INTRODUCTION (743)
Question I. THE DUTIES OF ALL CLASSES OF MEN
THE INFUSED VIRTUES (744-745)
Art. 1. THE VIRTUE OF FAITH
Introduction (746-749).--The Meaning of Faith (750-753).--The Object of
Faith (754-781).--The Acts of Faith (782-796).--The Habit of Faith
(797-807).--The Gifts of Understanding and Knowledge (808-811).
Art. 2. THE SINS AGAINST FAITH
Introduction (812).--The Sin of Unbelief (813-825).--Heresy
(826-834).--Apostasy (835-839).--The Sin of Doubt (840-846).--Credulity
and Rationalism (847).--Dangers to Faith (848).--Dangerous Reading
(849-866).--Dangerous Schools (867-874).--Dangerous Marriages
(875-881).--Dangerous Communication (882-888).--The Sin of Blasphemy
(887-903).--Sins of Ignorance, Blindness, Dullness (904-912).
Art. 3. THE COMMANDMENTS OF FAITH
Introduction (913).--The Commandment of Knowledge of Faith (914-924).--
The Commandment of Internal Acts of Faith (925-937).--The Negative
Commandment of External Profession of Faith (938-943).--Dangers of
Profession of Unbelief (944).--Forbidden Societies (945-955).--
Communication in Worship (956-975).-Cooperation in Religious Activities
(976-986).--The Affirmative Commandment of External Profession of Faith
(987-1008).
Art. 4. THE VIRTUE OF HOPE
Definition (1009-1017).--The Object of Hope (1018-1026).--The
Excellence of Hope (1027-1035).--The Subject of Hope (1030-1040).--The
Gift of Fear of the Lord (1041-1058).--The Sins against Hope
(1059-1091).--The Commandments of Hope and of Fear (1092-1104).
Art. 5. THE VIRTUE OF CHARITY
Definition (1105-1114).--The Excellence of Charity (1115-1120).--
Production of Charity (1121-1132).--The Object of Charity
(1133-1157).--The Order of Charity (1158-1182).--The Acts of Charity
(1183-1192).
Art. 6. THE EFFECTS OF CHARITY
Internal Effects of Charity (1193).--Joy (1194).--Peace (1195-1197).--
Reconciliation (1198-1204).--Mercy (1205-1209).--External Effects of
Charity (1210).--Beneficence (1211-1215).--Almsgiving (1216-1257).--
Fraternal Correction (1258-1294).
Art. 7. THE SINS AGAINST LOVE AND JOY
Introduction (1295).--Hate (1296).--Hatred of God (1297-1303).--Hatred
of Creatures (1304-1311).--Gravity of the Sin of Hatred (1312-1316).
--Species of the Sin of Hatred (1317-1319).--The Sin of Sloth
(1320-1325).--Laziness (1326).--Lukewarmness (1327).--The Sin of Envy
(1328-1331).--Emulation (1332).--Jealousy (1333).--Fear (1334).--
Indignation (1335-1336).--Gravity of the Sin of Envy (1337-1344).--
Means of Overcoming Envy (1345-1346).
Art. 8. THE SINS AGAINST PEACE
Introduction (1347).--Discord (1348-1354).--Contention (1355-1362).--
Acts of Sin against Peace (1363).--Schism (1364-1375).--War
(1376-1427).--Fighting (1428-1434).--Duelling (1435-1439).--Sedition
(1440-1443).
Art. 9. THE SINS AGAINST BENEFICENCE
Introduction (1444).--Scandal (1445-1446).--Definition of Scandal
(1447).--Causes of Scandal (1448-1458).--Results of Scandal
(1459-1464).--Sinfulness of Scandal (1465-1474).--Persons Scandalized
(1475-1476).--Duty of Avoiding Scandal (1477-1487).--Duty of Repairing
Scandal (1488-1492).--Denial of Sacraments in Case of Scandal
(1493-1494).--Seduction (1495-1505).--Cooperation in Sin (1506-1508).--
Kinds of Cooperation (1508-1512).--Sinfulness of Cooperation
(1513-1514).--Lawfulness of Material Cooperation (1515-1525).--
Lawfulness of Immediate Cooperation (1526-1527).--Special Cases of
Cooperation (1528).-Cooperation in Reading Matter (1529-1530).--In
Dances and Plays (1531-1532).--In Selling (1533-1536).--In Providing
Food and Drink (1537-1539).--In Renting (1540-1541).--In Service
(1542-1544).--Duties of the Confessor as Regards Cooperation
(1545-1546).
