east of the Sutlej, we have already enlarged; while Babur, in his
Commentaries, informs us that, in all his irruptions into India, he was
assailed by multitudes of Jats[6.1.8] during his progress through the
Panjab, the peasantry of which region, now proselytes to Islam, are
chiefly of this tribe; as well as the [180] military retainers, who, as
sectarian followers of Nanak, merge the name of Jat, or Jāt, into that
of Sikh or ‘disciple.’[6.1.9]
In short, whether as Yuti, Getae, Jats, Juts, or Jāts, this race far
surpassed in numbers, three centuries ago, any other tribe or race in
India; and it is a fact that they now constitute a vast majority of the
peasantry of western Rajwara, and perhaps of northern India.
At what period these Jats established themselves in the Indian desert,
we are, as has been already observed, entirely ignorant; but even at the
time of the Rathor invasion of these communities their habits confirmed
the tradition of their Scythic origin. They led chiefly a pastoral life,
were guided, but not governed by the elders, and with the exception of
adoration to the ‘universal mother’ (Bhavani), incarnate in the person
of a youthful Jatni, they were utter aliens to the Hindu theocracy. In
fact, the doctrines of the great Islamite saint, Shaikh Farid,[6.1.10]
appear to have overturned the pagan rites brought from the Jaxartes; and
without any settled ideas on religion, the Jats of the desert jumbled
all their tenets together. They considered themselves, in short, as a
distinct class, and, as a Punia Jat informed me, “their _watan_ was far
beyond the Five Rivers.” Even in the name of one of the six communities
(the Asaich), on whose submission Bika founded his new State, we have
nearly the Asi, the chief of the four tribes from the Oxus and Jaxartes,
who overturned the Greek kingdom of Bactria.[6.1.11]
The period of Rathor domination over these patriarchal communities was
intermediate between Timur’s and Babur’s invasion of India. The former,
who was the founder of the Chagatai dynasty, boasts of the myriads of
Jat souls he “consigned to perdition” on the desert plains of India, as
well as in Transoxiana; so we may conclude that successive migrations of
this people from the great “storehouse of nations” went to the lands
east of the Indus, and that the communities who elected Bika as their
sovereign had been established therein for ages. The extent of their
possessions justifies this conclusion; for nearly the whole of the
territory forming the boundaries of Bikaner was possessed by the six Jat
cantons, namely—
1. Punia.
2. Godara.
3. Saharan.
4. Asaich.
5. Beniwal [or Bhanniwal].
6. Johya, or Joiya [181].
though this last is by some termed a ramification of the Yadu-Bhatti: an
affiliation by no means invalidating their claims to be considered of
Jat or Yuti origin.[6.1.12]
Each canton bore the name of the community, and was subdivided into
districts. Besides the six Jat cantons, there were three more
simultaneously wrested from Rajput proprietors; namely, Bagor, the
Kharipatta, and Mohila. The six Jat cantons constituted the central and
northern, while those of the Rajputs formed the western and southern
frontiers.
_Disposition of the Cantons at that period._
Cantons. No. of Districts.
Villages.
1. Punia 300 Bahaduran, Ajitpur, Sidmukh,
Rajgarh, Dadrewa, Sanku, etc.
2. Beniwal [or 150 Bhukarka, Sondari, Manoharpur,
Bhanniwāl]
Kui, Bai, etc.
3. Johya 600 Jethpur, Kumbhana, Mahajan,
Pipasar, Udaipur, etc.
4. Asaich 150 Rawatsar, Barmsar, Dandusar,
Gandeli.
5. Saran 300 Kejar, Phog, Buchawas, Sawai,
Badinu, Sirsila, etc.
6. Godara 700 Pundrasar, Gosainsar (great),
Shaikhsar Garsisar, Gharibdesar,
Rangesar, Kalu, etc.
Total in the six 2200
Jat cantons
7. Bagor 300 Bikaner, Nal, Kela, Rajasar,
Satasar, Chhattargarh, Randasar,
Bitnokh, Bhavanipur, Jaimallsar,
etc.
8. Mohila 140 Chaupar (capital of Mohila), Sonda,
Hirasar, Gopalpur, Charwas,
Bidasar,
Ladnun, Malsasar,
Kharbuza-ra-kot.
9. Kharipatta, or 30
salt district
———
GRAND TOTAL 2670
With such rapidity were States formed in those times, that in a few
years after Bika left his paternal roof at Mandor he was lord over 2670
villages, and by a title far stronger and more legitimate than that of
conquest—the spontaneous election of the cantons. But although three
centuries have scarcely passed since their amalgamation [182] into a
sovereignty, one-half of the villages cease to exist; nor are there now
1300 forming the _raj_ of Surat Singh, the present occupant and lineal
descendant of Bika.[6.1.13]
The Jats and Johyas of these regions, who extended over all the northern
desert even to the Gara, led a pastoral life, their wealth consisting in
their cattle, which they reared in great numbers, disposing of the
superfluity, and of the _ghi_ (butter clarified) and wool, through the
medium of Sarsot (Sarasvati) Brahmans (who, in these regions, devote
themselves to traffic), receiving in return grain and other conveniences
or necessaries of life.
=Bīda conquers the Mohil Clan.=—A variety of causes conspired to
facilitate the formation of the State of Bikaner, and the reduction of
the ancient Scythic simplicity of the Jat communities to Rajput feudal
sway; and although the success of his brother Bida over the Mohils in
some degree paved the way, his bloodless conquest could never have
happened but for the presence of a vice which has dissolved all the
republics of the world. The jealousy of the Johyas and Godaras, the two
most powerful of the six Jat cantons, was the immediate motive to the
propitiation of the “son of Jodha”; besides which, the communities found
the band of Bida, which had extirpated the ancient Mohils when living
with them in amity, most troublesome neighbours. Further, they were
desirous to place between them and the Bhattis of Jaisalmer a more
powerful barrier; and last, not least, they dreaded the hot valour and
“thirst for land” which characterized Bika’s retainers, now contiguous
to them at Janglu. For these weighty reasons, at a meeting of the
“elders” of the Godaras, it was resolved to conciliate the Rathor.
Pandu was the patriarchal head of the Godaras; his residence was at
Shaikhsar.[6.1.14] The ‘elder’ of Ronia was next in rank and estimation
to Pandu, in communities where equality was as absolute as the
proprietary right to the lands which each individually held: that of
pasture being common.
The elders of Shaikhsar and Ronia were deputed to enter into terms with
the Rajput prince, and to invest him with supremacy over their
community, on the following conditions:—
_First._ To make common cause with them, against the Johyas and other
cantons, with whom they were then at variance.
_Second._ To guard the western frontier against the irruption of the
Bhattis [183].
_Third._ To hold the rights and privileges of the community inviolable.
On the fulfilment of these conditions they relinquished to Bika and his
descendants the supreme power over the Godaras; assigning to him, in
perpetuity, the power to levy _dhuan_, or a ‘hearth tax,’ of one rupee
on each house in the canton, and a land tax of two rupees on each
hundred bighas of cultivated land within their limits.
