CLASSIFICATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF TOOL OPERATIONS FOR GRADES 7, 8, 9,
AND 10.
WOODWORK. GRADE VII.
Time: 2¹⁄₂ hours per week.
GROUP I. Squaring up Mill-planed Stock. (No definite dimensions but to
be square and as large as the stock will allow.)
Time: 1 week.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
STOCK | PROCESSES | TOOLS | PROJECTS
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
Soft wood |Edge planing |Jack-plane |
S-2-S |Testing for uniformity|Try-square |
³⁄₄″ × 6″ × 12″|of width |(Block-plane?) |Cutting-board
|End planing | |
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
GROUP II. Squaring up Mill-planed Stock. (Definite dimensions.)
Time: 3 weeks.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
|Surface smoothing |(Smooth plane?)|
Soft wood |Gaging |Marking-gage |
S-2-S |Measuring |Rule |Counting-board
³⁄₄″ × 4¹⁄₄″ × |Lining |Knife |
10¹⁄₂″ |Back-sawing (parallel |Back-saw |Hat-rack
³⁄₄″ × 2³⁄₄″ × |to line) |Brace and bits |Key-rack
18¹⁄₂″ |Boring |Pencil-gage |
|Chamfering | |
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
GROUP III. Squaring up Rough Stock.
Time: 4 weeks.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
|Surface leveling, etc.|Straight-edge |Ring-toss
Soft wood |Crosscut-sawing |Winding sticks |Spool-holder
Rough |Rip-sawing |Crosscut-saw |Game-board
1″ × 8″ × 8″ |Sandpapering |Rip-saw |Laundry-
| | |register
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
GROUP IV. Working Curves.
Time: 3 weeks.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
| | |Sleeve-board
Soft wood |Getting out stock |Steel square |Bread-board
S-2-S |Curve sawing |Turning-saw |Cake-board
³⁄₄″ |First use of chisel? |Chisel? |Scouring-board
|Spokeshaving |Spokeshave |Coat-hanger
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
GROUP V. Fastening with Nails and Screws. Duplicate Parts.
Time: 6 weeks.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
| | |Nail-box
Soft wood |Duplicate parts |Hammer |Polishing-box
S-2-S |Nailing |Nailset |Knife-box
³⁄₈″, ¹⁄₂″, |Setting nails |Screwdriver |Bird-box
³⁄₄″ |Fastening with screws | |Broom-holder
| | |Bench-hook
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
GROUP VI. Appreciation in Design. Structural, Decorative.
Time: Remainder of school year.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
| | |Table-mats
| | |Thermometer-
Soft wood | Structural design | |back
S-2-S | Decorative design | Stains |Calendar-back
³⁄₈″, ¹⁄₂″ | Outlining | Brushes |Letter-holder
| Staining | Wax |Bill-file
| Waxing | |Handkerchief-
| | |box
| | |Glove-box
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
GRADE VIII.
Time: 2¹⁄₂ hours per week.
GROUP VII. Groove Joints. Woodfinishing.
Time: 12 weeks.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
STOCK | PROCESSES | TOOLS | PROJECTS
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
Exercise piece |Exercise-- |Chisel |Exercise piece
Soft wood |Chiseling grooves |Mallet |Book-rack
close grained |Sawing to fit | |Necktie-rack
3¹⁄₄″ × 10¹⁄₂″ | Fitting parts | |Magazine-rack
Any thickness |Applications-- | |Foot-stool
to reduce to | | |Wall-rack
³⁄₄″. | | |Wall-shelf
Application-- | | |Desk-shelves
Chestnut, S-2-S| | |Square taboret
³⁄₈″, ³⁄₄″, 1″.| | |Stool
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
GROUP VIII. Cross-lap Joint.
Time: 12 weeks.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
Exercise piece |Exercise--Cross-lap |Glue |Exercise piece
--Soft wood, |joint |Hand clamps |Book-trough
close grained |Applications | |Cluster drop-
1³⁄₄″ × 10¹⁄₂″ | | |light
Any thickness | | |Desk-light
to reduce to | | |Calendar-mount
³⁄₄″. | | |Hall-rack
Application-- | | |Picture-frame
Chestnut, S-2-S| | |Octagonal
³⁄₈″, ³⁄₄″, 1″.| | |taboret
| | |Plate-rack
| | |Pedestal
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
HIGH SCHOOL.
GROUP IX. Joinery. Board and Framed Structures. (Accompanied by
Mechanical Drawing ³⁄₄ hour per day.)
(Time: 1¹⁄₂ hours per day.) (18 weeks.)