Art 10. THE COMMANDMENTS OF CHARITY
Introduction (1547-1552).--The Commandment of Love of God
(1553-1560).--The Commandment of Love of Self (1561-1578).--The
Commandment of Love of Neighbor (1579-1584).--Fulfillment of the
Commandments of Charity (1585-1608).
Art 11. THE GIFT OF WISDOM
Introduction (1609).--The Nature of the Gift of Wisdom (1610-1614).--
The Persons who Possess Wisdom (1615-1618).--The Beatitude and the
Fruits that Correspond to Wisdom (1619-1620).--The Sins Opposed to
Wisdom (1621-1625).
[Volume II of print edition, section 1626 to end]
Question II. THE DUTIES OF ALL CLASSES OF MEN (The Moral Virtues)
Art. 1. THE VIRTUE OF PRUDENCE
Definition (1627).--Objects (1628, 1629).--Certainty of Prudence
(1630).--Excellence (1631, 1632).--Acts (1633).--Qualities (1634).--
Parts (1635, 1636).--Integral Parts (1637, 1638).--Subjective Parts
(1639-1645).--Potential Parts (1646, 1647).--Persons Who Possess
Prudence (1648-1656).--Growth and Decay of Prudence (1657).--The
Beatitude and the Fruits that Correspond to Counsel (1662).--The Sins
Against Prudence (1663).--Imprudence (1664-1666).--Haste (1667).--
Thoughtlessness.--Inconstancy (1669).--Causes of These Sins (1670).--
Negligence (1671-1673).--False Prudence (1674).--The Prudence of the
Flesh (1675, 1676).--Astuteness, Trickery, Fraud (1677-1680).--
Solicitude (1681-1685).--Avarice, a Cause of Sins Against Prudence
(1686).--The Commandments of Prudence (1687).
Art. 2. THE VIRTUE OF JUSTICE
Introduction (1688).--The Nature of Justice (1689-1700).--Division
(1701-1708).--The Object of Justice (1709-1713).--Comparison of Justice
and Other Virtues (1714-1718).--Injustice (1719-1726).--Judgment
(1727-1744).
Art. 3. THE SUBJECTIVE PARTS OF JUSTICE: DISTRIBUTIVE AND COMMUTATIVE
JUSTICE
Subjective Parts of a Virtue (1745).--Distributive and Commutative
Justice Compared (1746, 1747).--The Objects of Commutative Justice
(1748-1750).--Restitution (1751-1761).-The Roots of Restitution
(1762-1777).--Restitution for Cooperation in Injustice (1778-1785).--
The Circumstances of Restitution (1786-1796).--Causes Excusing from
Restitution (1797-1801).--Some Special Cases of Restitution (1802,
1803).
Art. 4. THE VICES OPPOSED TO COMMUTATIVE AND DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
The Vice against Distributive Justice (1804-1814).-The Vices against
Commutative Justice (1815).--Homicide (1816-1851).-Suicide
(1852-1861).--Accidental Homicide (1862-1865).--Bodily Injury
(1866-1871).--Titles to Property (1872-1876).--Contracts
(1877-1889).--Theft and Robbery (1890-1919).--Lawful Occupation
(1920-1926).--Occult Compensation (1927-1938).-Judicial Injustice
(1939).--In Judges (1940-1963).--In Accusers (1964-1974).--In
Defendants (1975-1983).--In Witnesses (1984-1994).--In Lawyers
(1995-2008).--Unjust Words (2009).--Contumely (2010-2027).--Defamation
(2028-2075).-Cooperation in Defamation (2076-2084).--Restitution for
Defamation (2085-2102).--Whispering (2103-2105).--Derision
(2106-2110).--Cursing (2111-2119).--Murmuring (2120).--Fraud in
Contracts (2121, 2122).--In Sales (2123-2133).--Trading (2134,
2135).--Usury (2136).--Other Frauds (2137, 2138).