Apprehensive, however, that Bika or his descendants might encroach upon
their rights, they asked what security he could offer against such a
contingency? The Rajput chief replied that, in order to dissipate their
fears on this head, as well as to perpetuate the remembrance of the
supremacy thus voluntarily conferred, he would solemnly bind himself and
his successors to receive the _tika_ of inauguration from the hands of
the descendants of the elders of Shaikhsar and Ronia, and that the
_gaddi_ should be deemed vacant until such rite was administered.
In this simple transfer of the allegiance of this pastoral people we
mark that instinctive love of liberty which accompanied the Getae in all
places and all conditions of society, whether on the banks of the Oxus
and the Jaxartes, or in the sandy desert of India; and although his
political independence is now annihilated, he is still ready even to
shed his blood if his Rajput master dare to infringe his inalienable
right to his _bapota_, his paternal acres.
=Former Owners conferring Titles on their Successors.=—It is seldom that
so incontestable a title to supremacy can be asserted as that which the
weakness and jealousies of the Godaras conferred upon Bika, and it is a
pleasing incident to find almost throughout India, in the observance of
certain rites, the remembrance of the original compact which transferred
the sovereign power from the lords of the soil to their Rajput
conquerors. Thus, in Mewar, the fact of the power conferred upon the
Guhilot founder by the Bhil aborigines is commemorated by a custom
brought down to the present times. (See Vol. I. p. 262.) At Amber
the same is recorded in the important offices retained by the Minas, the
primitive inhabitants of that land. Both Kotah and Bundi retain in their
names the remembrance of the ancient lords of Haraoti; and Bika’s
descendants preserve, in a twofold manner, the recollection of their
bloodless conquest of the Jats. To this day the descendant of Pandu
applies the unguent of royalty to the forehead of the successors of
Bika; on which occasion the prince places ‘the fine of relief,’
consisting of twenty-five pieces of gold, in the hand of the Jat.
Moreover, the spot which he selected for his capital was the birthright
of a Jat, who would only concede it for this purpose on the condition
that his name should be linked in perpetuity with its surrender. Naira,
or Nera [184], was the name of the proprietor, which Bika added to his
own, thus composing that of the future capital, Bikaner.[6.1.15]
Besides this periodical recognition of the transfer of power, on all
lapses of the crown, there are annual memorials of the rights of the
Godaras, acknowledged not only by the prince, but by all his Rajput
vassal-kin, quartered on the lands of the Jat; and although ‘the sons of
Bika,’ now multiplied over the country, do not much respect the ancient
compact, they at least recognize, in the maintenance of these formulae,
the origin of their power.
On the spring and autumnal[6.1.16] festivals of the Holi and Diwali, the
heirs of the patriarchs of Shaikhsar and Ronia give the _tika_ to the
prince and all his feudality. The Jat of Ronia bears the silver cup and
platter which holds the ampoule of the desert, while his compeer applies
it to the prince’s forehead. The Raja in return deposits a _nazarana_ of
a gold mohur, and five pieces of silver; the chieftains, according to
their rank, following his example. The gold is taken by the Shaikhsar
Jat, the silver by the elder of Ronia.
=Conquest of the Johya Tribe.=—To resume our narrative: when the
preliminaries were adjusted, by Bika’s swearing to maintain the rights
of the community which thus surrendered their liberties to his keeping,
they united their arms, and invaded the Johyas. This populous community,
which extended over the northern region of the desert, even to the
Sutlej, reckoned eleven hundred villages in their canton; yet now, after
the lapse of little more than three centuries, the very name of Johya is
extinct. They appear to be the Janjuha of Babur, who, in his irruption
into India, found them congregated with the Juds, about the cluster of
hills in the first _duaba_ of the Panjab, called ‘the mountains of Jud’;
a position claimed by the Yadus or Jadons in the very dawn of their
history, and called Jadu ka dang, ‘the Jadu hills.’[6.1.17] This
supports the assertion that the Johya is of Yadu race, while it does not
invalidate its claims to Yuti or Jat descent, as will be further shown
in the early portion of the annals of the Yadu-Bhattis.[6.1.18]
The patriarchal head of the Johyas resided at Bharopal;[6.1.19] his name
was Sher Singh [185]. He mustered the strength of the canton, and for a
long time withstood the continued efforts of the Rajputs and the
Godaras; nor was it until “treason had done its worst,” by the murder of
their elder, and the consequent possession of Bharopal, that the Johyas
succumbed to Rathor domination.
=Foundation of Bīkaner, A.D. 1455-88.=—With this accession of power,
Bika carried his arms westward and conquered Bagor from the Bhattis. It
was in this district, originally wrested by the Bhattis from the Jats,
that Bika founded his capital, Bikaner, on the 15th Baisakh, S. 1545
(A.D. 1489), thirty years after his departure from the parental roof at
Mandor.
When Bika was thus firmly established, his uncle Kandhal, to whose
spirit of enterprise he was mainly indebted for success, departed with
his immediate kin to the northward, with a view of settling in fresh
conquests. He successively subjugated the communities of Asaich,
Beniwal, and Saran, which cantons are mostly occupied by his
descendants, styled Kandhalot Rathors, at this day, and although they
form an integral portion of the Bikaner State, they evince, in their
independent bearing to its chief, that their estates were “the gift of
their own swords, not of his patents”; and they pay but a reluctant and
nominal obedience to his authority. When necessity or avarice imposes a
demand for tribute, it is often met by a flat refusal, accompanied with
such a comment as this: “Who made this Raja? Was it not our common
ancestor, Kandhal? Who is he, who presumes to levy tribute from us?”
Kandhal’s career of conquest was cut short by the emperor’s lieutenant
in Hissar; he was slain in attempting this important fortress.
=Death of Bīka. Nūnkaran or Lūnkaran, A.D. 1504-26.=—Bika died in S.
1551 (A.D. 1495), leaving two sons by the daughter of the Bhatti chief
of Pugal, namely, Nunkaran, who succeeded, and Garsi, who founded
Garsisar and Arsisar. The stock of the latter is numerous, and is
distinguished by the epithet Garsot Bika, whose principal fiefs are
those of Garsisar and Gharibdesar, each having twenty-four villages
depending on them.[6.1.20]
=Jeth Singh, A.D. 1526-41.=—Nunkaran made several conquests from the
Bhattis, on the western frontier. He had four sons; his eldest desiring
a separate establishment in his lifetime, for the fief of Mahajan and
one hundred and forty villages, renounced his right of primogeniture in
favour of his brother Jeth, who succeeded in S. 1569. His brothers had
each appanages assigned to them. He had three sons: (1) Kalyan Singh,
(2) Siahji, and (3) Aishpal [186]. Jethsi reduced the district of Narnot
from some independent Girasia chiefs, and settled it as the appanage of
his second son, Siahji. It was Jethsi also who compelled ‘the sons of
Bida,’ the first Rathor colonists of this region, to acknowledge his
supremacy by an annual tribute, besides certain taxes.
=Kalyān Singh, A.D. 1541-71.=—Kalyan Singh succeeded in S. 1603. He had
three sons: (1) Rae Singh, (2) Ram Singh, and (3) Prithi Singh.
=Rāē Singh, A.D. 1571-1611. Bīkaner subject to the Mughals. Akbar’s
Marriage.=—Rae Singh succeeded in S. 1630 (A.D. 1573). Until this reign
the Jats had, in a great degree, preserved their ancient privileges.