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
STOCK | PROCESSES | TOOLS | PROJECTS
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
| | |India stool
| | |Umbrella-stand
| | |Taborets
Close |Exercises-- |Jointer |Arm-chair,
grained |Mortise-and- |Smooth-plane |(simplified)
wood |tenon, keyed, |and full tool |Side-chair,
Rough or |blind |set. |(simplified)
Mill-planed |Miter |Individual edge|Leg-rest
|Modeling |tools, irons |Magazine-stand
¹⁄₄ sawed |Glue joint |and chisels, if|Small tables
White oak |Applications-- |possible |Book-trough
S-2-S | |Band-saw |Piano-bench
| |Jig-saw |Foot-stools
| | |Telephone-stand
| | |and seat, etc.
| | |etc.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
(Benchwork in Metal 18 weeks.) (Accompanied by Freehand Drawing and
Design ³⁄₄ hour per week.)
GROUP X. Cabinet-Making. Paneled Structures. (Optional and on a par with
other advanced courses in shopwork.) (36 weeks.)
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
| | |Music-cabinet
| | |Chafing-dish
| |Combination |stand
|Exercises-- |plane |Desks, Tables
|Drawer |Band-saw |Book-cases
|construction |Circular saw |Chests, Screens
|Door construction |Jointer, |Clocks
Various woods | |machine |Shaving-stand
|Hinging |Planer, machine|Beds, Settee
|Locking |Mortise machine|Porch-swing
|Applications-- |Shaper |Mission chairs
| |Jig-saw |Medicine-case
| | |Dressers, etc.
| | |etc.
---------------+----------------------+---------------+---------------
Note--Freshmen boys will be divided into two divisions. The first will
take Joinery the first semester, and second division will take
Metalwork. The second semester these divisions will exchange shops.
=Discussion of Woodwork Course.= Column one describes the condition of
the stock when given the pupil. Column two names the new principles
involved in the construction of the articles.
In Group I. stock mill-planed upon two surfaces to the thickness wanted
is given the pupil and he is required to square it up. No definite
dimensions are demanded but the class is given to understand that the
best workman is he who can square up his piece with the fewest shavings
removed. The gage is not used on this piece. The uniformity of width is
determined by the sliding try-square test. The broad surfaces are not
worked by the pupil at all in making this piece. In the first place, the
use to which the piece is to be put demands no fine surface treatment.
In the second place, experience shows that it is advisable to make this
first piece as simple as possible and pupils, at least grammar school
pupils, learn to handle the plane better on edge planing than on surface
planing.
An examination of the headings of the groups suggested for seventh
grade, and the directions given in connection with the problems will
show that each of these groups introduces a new method of squaring up
stock. For illustration, Group I is typical, as to the surface
treatment, of the method used by carpenters and others in preparing
outside finishing material such as cornice and window and door casings,
corner boards, etc. Here mill-marks are not considered objectionable so
that neither broad surface is worked. Group II is typical, as to the
surface treatment, of the method of preparing interior wood trim. One
surface is planed smooth, and straight as to its width, but no effort is
made to take out the wind, nor is the back surface treated at all.
Again, certain kinds of shelving and box construction require that both
broad surfaces be smoothed of their machine or mill-marks but do not
require either surface to be true, depending upon the manner of
fastening the parts together to take out any unevenness. Group V
typifies this method of treatment. Of course, if the stock is badly
curled or cupped no attempt is made to use it for the thickness for
which it was originally intended, tho it is possible to “nail out”
pretty badly warped boards on certain kinds of carpentry work. In
furniture making this is hardly ever possible or advisable. A sleeve
pressing board does not require a face edge or square ends, etc., Group
IV. Group III typifies the standard treatment of which these others are
modifications.
In the third column tools necessary for performing the process are
named. In elementary woodwork the block-plane and smooth-plane may be
omitted, the jack-plane doing the work just as well.
In the Lesson Outlines, section numbers of a text on woodworking to
which the student is referred are given. The text to which the numbers
refer is “_Essentials of Woodworking_.” The necessity for a text to
accompany but not to take the place of the demonstration is well
appreciated by most teachers of manual training. With a text in the
hands of each pupil a lesson may be assigned and the pupil required to
familiarize himself with the text and the illustrations relating to the
subject matter. The use of a text removes most effectually the necessity
for a constant repetition of oral instruction. With a text there is
never any excuse for the pupil bothering the instructor with the
otherwise semi-valid excuse of “I forgot” or “I was absent when the
demonstration was given,” etc., etc.