Art. 5. THE QUASI-INTEGRAL AND POTENTIAL PARTS OF JUSTICE; THE VIRTUE
OF RELIGION AND THE OPPOSITE VICES
The Quasi-Integral Parts of Justice (2139, 2140).--The Potential Parts
of Justice (2141-2144).--The Virtue of Religion (2145-2148).--The
Internal Acts of Religion (2149).--Devotion (2150-2152).--Prayer
(2153-2169).--Distractions (2170-2174).--The External Acts of Religion
(2175).--Adoration (2176, 2177).--Sacrifice (2178-2182).--Offerings
(2183, 2184).--Contributions (2185-2190).--Vows (2191-2225).--Cessation
of Vows (2226-2243).--Other External Acts of Religion (2244).--Oaths
(2245-2262).--Adjuration (2263-2268).--Divine Praises (2269-2272).--The
Sins against Religion (2273).--Superstition (2274-2276).--Idolatry
(2277-2281).--Divination (2282-2289).--Vain Observance (2290-2298).--
Irreligiousness (2299).--Temptation of God (2300-2307).--Sacrilege
(2308-2316).--Simony (2317-2334).--Sinfulness of Simony (2335-2343).
Art. 6. THE REMAINING POTENTIAL PARTS OF JUSTICE; THE GIFT OF PIETY;
THE COMMANDMENTS
Piety (2344-2350).--Reverence (2351-2354).--Obedience (2355-2372).--
Gratitude (2373-2380).--Vengeance (2381-2384).--Truthfulness
(2385-2388).--Lying (2389-2397).--Mental Reservation (2398-2402).--
Simulation (2403, 2404).--Hypocrisy (2405).--Braggadocio and Irony
(2406).--Breach of Promise (2407).--Violation of Secret (2408-2420).--
Affability (2421-2423).--Liberality (2424-2429).--Equity (2430-2432).--
The Gift of Piety (2433).--The Commandments of Justice (2434-2436).
Art. 7. THE VIRTUE OF FORTITUDE
Nature (2437-2441).--Martyrdom (2442-2445).--The Opposite Vices
(2446).--The Parts of Fortitude (2447).--Greatness of Soul (2448,
2449).--Presumption, Ambition and Vanity (2450).--Pusillanimity
(2451).--Greatness of Deed, Meanness and Vulgarity (2452).--Patience
(2453, 2454).--Stolidity and Impatience (2455).--Steadfastness,
Effeminacy and Pertinacity (2456).--The Complements of Fortitude
(2457).--The Commandments of Fortitude (2458-2460).
Art. 8. THE VIRTUE OF TEMPERANCE
Nature (2461-2463).--The Opposite Vices (2464).--The Parts of
Temperance (2465).--Abstemiousness (2466, 2467).--Fasting and
Abstinence (2468, 2469).--The Sins Opposed to Abstemiousness
(2470).--Gluttony (2471-2473).--Sobriety (2474, 2475).--The Sins
against Sobriety (2476).--Drunkenness (2477-2485).--Purity (2486,
2487).--Virginity (2488-2491).--Impurity (2492-2496).--Temptations to
Impurity (2497-2503).--Non-Consummated Sins of Impurity (2504).--Impure
Thoughts (2505, 2506).--Impure Rejoicing (2507).--Impure Desire (2508,
2509).--Lewdness (2510-2514).--Sinfulness of Lewdness (2515-2518).--
Moral Species of Lewdness (2519).--The Consummated Sins of Impurity
(2520-2522).--Fornication (2523-2528).--Defloration and Rape
(2529).--Adultery (2530).--Incest (2531, 2532).--Carnal Sacrilege
(2533).--Sins against Nature (2534).--Pollution (2535-2538).--The
Sinfulness of Pollution (2539-2541).--Penalties (2542).--The Potential
Parts of Temperance (2543).--Continence (2544).--Meekness (2545).--
Anger (2546-2549).--Sinful Indulgence (2550).--Clemency (2551,
2552).--Humility (2553-2556).--Pride (2557-2560).--Abjectness
(2561).--Studiousness (2562).--Curiosity and Negligence (2563,
2564).--Modesty (2565).--Decorum (2566).--Modest Relaxation (2567,
2568).--Modesty in Style and Dress (2569, 2570).--Complements of
Temperance (2571).--Commandments of Temperance (2572).