Their maintenance was, however, found rather inconvenient by the now
superabundant Rajput population, and they were consequently dispossessed
of all political authority. With the loss of independence their military
spirit decayed, and they sunk into mere tillers of the earth. In this
reign also Bikaner rose to importance amongst the principalities of the
empire, and if the Jats parted with their liberties to the Rajput, the
latter, in like manner, bartered his freedom to become a Satrap of
Delhi. On his father’s death, Rae Singh in person undertook the sacred
duty of conveying his ashes to the Ganges. The illustrious Akbar was
then emperor of India. Rae Singh and the emperor had married sisters,
princesses of Jaisalmer.[6.1.21] This connexion obtained for him, on his
introduction to court by Raja Man of Amber, the dignity of a leader of
four thousand horse, the title of Raja, and the government of Hissar.
Moreover, when Maldeo of Jodhpur incurred the displeasure of the king,
and was dispossessed of the rich district of Nagor, it was given to Rae
Singh. With these honours, and increased power as one of the king’s
lieutenants, he returned to his dominions, and sent his brother Ram
Singh against Bhatner,[6.1.22] of which he made a conquest. This town
was the chief place of a district belonging to the Bhattis, originally
Jats[6.1.23] of Yadu descent, but who assumed this name on becoming
proselytes to the faith of Islam.
=Subjugation of the Johyas.=—Ram Singh at the same time completely
subjugated the Johyas, who, always troublesome, had recently attempted
to regain their ancient independence. The Rajputs carried fire and sword
into this country, of which they made a desert. Ever since it has
remained desolate: the very name of Johya is lost, though the vestiges
of considerable towns bear testimony to a remote antiquity.
=Traditions of Greek Settlements.=—Amidst these ruins of the Johyas, the
name of Sikandar Rumi (Alexander the Great) [187] has fixed itself, and
the desert retains the tradition that the ruin called Rangmahall, the
‘painted palace,’ near Dandusar, was the capital of a prince of this
region punished by a visitation of the Macedonian conqueror. History
affords no evidence of Alexander’s passage of the Gara, though the scene
of his severest conflict was in that nook of the Panjab not remote from
the lands of the Johyas. But though the chronicler of Alexander does not
sanction our indulging in this speculation, the total darkness in which
we appear doomed to remain with regard to Bactria and the petty Grecian
kingdoms on the Indus, established by him, does not forbid our surmise,
that by some of these, perhaps the descendants of Python, such a
visitation might have happened.[6.1.24] The same traditions assert that
these regions were not always either arid or desolate, and the living
chronicle alluded to in the note repeated the stanza elsewhere given,
which dated its deterioration from the drying up of the Hakra river,
which came from the Panjab, and flowing through the heart of this
country, emptied itself into the Indus between Rohri Bhakkar and Uchh.
The affinity that this word (Hakra) has both to the Ghaggar, and
Sankra,[6.1.25] would lead to the conclusion of either being the stream
referred to. The former we know as being engulphed in the sands about
the Hariana confines, while the Sankra is a stream which, though now
dry, was used as a line of demarcation even in the time of Nadir Shah.
It ran eastward, parallel with the Indus, and by making it his boundary,
Nadir added all the fertile valley of the Indus to his Persian kingdom.
(See map.) The only date this legendary stanza assigns for the
catastrophe is the reign of the Sodha prince, Hamir.
Ram Singh, having thus destroyed the power of future resistance in the
Johyas, turned his arms against the Punia Jats, the last who preserved
their ancient liberty. They were vanquished, and the Rajputs were
inducted into their most valuable possessions. But the conqueror paid
the penalty of his life for the glory of colonizing the lands of the
Punias. He was slain in their expiring effort to shake off the yoke of
the stranger; and though the Ramsinghgots add to the numerical strength,
and enlarge the territory of the heirs of Bika, they, like the
Kandhalots, little increase the power [188] of the State, to which their
obedience is nominal. Sidmukh and Sanku are the two chief places of the
Ramsinghgots.
Thus, with the subjugation of the Punias, the political annihilation of
the six Jat cantons of the desert was accomplished: they are now
occupied in agriculture and their old pastoral pursuits, and are an
industrious tax-paying race under their indolent Rajput masters.
=Rāē Singh in Akbar’s Service.=—Raja Rae Singh led a gallant band of his
Rathors in all the wars of Akbar. He was distinguished in the assault of
Ahmadabad, slaying in single combat the governor, Mirza Muhammad
Husain.[6.1.26] The emperor, who knew the value of such valorous
subjects, strengthened the connexion which already subsisted between the
crown and the Rathors, by obtaining for prince Salim (afterwards
Jahangir) Rae Singh’s daughter to wife. The unfortunate Parvez was the
fruit of this marriage.
=Karan Singh, A.D. 1631-69.=—Rae Singh was succeeded by his only son,
Karan, in S. 1688 (A.D. 1632).[6.1.27]
Karan held the ‘mansab of two thousand,’ and the government of
Daulatabad, in his father’s lifetime. Being a supporter of the just
claims of Dara Shukoh, a plot was laid by the general of his antagonist,
with whom he served, to destroy him, but which he was enabled to defeat
by the timely intelligence of the Hara prince of Bundi. He died at
Bikaner, leaving four sons: (1) Padma Singh, (2) Kesari Singh, (3) Mohan
Singh, and (4) Anup Singh.
This family furnishes another example of the prodigal sacrifice of
Rajput blood in the imperial service. The two elder princes were slain
in the storm of Bijapur, and the tragical death of the third, Mohan
Singh, in the imperial camp, forms an episode in _Ferishta’s History of
the Dekhan_ [189].[6.1.28]
=Anūp Singh, A.D. 1669-98.=—Anup Singh succeeded in S. 1730 (A.D. 1674).
For the services of his family he had the castle and lands of
Adoni[6.1.29] conferred upon him, with ‘the mansab of five thousand,’
and the governments of Bijapur and Aurangabad. Anup Singh led his clans
with the head of his race, the prince of Jodhpur, to quell a rebellion
amongst the Afghans of Kabul, which having effected, he returned to the
peninsula. Ferishta and the native annals are at variance on his death;
the former asserting that he died in the Deccan, while the latter say
that he left that country, disgusted with the imperial commander’s
interference about his ground of encampment, and that he died at
Bikaner.[6.1.30] He left two sons, Sarup Singh and Sujan Singh.
=Sarūp Singh, A.D. 1698-1700.=—Sarup, who succeeded in S. 1765 (A.D.
1709), did not long enjoy his honours, being killed in attempting to
recover Adoni, which the emperor had resumed on his father’s leaving the
army.[6.1.31]
=Sujān Singh, A.D. 1700-1735.=—Sujan Singh, his successor, did nothing.
=Zorāwar Singh, A.D. 1735-45.=—Zorawar Singh became raja in S. 1793
(A.D. 1737). The domestic incidents of this, as of the preceding reigns,
are without interest.
=Gaj Singh, A.D. 1745-88.=—Gaj Singh succeeded in S. 1802 (A.D. 1746).
Throughout a long reign of forty-one years, this prince carried on
border strife with the Bhattis and the Khan of Bahawalpur. From the
former he took Rajasar, Kela, Raner, Satasar, Banipura, Mutalai, and
other villages of inferior note; and from the Khan he recovered the
important frontier castle of Anupgarh.