In Groups VIII and IX will be found exercise pieces. One of the
advantages claimed for the group system is that it permits class
instruction at stated intervals, thus reducing individual instruction to
a minimum. For illustration, a class beginning Group II would continue
to work upon the problems of that group until all but the few
acknowledged failures had completed the work required in that group.
After this the class is to be instructed in the new things of Group III.
This plan to continue thruout the whole course.
The work of the groups will of necessity overlap each other. For, as
soon as a pupil finishes one problem in a group, he begins another
problem in the same group, unless he is the slowest in the class. When
the class is ready to begin a new group we are confronted with the
question of whether to give the instruction belonging to the new group
and allow the boys to proceed with the unfinished work of the old group,
or to start them on problems of the new group. To proceed with the old
is objectionable in that the worker forgets his new instruction before
he has opportunity to apply it. To start new work before finishing the
old is bad in that the pupil will have lost interest in the old when
asked to complete it after finishing the new work. Not to complete the
old at all would be a practice too vicious to be tolerated for a moment.
In the seventh grade this overlapping is not a serious problem, for the
objects being small and quickly finished allow all to finish the old
group before the instruction of the new has faded. In the eighth grade
and high school, however, where the objects are larger, this objection
is a serious one.
As stated before, the aim of the group arrangement is to permit class
instruction at the beginning of each group. To make this effective the
practice and application must follow within a reasonably short time.
Here the “exercise” offers aid.
If ever an exercise piece has a legitimate use, it has it here. The
great objection to exercise pieces lies in their inability to create a
vital interest on the part of the pupil. The writer has made it a
practice to talk over the applications of each exercise and to state
briefly the need for the exercise before beginning it. First, that the
class because of numbers must be instructed all at the same time;
second, that the joints, unlike the simple one-piece objects previously
made cannot be remedied or patched up by reducing the size, as in the
bread board, when lack of knowledge or skill causes errors; third, that
postponing the practice any length of time would be unwise. As the time
required for making the exercises, as arranged in the course outlined
above, is short there has never been a lack of interest either in the
exercise or in the unfinished objects of the old group to which some
must return after completing the exercise.
High school boys begin to take on a different attitude toward exercises
and technique. Their increased knowledge and skill permit applications
requiring considerable time for completing. For this reason all the
exercises are grouped in the fore part of their year.
To the writer it seems unnecessary to apologize for this use of
exercises. He has felt free to utilize parts of any system which seemed
to serve his purpose. He does feel, however, that a long continued
series of exercises in elementary woodworking without application would
be fatal. American school methods have been criticised by Europeans as
being superficial and lacking in thoroness. It may be that in our
eagerness to develop the individual we have made ourselves subjects for
such criticism to a certain extent. We need not fear the introduction of
this small amount of drill and formalism, especially when there is no
loss of interest or incentive. It is impossible to teach a pupil a thing
that is entirely new to him unless he has in his possession a fund of
“known” thru which the unknown may be made known. For this reason
drawings and sketches are plentifully provided.
Experience has shown that better results are obtained, both in the
development of ability to think and ability to do, if the ability to
“do” is given a maximum of attention at the beginning of the course,
opportunities for original thinking being introduced gradually as the
pupils’ knowledge, appreciation, and skill increase. In the beginning
groups the sizes or dimensions are fixed, no variation being permitted
except as poor work necessitates. Requiring all to make the same pieces
in the beginning groups permits comparison of results and the
establishing of standards of accuracy as well as making it possible to
give definite instruction with the minimum of talking.
Another reason for emphasizing technique and processes at the beginning
is that interest is so easily directed. A beginner is interested in
anything. In fact, a few exercises--not more than two or three--might be
introduced at the very beginning without in any way violating the
principle relating to interest previously mentioned. The writer does not
make use of exercises in this way but can understand some of the
advantages secured by so doing.
Having taught the pupil to respect a “working line,” which experience
shows takes the greater part of the seventh year, it will be time to
begin to encourage original thinking on the part of the pupil. This,
because of the pupil’s ignorance of the subject matter, will come
slowly, if satisfactorily. Modifications of the dimensions of the
projects should be the first step. While originality is to be encouraged
in every way it should never be forced at the expense of appreciation.
Appreciation must be developed first. Better a chair of good design and
proportion made after another’s design with appreciation than an
absurdity made after one’s own design and its weaknesses not seen. The
greatest value of design in public school education is expressed well by
Professor Sargent when he says, “For one who will produce a design, a
thousand must know how to select it.”