Question III
THE DUTIES OF PARTICULAR CLASSES OF MEN
INTRODUCTION (2573)
Art. 1. THE DUTIES OF MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH
General Duties of the Faithful (2574).--First Precept of the Church:
Sanctification of the Lord’s Day (2575).--Hearing Mass (2576-2578).--
Servile Works (2579-2582).--Gravity of the First Precept (2583).--
Excuses (2584, 2585).--Second Precept: Abstinence (2586, 2587).--
Fasting (2588, 2589).--Third Precept: Yearly Confession (2590,
2591).--Fourth Precept: Easter Duty (2592, 2593).--Fifth and Sixth
Precepts (2594).--Laws on the Index and Cremation (2595).--The Special
Duties of Clerics (2596).--Vocation (2597, 2598).--Positive Duties of
Clerics (2599).--The Divine Office (2600, 2601).--Celibacy (2602).--
Negative Duties of Clerics (2603).--Trading (2604).--Stocks and Bonds
(2605).--Duties of Clerical Superiors (2606).--Duties of Pastors
(2607).--Charity to the Poor (2608-2610).--Special Duties of Religious
(2611).--The Vows (2612).
Art. 2. DUTIES OF MEMBERS OF DOMESTIC AND CIVIL SOCIETY
Husband and Wife (2613).--The conjugal Debt (2614-2617).--Morality in
Marriage (2618, 2619).--Contraception and Onanism (2620).--
Birth-Control (2621, 2622).--Cooperation with Contraception (2623).--
Recapitulation (2624).--Regulae pro Confessariis (2625).--The Duty of
Conjugal Companionship and Assistance (2626).--The Obligation of
Marrying (2627).--The Duties of Engaged Persons (2628, 2629).--The
Duties of Parents (2630, 2631).--Sex Education (2632).--The Duties of
Children (2633).--The Duties of Other Relatives (2634).--The Duties of
Superiors (2635).--The Duties of Subjects (2636).--Taxes (2637-2642).--
Voting (2643-2645).--The Duties of Employers (2646, 2647).--The Duties
of Employees (2648).--Labor Disputes (2649).--Employment (2650).--The
Duties of Certain Professions (2651).
Question IV
THE DUTIES OF MEN IN THE USE OF THE SACRAMENTS
INTRODUCTION (2652, 2653)
Art. 1. THE SACRAMENTS IN GENERAL: THE SACRAMENTALS
Nature of a Sacrament (2654).--Matter and Form (2655-2660).--Necessity
of the Sacraments (2661-2663).--The Minister of the Sacraments
(2664).--Requisites for Valid Ministration (2665-2668).--For Lawful
Ministration (2669, 2670).--The Recipient of the Sacraments; Requisites
for Valid Reception (2671-2674).--Requirements for Lawful Reception
(2675).--Obligations of the Minister in Reference to the Recipient
(2676-2682).--Obligations of the Recipient in Reference to the Minister
(2683).--The Sacramentals (2684).