He laid waste, filling up the wells, a considerable tract of country
west of the frontier post of Anupgarh, to prevent the incursions of the
Daudputras.[6.1.32]
Raja Gaj had some celebrity from the number of his offspring, having had
sixty-one children, though all but six were the ‘sons of love.’ The
legitimates were, Chhattar Singh, who died in infancy; Raj Singh, who
was poisoned by the mother of Surat Singh, the reigning prince; Surthan
Singh and Ajib Singh, both of whom fled the paternal roof to escape the
fate of their elder brother, and are now at Jaipur; Surat Singh, Raja of
Bikaner; and Shyam Singh, who enjoys a small appanage in Bikaner.
=Rāj Singh, A.D. 1788.=—Raj Singh succeeded his father, S. 1843 (A.D.
1787), but he enjoyed the dignity only thirteen days, being removed by a
dose of poison by the mother[6.1.33] of Surat Singh, the fifth son of
Raja Gaj. The crown thus nefariously obtained, this worthy son [190] of
such a parent determined to maintain his authority by like means, and to
leave no competitor to contest his claims. He has accordingly removed by
death or exile all who stood between him and the ‘_gaddi_ of Bika.’
=Partāp Singh, A.D. 1788. Usurpation of Sūrat Singh.=—Raj Singh left two
sons, Partap Singh and Jai Singh. On the death of Raj Singh, the office
of regent, a word of ominous import in these regions, was assumed by
Surat Singh, who, during eighteen months, conducted himself with great
circumspection, and by condescension and gifts impressed the chiefs in
his favour. At length he broke his plans to the chiefs of Mahajan and
Bahaduran, whose acquiescence in his usurpation he secured by additions
to their estates. The faithful Bakhtawar Singh, whose family during four
generations had filled the office of Diwan, discovered the scheme,
though too late to counteract it, and the attempt was punished by
imprisonment. Prepared for the last step, the regent collected foreign
troops from Bhatinda[6.1.34] and other parts, sufficient to overcome all
opposition. The infant prince was kept secluded, and at length the
regent issued the warrant in his own name for the nobles to assemble at
the capital. Except the two traitors enumerated, they to a man refused;
but instead of combining to oppose him, they indolently remained at
their castles. Collecting all his troops, the usurper passed to Nohar,
where he enticed the chief of Bhukarka to an interview, and lodged him
in the fortress of Nohar.[6.1.35] Thence he passed to Ajitpura, which he
plundered; and advancing to Sankhu, he attacked it in form. Durjan Singh
defended himself with valour, and when reduced to extremity, committed
suicide. His heir was put in fetters, and a fine of twelve thousand
rupees was levied from the vassals of Sankhu. The commercial town of
Churu was next attacked; it held out six months, when the confined chief
of Bhukarka, as the price of his own freedom, treacherously offered to
put the tyrant in possession. He effected this, and a fine of nearly two
lakhs of rupees (£20,000) was offered to spare the town from plunder.
By this act of severity, and the means it furnished, Surat returned to
Bikaner, determined to remove the only bar between him and the crown,
his prince and nephew. In this he found some difficulty, from the virtue
and vigilance of his sister, who never lost sight of the infant.
Frustrated in all attempts to circumvent her, and not daring to blazon
the murder by open violence, he invited the needy Raja of Narwar to make
proposals for his sister’s hand. In vain she urged her advanced period
of life; and in order to deter the suitor, that she had already been
affianced to Rana Arsi of Mewar. All his scruples vanished at the dower
of three lakhs, which the regent offered [191] the impoverished scion of
the famous Raja Nala.[6.1.36] Her objections were overruled and she was
forced to submit; though she not only saw through her brother’s anxiety
for her removal, but boldly charged him with his nefarious intentions.
He was not content with disavowing them, but at her desire gave her the
most solemn assurances of the child’s safety. Her departure was the
signal of his death; for not long after he was found strangled, and it
is said by the regent’s own hands, having in vain endeavoured to obtain
the offices of the Mahajan chieftain as the executioner of his
sovereign.
=Sūrat Singh, A.D. 1788-1828.=—Thus, in one short year after the death
of Raja Raj, the _gaddi_ of Bika was dishonoured by being possessed by
an assassin of his prince. In S. 1857 (A.D. 1801), the elder brothers of
the usurper, Surthan Singh and Ajib Singh, who had found refuge in
Jaipur, repaired to Bhatner and assembled the vassals of the disaffected
nobles and Bhattis in order to dethrone the tyrant. But the recollection
of his severities deterred some, while bribes kept back others, and the
usurper did not hesitate to advance to meet his foes. The encounter,
which took place at Bigor, was obstinate and bloody, and three thousand
Bhattis alone fell. This signal victory confirmed Surat’s usurpation. He
erected a castle on the field of battle, which he called Fatehgarh, ‘the
fort of victory.’
Flushed with this brilliant success, Surat Singh determined to make his
authority respected both at home and abroad. He invaded his turbulent
countrymen, the Bidawats, and levied fifty thousand rupees from their
lands. Churu,[6.1.37] which had promised aid to the late confederacy,
was once more invested and mulcted, and various other places were
attacked ere they could join. But one solitary castle was successfully
defended, that of Chhani, near Bahaduran. Here the usurper was foiled,
and, after six months’ fruitless siege, compelled to return to his
capital.
Shortly after, he eagerly availed himself of an opportunity to punish
the excesses of the Daudputras, and to withdraw attention from himself,
by kindling a popular war against these powerful and turbulent
neighbours. The occasion was the Kirani chief of Tirhara demanding his
aid against his liege lord, Bahawal Khan. As these border feuds are not
extinguished even in these days of universal peace, it may not be
uninteresting to see the feudal muster-roll of the desert chiefs on such
occurrences, as well as the mode in which they carry on hostilities. It
was very shortly before that victory had preponderated on the side of
the Rathors by a gallant _coup-de-main_ of [192] the lord marcher of
Bikaner, who carried the castle of Mozgarh[6.1.38] in a midnight
assault. The hero on this occasion was not a Rathor, but a Bhatti chief,
in the service of Bikaner, named Hindu Singh, who gained ‘immortality’
by the style in which he scaled the walls, put Muhammad Maaruf Kirani,
the governor, and the garrison to the sword, and brought away captive to
Bikaner the governor’s wife, who was afterwards ransomed for five
thousand rupees and four hundred camels.
The outlaw who sought _saran_ at Bikaner, on this occasion, was of the
same tribe, Kirani, his name Khudabakhsh (‘gift of God’), chief of
Tirhara, one of the principal fiefs of the Daudputras. With all his
retainers, to the amount of three hundred horse and five hundred foot,
he threw himself on the protection of Surat Singh, who assigned him
twenty villages, and one hundred rupees daily for his support. The
Kiranis were the most powerful vassals of Bahawal Khan, who might have
paid dear for the resumption of Tirhara, whose chief promised the Rajput
nothing less than to extend his conquests to the Indus. Allured by this
bait, the Kher was proclaimed and the sons of Bika assembled from all
quarters.
Horse. Foot. Guns.