Pupils possessed of exceptional originality and ability will find ample
opportunity for expression in the group system without hindrance upon
the part of the slower neighbors and without requiring all the
instructor’s time at a sacrifice of the time which the slower pupils
have a right to. The slow pupil has a right to an equal share of the
instructor’s time, and this is not always easy to give when the
brilliant pupil is to be given individual and advanced instruction as
the systems other than the group system necessitate.
In general, it will be found advisable to hold seventh grade pupils
quite rigidly to the execution of the projects offered. In the eighth
grade pupils should be encouraged to modify existing projects, while in
high school they should be encouraged to “work up” original ideas. By
this time they should have acquired a fair fund of information and some
judgment and appreciation.
A glance at the outline on woodworking will show that the projects in
eighth grade and in high school are most all of such a nature as to
demand considerable repetition of processes. For illustration, in the
making of the taboret there are eight dado joints. We have heard so much
of the non-educational value of repeated processes that one may be
inclined to question the arrangement of a course which introduces but
two joints in the course of a year’s work, as is done in the eighth
grade of this outline. In view of the fact that very many courses
introduce the glue joint, mortise-and-tenon, etc., in the eighth grade
it may be well for the writer to state his point of view. It is this:
The highest educational value comes not from many joints put to the
pupil in such rapid succession that he has not time for the acquirement
of a fair degree of proficiency, but rather from the mastery of a few by
repetition so planned as to maintain a keen interest in each joint made.
As a recent writer has said, “There is need for more investigation on
the point that repeated processes are non-educational. Doing certain
things until the process becomes automatic sometimes leads one to take
the first step toward a higher freedom.” This, in view of the present
demands of industrial education, is the excuse for offering a few joints
well made rather than many joints with the consequent mechanical
indigestion that usually follows. As soon as the process has become
fairly automatic, or when the joint has been fairly well mastered, then
are we ready to proceed to new fields. In the seventh grade outline the
introduction of new processes is more frequent. This is due to the fact
that the operations are simple and of such a nature, planing for
example, that future work necessitates their frequent repetition.
The accurate use of the chisel is kept until the eighth grade, as is
also accurate sawing to a knife line with the back-saw. It has taken us
a long time to come to a realization that, while the chisel and saw are
simple tools, their proper handling is not simple. A general survey of
the groups for grade seven will show that each is concerned with one of
the various type processes used in squaring up stock, both mill-planed
and rough. In eighth grade the groups are concerned with the accurate
use of the chisel and back-saw in chiseling, or paring, and sawing to
fit.
In Group IX, which is the first year high school work, the pupil may be
expected to give most of his attention to the principles of simple
joinery of board and framed structures with the necessary joints. A full
set of individual edged tools should give the instructor excuse for
demanding a much higher degree of technique than is to be found in the
grades. The pupils will not be perfected in the use of the chisel, saw,
and other tools but they should have acquired enough skill to enable
them to proceed with the work of the mortise and tenon.
Exercise pieces in mortise-and-tenons, miter, modeling and glue joint
belong here. It is possible to arrange the work so that the modeling and
glue joint exercise pieces may be considered under Application. The
modeling exercise may well be a hammer handle, the metal part of which
is to be worked in the metal class the other half of the first year. The
glue joint may well be made upon wood of sufficient size that it may be
used later, such as the taboret top. The mortise-and-tenon and miter,
however, will be most profitable as exercises pure and simple. A
moment’s thought will indicate the reason for making the distinction.
Many courses give modeling in the grades. Modeling to be of value
requires judgment and experience. This a grade pupil has not. The first
year high school is sufficiently early for this kind of work. To place
it earlier is to give the pupil a wrong impression of the requirements
of good modeling, and his later work, in pattern-making for example,
suffers accordingly.
Two machines should be made use of in the first year high school work,
the band-saw and scroll or jig-saw. Both, when properly safeguarded, are
well suited to give the pupil his first acquaintance with machinery.
There is little educational value in further excessive ripping by hand
at this stage of the course.
The cabinet-making course is not to be considered as manual training
_per se_. It is best to make it optional and more purely a trade course,
tho the work may still be individual in its nature. An exercise in
making a small door and one in the making of a drawer will introduce the
student to the use of most of the machinery specified. These exercises
should be detailed so as to involve stock of the same size for each boy.
In this way the machines may be set and all the parts of similar kind
run thru. Classes of considerable size may be taught with the use of the
minimum of machinery. Each boy should, of course, be taught the setting
of the various machines.
After these two exercises, with hinging and locking, the pupils may be
allowed to work out pieces of their own choosing involving these
elements, preparing their own stock, setting their machines, etc. In
this way the “shop” practice, quantity or piece work, is obtained in the
making of the exercises while the application later allows for the
individuality of the pupil.