Art. 2. BAPTISM; CONFIRMATION; THE EUCHARIST; THE SACRIFICE OF THE MASS
Introduction (2685).--The Sacrament of Baptism (2686).--Solemn and
Private Baptism (2687).--Duties of Pastors (2685).--Duties of Parents
and Guardians (2689).--Duties of Sponsors (2690, 2691).--Duties of
Adult Recipients (2692).--Duties of the Minister (2693).--The Sacrament
of Confirmation (2694).--The Minister (2695).--The Recipient (2696).--
The Sponsors (2697).--The Pastor (2698).--The Sacrament of the
Eucharist (2699).--Matter and Form of the Eucharist (2700).--The
Minister of Consecration (2701, 2702).--The Minister of Communion
(2703).--The Communicant (2704).--Worthy Communion (2705).--Frequent
Communion (2706).--Duties of Parents, Pastors, Confessors (2707).--The
Custody and Worship of the Eucharist (2708).--The Sacrifice of the
Mass; the Celebrant (2709).--The Obligation of Saying Mass (2710).--
Dispositions for Celebration of Mass (2711).--The Circumstances of Mass
(2712).--Interruption of Mass (2713).--Application of Mass (2714,
2715).--Stipends (2716).
Art. 3. REPENTANCE; PENANCE; EXTREME UNCTION
Introduction (2717).--The Virtue of Repentance (2718-2726).--The
Sacrament of Penance (2727, 2728).--Contrition (2729-2735).--Resolution
of Amendment (2736).--Confession (2737-2744).--Satisfaction
(2745-2749).--The Minister (2750).--Jurisdiction (2751, 2752).--
Reserved Cases (2753, 2754).--Absolution without Jurisdiction (2755).--
Duties of the Confessor before Confession (2756).--Duties of the
Confessor as Judge (2757-2761).--Duties of the Confessor as Physician
(2762).--Duties of the Confessor as Teacher and Guide (2763).--Duties
of the Confessor after Confession (2764).--Reparation of Defects (2765,
2766).--The Seal of Confession (2767, 2768).--Abuses of Confession
(2769-2773).--The Sacrament of Extreme Unction (2774).--Duties of the
Recipient and the Minister of Extreme Unction (2775).
Art. 4. HOLY ORDERS; MATRIMONY
Introduction (2776).--The Sacrament of Orders (2777).--Distinctions of
Orders (2778).--The Hierarchy (2779).--The Matter and Form of Orders
(2780).--The Minister of Ordination (2781, 2782).--The Recipient of
Orders (2783-2785).--Registration of Ordinations (2786).--The Sacrament
of Matrimony (2787, 2788).--The Elements of Matrimony as a Contract
(2789-2793).--The Elements of the Sacrament (2794).--Duties in
Reference to Marriage (2795).--Engagement (2796-2798).--Duties to
Parents and to Children (2799, 2800).--Pre-Nuptial Investigations
(2801).--Examination of the Parties by the Pastor (2802, 2803).--
Matrimonial Impediments (2804, 2805).--Impedient Impediments
(2806-2809).--Diriment Impediments (2810-2819).--Dispensations and
Banns (2820).--After the Examination (2821).--Instruction of the Couple
(2822-2824).--Religious Preparation for Marriage (2825).--The
Celebration of Marriage (2826-2829).--Validation (2830).--Divorce and
Separation (2831).
APPENDICES [placed at end of Volume I in print edition]
I. SUMMARY OF COMMON LAW ON PROHIBITION OF BOOKS
II. THE “ECUMENICAL MOVEMENT”
INDEX TO VOLUMES I AND II
MORAL THEOLOGY
A Complete Course
INTRODUCTION
1. Definition.--Moral Theology is defined: (a) etymologically, as the
study of God, considered as the beginning and the end of man’s moral
life, i.e., of those acts that proceed from reason and will; (b)
scientifically, as that part of Sacred Theology which treats of God as
our Last End, and of the means by which we may tend to Him.
2. Hence, Moral Theology differs from various related sciences or
habits. Thus: (a) it differs from Ethics, which is the science of human
conduct as directed by reason to man’s natural end, for Moral Theology
uses faith as well as reason, and is concerned with man’s supernatural
end; (b) it differs from faith, since it includes not only principles
revealed by God, but also conclusions derived from them; (c) it differs
from synderesis, or the habit that perceives the natural principles of
morality that are self-evident to the mind, for Moral Theology deals
also with supernatural truths and with truths that are not
self-evident; (d) it differs from conscience, which draws conclusions
for individual cases, since Moral Theology is concerned with general
conclusions.