Abhai Singh, chief of Bhukarka 300 2000
Rao Ram Singh, of Pugal 100 400
Hathi Singh, of Raner 8 150
Karan Singh, of Satasar 9 150
Anup Singh Jasara 40 250
Khet Singh Jamansar 60 350
Beni Singh, of Janglu 9 250
Bhum Singh, of Bithnok 2 61
——— ———
Feudal retainers 528 3611
Park under Maji Parihar — 21
Foreign Brigade ┌ Khas Paiga, or household troop 200 —
in the ┤ Camp of Ganga Singh 200 1500 4
Raja’s service. └ Do. of Durjan Singh 60 600 4
┌ Anoka Singh ┐ 300 —
│ Lahori Singh ├ Sikh chieftains 250 —
Auxiliary ┤ Budh Singh ┘ 250 —
Levies. │ Sultan Khan ┐ Afghans 400 —
└ Ahmad Khan ┘
——— ——— ———
TOTAL 2188 5711 29
——— ——— ———
[193].
=Attack on Bahāwalpur.=—The command-in-chief of this brilliant array was
conferred on Jethra Mahto, son of the Diwan. On the 13th of Magh 1856
(spring of 1800) he broke ground, and the feudal levies fell in on the
march by Kanasar, Rajasar, Keli, Raner, and Anupgarh, the last point of
rendezvous. Thence he proceeded by Sheogarh,[6.1.39] Mozgarh, and
Phulra, all of which were taken after a few weeks’ siege, and from the
last they levied a lakh and a quarter of rupees, with other valuables,
and nine guns. They advanced to Khairpur,[6.1.40] within three miles of
the Indus, when being joined by other refractory chiefs, Jethra marched
direct on the capital, Bahawalpur, within a short distance of which he
encamped preparatory to the attack. The Khan, however, by this delay,
was enabled to detach the most considerable of his nobles from the
Rajput standard: on which the Bikaner Diwan, satisfied with the honour
of having insulted Bahawalpur, retreated with the spoils he had
acquired. He was received by the usurper with contempt, and degraded for
not fighting.
=Bhatti Invasion of Bīkaner.=—The Bhattis, smarting with the
recollection of their degradation, two years after the battle of Bigor
attempted the invasion of Bikaner, but were again repulsed with loss;
and these skirmishes continued until S. 1861 (A.D. 1805), when Raja
Surat attacked the Khan of the Bhattis in his capital, Bhatner. It
capitulated after a siege of six months, when Zabita Khan, with his
garrison and effects, was permitted to retire to Rania, since which this
place has remained an appanage of Bikaner.
=Attack on Jodhpur.=—The coalition against Jodhpur was ruinous to Surat,
who supported the cause of the pretender, on which the usurper expended
twenty-four lakhs of rupees, nearly five years’ revenue of this desert
region. On this occasion, he led all his troops in person against
Jodhpur, and united in the siege, which they were however compelled to
abandon with dishonour, and retrograde to their several abodes. In
consequence of this, the usurper fell sick, and was at the last
extremity; nay, the ceremonies for the dead were actually commenced; but
he recovered, to the grief and misery of his subjects. To supply an
exhausted treasury, his extortions know no bounds; and having cherished
the idea that he might compound his past sins by rites and gifts to the
priests, he is surrounded by a group of avaricious Brahmans, who are
maintained in luxury at the expense of his subjects. His cruelty keeps
pace with his avarice and his fears. The chief of Bhukarka he put to
death, notwithstanding his numerous services. Nahar Singh of Sidmukh,
Gyan Singh and Guman Singh of Gandeli, amongst the chief [194]
feudatories of the State, shared the same fate. Churu was invested a
third time, and with its chief, fell into the tyrant’s hands.
With this system of terror, his increasing superstition, and diminished
attention to public duties, the country is annually deteriorating in
population and wealth; and as if they had not misery enough within, they
have not had a single good season for years.[6.1.41] Owing to the
disobedience of the northern chiefs, and the continual incursions of the
Rahats, or ‘Bhatti robbers,’ who sweep the land of cattle, and often cut
and carry off entire crops, the peasant Jat, the ancient lord of the
soil, is often left to the alternative of starvation or emigration. Many
have consequently sought shelter in the British frontier territories, in
Hansi and Hariana, where they are kindly received. Since the English
have occupied Sirsa and the lands belonging to the Bhatti Bahadur Khan,
the misfortunes of the cultivators of the northern parts of Bikaner have
been doubled by the inroads of a band left without resource. In some
parts, the Jats combine to protect themselves against these inroads:
every hamlet has its post of defence, a tower of earth, on which is
perched a watchman and kettledrum, to beat the alarm, which is taken up
from village to village, and when an enemy is discovered, all are in
arms to defend their property. The unfortunate Jat is obliged to plough
his fields under the load of shield and _sang_, or heavy iron lance; so
that, at no distant period, the whole of this region must become as
desolate as the tracts once possessed by the Johyas.[6.1.42]
Such, at the end of three hundred and twenty-three years, is the change
which a Rajput usurper has effected in the once comparatively populous
communities of the Jats. From the founder, Bika, to the present
tyrannical governor, there have been only eleven descents though
thirteen reigns, giving an average of thirty years for the one, and
twenty-five for the other: a fact which speaks forcibly for the general
morality of the descendants of Bika.
=Bīdāvati.=—Before we enter on the physical aspect of the country, we
must make mention of Bidavati, the lands of ‘the sons of Bida,’ now an
integral portion of Bikaner.[6.1.43] It will be borne in mind that Bida,
the brother of Bika, led the first Rajput colony from Mandor, in search
of a fresh establishment. His first attempt was in the province of
Godwar, then belonging to the Rana: but his reception there was so warm,
that [195] he moved northward, and was glad to take service with the
chief of the Mohils. This ancient tribe is by some termed a branch of
the Yadus, but is by others considered a separate race, and one of the
‘Thirty-six Royal Races’: all are agreed as to its antiquity. The
residence of the Mohil chief was Chhapar,[6.1.44] where, with the title
of Thakur, he ruled over one hundred and forty townships. Bida deemed
circumvention better than open force to effect his purposes; and as,
according to the Rajput maxim, in all attempts ‘to obtain land,’ success
hallows the means, he put in train a scheme which, as it affords the
least cause for suspicion, has often been used for this object. Bida
became the medium of a matrimonial arrangement between the Mohil chief
and the prince of Marwar; and as the relation and natural guardian of
the bride, he conveyed the nuptial train unsuspected into the castle of
the Mohils, whose chiefs were assembled to honour the festivities. But
instead of the Rathor fair and her band of maidens, the valorous sons of
Jodha rushed sword in hand from the litters and covered vehicles, and
treacherously cut off the best men of Mohila. They kept possession of
the inner fortress until tidings of their success brought reinforcements
from Jodhpur. For this aid, Bida assigned to his father Ladnun and its
twelve villages, now incorporated with Jodhpur. The son of Bida, Tej
Singh, laid the foundation of a new capital, which he called after his
father, Bidesar.[6.1.45] The community of the Bidawats is the most
powerful in Bikaner, whose prince is obliged to be satisfied with almost
nominal marks of supremacy, and to restrict his demands, which are
elsewhere unlimited. The little region of the Mohilas, around the
ancient capital Chhapar, is an extensive flat, flooded in the periodical
rains from the surrounding _tibas_ or ‘sandhills,’ the soil of which is
excellent, even wheat being abundantly produced. This Oasis, as it is
entitled to be termed, may be twenty-five miles (twelve cos) in extreme
length, by about six in breadth. We cannot affirm that the entire
Bidawat district of one hundred and forty villages, and to which is
assigned a population of forty thousand to fifty thousand souls,
one-third being Rathors, ‘the sons of Bida,’ is within this flat. It is
subdivided into twelve fiefs, of which five are pre-eminent. Of the
ancient possessors, the indigenous Mohils, there are not more than
twenty families throughout the land of Mohila; the rest are chiefly Jat
agriculturists and the mercantile castes.
We do the sons of Bida no injustice when we style them a community of
plunderers. Like the sons of Esau, “their hand is against every man”:
and they are too powerful to fear retaliation. In former times they used
to unite with the Larkhanis [196], another horde of robbers, and carry
their raids into the most populous parts of Jaipur. In these habits,
however, they only partake of the character common to all who inhabit
desert regions. What nature has denied them, they wrest from those to
whom she has been more bountiful. But it is to the absence of good
government more than to natural sterility that we must attribute the
moral obliquity of the Rajaputras, ‘the offspring of regality,’ spread
over these extensive regions, who little discriminate between _meum_ and
_tuum_, in all that refers to their neighbours.
-----
Footnote 5.16.1:
[At present greatest length about 320 miles, greatest breadth 170
miles.]
Footnote 5.16.2:
[In 1911 the population was 2,057,553.]
Footnote 5.16.3:
[In 1911 respectively 125 and 279 per mille.]
Footnote 5.16.4:
The district of Sanchor is almost entirely Brahman, forming a distinct
tribe, called the Sanchora Brahmans.
Footnote 5.16.5:
[At present the horses of Mallāni are most esteemed. By the “Jungle,”
the Lākhi Jangal is meant.]
Footnote 5.16.6:
[Gawār, the horse bean, _Dolichus biflorus_.]
Footnote 5.16.7:
[In Nāgor district, N.W. of Jodhpur city.]
Footnote 5.16.8:
[This variety is grown without irrigation (Erskine iii. A. 103).]
Footnote 5.16.9:
[The varieties of soil now recognized are: _matiyāli_, clayey loam;
_bhūri_, brown-coloured, and with less clay than _matiyāli_; _retla_,
fine sand without clay; _magra_ or _tharra_, on the slopes of hills,
hard and containing pebbles (_ibid._ iii. A. 99).]
Footnote 5.16.10:
[Makrāna is 12 miles W. of Sāmbhar Lake. For its marbles see Sleeman,
_Rambles_, 318; Hervey, _Some Records of Crime_, i. 100. The best
marbles in Rājputāna are found at Makrāna, Tonkra in Kishangarh,
Kharwar in Ajmer, and Raiālu in Jaipur; see Watt, _Comm. Prod._ 715.]
Footnote 5.16.11:
There is nothing which so much employs the assessors of justice, in
those tribunals of arbitration, the Panchayats, as the adjudication of
questions of property. The highest compliment ever paid to the Author
was by the litigants of property amounting to half a million sterling,
which had been going the rounds of various Panchayats and appeals to
native princes, alike unsatisfactory in their results. They agreed to
admit as final the decision of a court of his nomination. It was not
without hesitation I accepted the mediation propounded through the
British superintendent of Ajmer (Mr. Wilder); but knowing two men,
whose integrity as well as powers of investigation were above all
encomium, I could not refuse. One of these had given a striking
instance of independence in support of the award his penetration had
led him to pronounce, and which award being set aside on appeal,
through favouritism, he abjured every future call as an arbitrator. He
was not a wealthy man, but such was the homage paid to his integrity
and talents, that the greatest despot in India found it politic to
reassemble the court, have the case reconsidered, and permit justice
to take its course. In like manner, his demand was, that, before he
agreed to devote his time to unravelling all the intricacies of the
case, both litigants should sign a _muchalka_, or ‘bond,’ to abide by
the award. I have no recollection how it terminated.
Footnote 5.16.12:
[Cumin, _Cuminum cyminum_ (Watt, _Comm. Prod._ 442).]
Footnote 5.16.13:
[Suigām in Pālanpur State, near the Ran of Cutch (_BG_, v. 348).]
Footnote 5.16.14:
[See p. 815.]
Footnote 5.16.15:
The Author learns that important modifications of this system have
been made by the legislative authorities at home: of their extent he
is ignorant, except that remuneration to chiefs for the loss of
transit duties has not been omitted. This is as it should be! [The
opium question is still in a state of transition. Exports to China
were closed in 1913, and, owing to the loss of revenue, compensation
has been awarded to the Native States by the Government of India. For
the trade up to 1911 see _IGI_, iv. 242 ff.; Watt, _Comm. Prod._
(1908), 845 ff.]
Footnote 5.16.16:
[For these fairs see Erskine iii. A. 206, 208.]
Footnote 5.16.17:
[The State jails have been reorganized, and humane treatment of
prisoners is enforced (Erskine iii. A. 163 ff.).]
Footnote 5.16.18:
The Rajputs and Hindus in general hold precisely the same idea, of the
cause of eclipses, as the Getae of Scandinavia. [This is a form of
sympathetic magic: as prisoners are released, so will the sun and moon
be freed from the demon.]
Footnote 5.16.19:
Chandrama. The moon is represented by silver, which is called after
her (or him) _chandi_.
Footnote 5.16.20:
[According to the more common story, she walked through a pile of
burning wood.]
Footnote 5.16.21:
[Since the reorganization of the Courts of Justice and the
introduction of criminal codes, trial by ordeal has been prohibited
(Erskine iii. A. 132 ff.). In 1854 Sir H. Lawrence made a treaty with
Mewār which provided that “no person be seized on the plea of sorcery,
witchcraft, or incantations” (Lee Warner, _Native States of India_,
ed. 1910, p. 305).]
Footnote 5.16.22:
[The most solemn oath among the Scythians was by the royal hearth
(Herodotus iv. 68).]
Footnote 5.16.23:
[The normal revenue of the State at the present time is about 56, and
the expenditure 42 lakhs of rupees (Erskine iii. A. 140 ff.).]
Footnote 5.16.24:
[The State now maintains two regiments of Imperial Service Lancers,
1210 men, the whole force, including local troops, being about 2700
(_ibid._ iii. A. 158 ff.).]
Footnote 5.16.25:
The maund is about seventy-five lbs. weight.
Footnote 5.16.26:
_Kan_, ‘corn.’
Footnote 5.16.27:
The average selling price at Jodhpur is two rupees the maund; four at
Sambhar and Didwana, and five at Pachbhadra, Phalodi, and Nawa. Why
the price at the capital is 50 per cent lower than elsewhere, I know
not, even if this statement is correct. [On the Rājputāna salt trade
see Watt, _Comm. Prod._ 968 f. The present State income is now about
15 lakhs of rupees _per annum_ (Erskine iii. A. 150 f.).]
Footnote 5.16.28:
[_Saccharum sara._]
Footnote 5.16.29:
[On the production of barilla (_sajji khar_) see Watt, _op. cit._ 112
ff.]
We may recapitulate what the old archives state of the aggregate
fiscal revenues in past times, amounting to nearly thirty lakhs of
rupees. It would be hazardous to say to what extent the amount was
overrated:
1. Khalisa, or fiscal land, from 1484 towns Rs.
and villages 1,500,000
2. Sair or imposts 430,000
3. Salt lakes 715,000
4. Hasil, or miscellaneous taxes; 300,000
fluctuating and uncertain; not less
than
—-—-——
Total 2,945,000
Feudal and ministerial estates 5,000,000
—-—-——
GRAND TOTAL 7,945,000
Thus the united fiscal and feudal revenues of Marwar are said to have
amounted almost to eighty lakhs of rupees (£800,000). If they ever did
reach this sum [175], which may be doubted, we do not err in affirming
that they would not be overrated at half that amount. Large fortunes
are said to centre in the families of the ex-ministers, especially the
Singhi family, reported to be immensely rich. Their wealth is
deposited in foreign capitals. But much bullion is lost to the
currency of these countries by the
Footnote 5.16.30:
[At the present time the estates and septs of the Rāthor clan to which
the twelve nobles belong are: Pokaran, Awa—Champāwat; Rian,
Alniawās—Mertia; Rāēpur, Rās, Nīmāj, Agewa—Udāwat; Kharwa,
Bhadrājan—Jodha. At a Darbār the Champāwats and Kūmpāwats sit to the
right and the Jodhas, Mertias, and Udāwats to the left of the Mahārāja
(Erskine iii. B. 40).]
Footnote 6.1.1:
[According to Erskine (iii. B. 85) Bika was born in 1439; left
Jodhpur, 1465; founded Bikaner city, 1488.]
Footnote 6.1.2:
[The Sānkhlas are said to be a Panwār clan, but this is not certain
(_Census Report, Rājputāna_, 1911, i. 256). Jānglu is about 20 miles
S. of Bīkaner city.]
Footnote 6.1.3:
[About 120 miles N. of Bīkaner city: the ruler at present is one of
the leading nobles of the State.]
Footnote 6.1.4:
Vol. I. p. 127, History of the Rajput Tribes—_Article_, Jats or
Getae.
Footnote 6.1.5:
Ranjit has long been in possession of Peshawar, and entertained views
on Kabul, the disorganized condition of which kingdom affords him a
favourable opportunity of realizing them.
Footnote 6.1.6:
See Inscription, p. 914.
Footnote 6.1.7:
[The land beyond the Oxus.]
Footnote 6.1.8:
“On Friday the 14th (Dec. 29, A.D. 1525), of the first Rabi, we
arrived at Sialkot. Every time that I have entered Hindustan, the Jats
and Gujars have regularly poured down in prodigious numbers from their
hills and wilds, in order to carry off oxen and buffaloes”
[Elliot-Dowson iv. 24]. The learned commentator draws a distinction
between the Jat inhabitants of the Panjab and of India, which is not
maintainable.
Footnote 6.1.9:
“It is worthy of remark,” says Colonel Pitman (who accompanied Mr.
Elphinstone to Kabul), “that in the two first Doabehs (return of the
embassy) we saw very few Sikhs, the Jat cultivators of the soil being
in general Moosulmauns, and in complete subjugation to the Sikhs.”
Footnote 6.1.10:
[Shaikh Farīd, known as Shakkarganj, ‘sugar-store,’ on account of his
supposed miraculous power of transmuting dust or salt into sugar, was
disciple of the famous Saint, Kutbu-d-dīn Bakhtyār Kāki. His life is
supposed to have extended from A.D. 1173 to 1265. His tomb at Ajūdhan
in the Montgomery District is a scene of pilgrimage.]
Footnote 6.1.11:
[He perhaps refers to the Asioi of Strabo (xi. 8. 2), who cannot be
identified (Smith, _EHI_, 226). They have no connexion, except
resemblance of name, with the Asaich.]
Footnote 6.1.12:
The Jats of the Agra province consider themselves illegitimate
descendants of the Yadus of Bayana, and have a tradition that their
_watan_ [home] is Kandahar.
Footnote 6.1.13:
[Mahārāja Sūrat Singh reigned A.D. 1788-1828.]
Footnote 6.1.14:
This town is named after the Islamite saint, Shaikh Farid of
Pakpattan, who has a _dargah_ here. He was greatly esteemed by the
Jats, before the Bona Dea assumed the shape of a Jatni, to whom, under
the title of Kirani Mata, ‘a ray of the mother,’ all bend the head.
[Her shrine is at Deshnok, about 25 miles S. of Bīkaner city, and is a
sanctuary (Hervey, _Some Records of Crime_, i. 139).]
Footnote 6.1.15:
[This is a folk etymology. The name is derived from Hindi _ner_, Skt.
_nagara_, ‘city’—the ‘city of Bīka.’]
Footnote 6.1.16:
_Vide_ pp. 661, 695 for an account of these festivals.
Footnote 6.1.17:
[Elliot-Dowson iv. 232; the connexion of the mountains of Jūd, to
which the Author constantly refers, with the Yādavas is incorrect.]
Footnote 6.1.18:
I presented a work on this race, entitled _The Book of the Johyas_
(sent me by the prime minister of Jaisalmer) to the Royal Asiatic
Society. Having obtained it just before leaving Rajputana, I never had
leisure to examine it, or to pronounce on its value as an historical
document; but any work having reference to so singular a community can
scarcely fail to furnish matter of interest. [The Joiya or Johya tribe
represent the ancient Yaudheya or ‘warlike’ peoples. It is incorrect
to say that the name is extinct, because they are found on the banks
of the Sutlej down to its confluence with the Indus; in Bīkaner in the
old bed of the Ghaggar River below Bhatner, their ancient seat; in
Lahore, Fīrozpur, the Derajāt, Multān, and the Salt Range (Cunningham,
_Ancient Geography_, i. 65; Rose, _Glossary_, ii. 410 ff.).]
Footnote 6.1.19:
[One hundred and ten miles N.N.E. of Bīkaner city.]
Footnote 6.1.20:
To the few who will peruse these annals of the desert tribes it will
be interesting to observe the development of families, and the
maintenance, by such distinctive patronymics, of their origin. In the
annals of this remote State I shall not enter at any length into the
history of their wars, which are, with a change of names and scene,
all pretty much alike; but confine myself, after a succinct and
connected genealogical relation, to the manners of the people, the
aspect, productions, and government of the country. [Abu-l Fazl
(_Akbarnāma_, i. 375) calls him Rāē Lonkaran. According to Erskine
(iii. A. 316) the second chief of Bīkaner was Naro or Naruji, son of
Bīka, who succeeded A.D. 1504, and died childless after a reign of
four months.]
Footnote 6.1.21:
[For Rāē Singh see Rogers-Beveridge, _Memoirs of Jahāngīr_, 130 f.
According to the _Akbarnāma_ (ii. 518) Akbar’s wife was the daughter
of Kahān, brother of Kalyānmall, Rāē of Jaisalmer. The _Tuzuk_ (_Āīn_,
i. 477) says that her father was Rāwal Bhīm, elder brother of Kalyān.
Ferishta (ii. 234) says that Kalyānmall was her father, and this
statement is accepted by Erskine (iii. A. 316) see Elliot-Dowson v.
336.]
Footnote 6.1.22:
[Now known as Hanumāngarh, 144 miles N.E. of Bīkaner city (_IGI_,
xiii. 38).]
Footnote 6.1.23:
In the Annals of Jaisalmer the number of offsets from the Yadu-Bhatti
tribe, which assumed the name of Jat, will be seen; an additional
ground for asserting that the Scythic Yadu is in fact the Yuti.
Footnote 6.1.24:
My informant of this tradition was an old inhabitant of Dandusar, and
although seventy years of age, had never left the little district of
his nativity until he was brought to me, as one of the most
intelligent living records of the past. [General Hervey (_Some Records
of Crime_, i. 209) says that a trace of Greek art may be found in the
Grecian ram’s head on the hilt of weapons in Bīkaner. For traditions
of descent from Alexander based on the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom see
Sykes, _Hist. of Persia_, i. 256.]
Footnote 6.1.25:
The natives of these regions cannot pronounce the sibilant; so that,
as I have already stated, the _s_ is converted into _h_. I gave as an
example the name Jahilmer, which becomes ‘the hill of fools’ instead
of ‘the hill of Jaisal.’ Sankra, in like manner, becomes Hankra. [Uchh
in the Bahāwalpur State (_IGI_, xxiv. 82). For the Hakra depression
see Malik Muhammad Din (_Bahāwalpur State Gazetteer_, i. 3 ff.). The
Ghaggar, once an affluent of the Indus, is lost in the sands near
Hanumāngarh or Bhatner (_IGI_, xii. 212 f.).]
Footnote 6.1.26:
[His services are described in _Āīn_, i. 357 ff. Ferishta (ii. 243)
says that Rāē Singh killed Muhammad Husain after he was captured.
According to another account, Akbar spoke kindly to his captive, and
gave him into Rāē Singh’s custody (Elliot-Dowson v. 367).]
Footnote 6.1.27:
[According to Erskine (iii. A. 319, iii. B. 83) Dalpat Singh and Sūr
Singh were Rāos between Rāē Singh and Karan Singh. For these Chiefs
see _Āīn_, i. 359. Karan Singh, according to Musalmān authorities,
died in 1666-7 (Manucci ii. 22). In 1660 Aurangzeb sent a force under
Amīr Khān to bring him to reason for his insolence in refusing to
attend the Emperor’s Court (Jadunath Sarkar, _Life of Aurangzib_, iii.
29 f.).]
Footnote 6.1.28:
[J. Scott, _Ferishta’s History of the Dekkan_, ii. 30.] The young
desert chieftain, like all his tribe, would find matter for quarrel in
the wind blowing in his face. Having received what he deemed an insult
from the brother-in-law of the Shahzada, in a dispute regarding a
fawn, he appealed to his sword, and a duel ensued even in the
presence-chamber, in which young Mohan fell. The fracas was reported
to his brother Padma, at no distance from the scene. With the few
retainers at hand, he rushed to the spot, and found his brother bathed
in his blood. His antagonist, still hanging over his victim, when he
saw the infuriated Rathor enter, with sword and shield, prepared for
dreadful vengeance, retreated behind one of the columns of the Āmm
Khass (_Divan_). But Padma’s sword reached him, and avenged his
brother’s death; as the record says, “he felled him to the earth,
cleaving at the same place the pillar in twain.” Taking up the dead
body of his brother, and surrounded by his vassals, he repaired to his
quarters, where he assembled all the Rajput princes serving with their
contingents, as Jaipur, Jodhpur, Haraoti, and harangued them on the
insult to their race in the murder of his brother. They all agreed to
abandon the king’s army, and retire to their own homes. A noble was
sent to expostulate by Prince Muazzam; but in vain. He urged that the
prince not only forgave, but approved the summary vengeance taken by
the Rathor; they refused to listen, and in a body had retired more
than twenty miles, when the prince in person joined them, and
concessions and expostulations overcoming them, they returned to the
camp. It was subsequent to this that the two elder brothers were
slain. It is recorded of the surviving brother, that he slew an
enormous lion in single combat. For this exploit, which thoroughly
entitled him to the name he bore (Kesari), ‘the Lion,’ he received an
estate of twenty-five villages from the king. He also obtained great
renown for slaying a Habshi or Abyssinian chief, who commanded for one
of the southern princes.
Footnote 6.1.29:
[Adoni in the Bellary District, Madras (_IGI_, v. 24 ff.).]
Footnote 6.1.30:
[He died at Adoni in 1698 (Erskine iii. A. 322).]
Footnote 6.1.31:
[According to Erskine (iii. B. 86) he died of smallpox in the Deccan.]
Footnote 6.1.32:
‘The children of David,’ the designation of the tract and inhabitants
subject to the State of Bahawalpur, from its founder, Daud Khan, a
native of Seistan. [For the Dāūdputra clan see Rose, _Glossary_, ii.
224 f. Their history is fully given by Malik Muhammad Din, _Bahāwalpur
State Gazetteer_, i. 47 ff.]
Footnote 6.1.33:
She was the sister of the Jhalai chief, heir presumptive to the
_gaddi_ of Jaipur, on failure of lineal issue.
Footnote 6.1.34:
[In the Patiāla State, Panjāb.]
Footnote 6.1.35:
[Nohar and Bhukārka are about 120 miles N.E. of Bīkaner city.]
Footnote 6.1.36:
The story of Nala and Damayanti (or Nal Daman, as it is familiarly
called in these regions) is well known in oriental literature. From
Nal the famed castle of Narwar is named, of which this suitor for the
hand of the Bīkaner princess was deprived by Sindhia. [The famous tale
of Nala and Damayanti from the _Mahābhārata_ is perhaps best known
from Dean Milman’s version. Narwar is now in Gwalior State.]
Footnote 6.1.37:
[Churu, about 100 miles N.E.E. of Bīkaner city.]
Footnote 6.1.38:
[Possibly Mojarh, about 40 miles S.E. of Bahāwalpur city.]
Footnote 6.1.39:
Its former name was Balar, one of the most ancient cities of the
desert, as is Phulra, a Johya possession.
Footnote 6.1.40:
[Not the Khairpur in Sind; 38 miles N.E. of Bahāwalpur city.]
Footnote 6.1.41:
This account was drawn up in 1814.
Footnote 6.1.42:
While putting this to the press, rumour says that the chiefs of
Bikaner are in open rebellion against the Raja, who has applied, but
without success, to the British Government for support. This, if true,
is as it should be. [This rebellion occurred in 1815, and the Mahārāja
invoked British aid. A treaty was signed on March 9, 1818, by which
Sūrat Singh and his successors became subordinate to the British
Government. A force under Brigadier-General Arnold restored order
(Erskine iii. A. 326).]
Footnote 6.1.43:
[Bīdāvati, now Sūjangarh, bounded on S. by Jodhpur, and E. by
Shaikhāwati (_ibid._ iii. A. 390 f.).]
Footnote 6.1.44:
[On S. frontier of the State.]
Footnote 6.1.45:
[Bidesar or Bidāsar is 64 miles S.S.W. of Bīkaner city.]