3. Relation of Moral Theology to Dogmatic Theology.--(a) They do not
differ as two distinct sciences, for the main object, in the light of
which all else is studied, is the same in both--viz., God. (b) They do
differ as two quasi-integral parts or branches of the same science,
Dogma being concerned more with the speculative, and Moral with the
practical aspects of theology. Dogmatic Theology is the more important
of the two, as treating more directly on divine things and as being the
basis of Moral Theology.
In Dogma, God Himself is considered in His own nature and creatures as
they proceed from Him as from an exemplary and efficient cause, or
Creator. Moral Theology continues the pursuit of knowledge of God,
concentrating upon Him as He is the Final Cause of things. Creatures
emanate from God by way of creation, and this is part of the
subject-matter of Dogma; but creatures return to Him, each in its own
proper way by virtue of its nature created by God and directed by His
Providence and Government, and this return of creatures to God
constitutes the general subject-matter of Moral Theology. As Divine
Providence and Government are continuations of His Creation, Moral
Theology continues to study and to unfold the implications of Dogma’s
consideration of God as Creator. God is known to have created as an
Intelligent Being ordering His handiwork to Himself as end. His special
masterpiece, man, special because he is made to the Image of God,
returns to God in a special way proper to him as an Image, i.e., by way
of acts of his intellect and will guided and moved by Divine Providence
and Predestination. It is of this special way of returning to God by
man, His image, that Moral Theology treats. Thus it adds to and
perfects Dogmatic Theology, enriching our knowledge of God by way of
making explicit the implications of Divine Creation and Providence to
His image, man.
4. The Objects of Moral Theology.--(a) The central theme or object of
Moral Theology, which is considered for its own sake and to which all
else is secondary (_objectum formale quod_), is God as the supernatural
End or Destiny of man.
(b) The secondary object (_objectum materiale_) is the means by which
one is advanced towards one’s Last End (such as human acts, virtue,
grace, the Sacraments), or the obstacles which hinder one from
attaining that End (such as vice, temptation, etc.).
(c) The medium through which the above objects are known (_objectum
formale quo_) is the light of natural reason illuminated by faith
studying the sources of divine revelation and deducing conclusions from
doctrines revealed by God.
5. Hence Moral Theology includes: (a) the revealed doctrines concerning
man’s destiny and duty that are contained in the written and oral Word
of God and as interpreted by their custodian, the Catholic Church; (b)
the conclusions that are contained in revelation; (c) the duties of man
to human laws that are based on the divine natural or positive law; (d)
the opinions of theologians on matters that are disputed, as in the
controversy about the systems of conscience.
6. The Sources of Moral Theology, therefore, are: (a) Holy scripture;
(b) tradition; (c) the decisions of Popes, Councils, and Congregations,
Laws, etc.; (d) the authority of Doctors and theologians; (e) natural
reason.
7. Holy scripture.--“All scripture, inspired by God, is profitable to
teach, to reprove, to correct, to instruct in justice” (II Tim., iii.
16). (a) Thus, the deeds narrated in scripture contain lessons for our
instruction; but not all of them, even though they be concerned with
holy men, are offered for our imitation. (b) The laws of the Old
Testament known as ceremonial (such as the rite of circumcision), and
those called judicial (such as the prohibition against the taking of
interest), are no longer obligatory; but the moral precepts, such as
those found in the Decalogue, always remain in force. (c) The
ordinances of the New Testament are of three kinds: the Gospel
counsels, which are not laws, but invitations to a higher practice of
virtue than is necessary for salvation (e.g., the advice of our Lord
that one sell all and give to the poor); the laws of the New Testament,
which are the commands that it imposes for all times (such as the
precepts that one believe the Gospel message, receive Baptism, hear the
Church, etc.); temporary regulations, which are those dispositions that
were made only for passing circumstances (such as the prohibition
issued by the Apostles against the eating of animals that had been
suffocated).
8. Tradition.--Tradition contains those doctrines concerning faith and
morals, not found in scripture, that were given orally by Christ or
inspired by the Holy Spirit, and that have been handed down from one
generation to another in the Catholic Church.
Tradition becomes known to us: (a) through the teaching of the Church
expressed by her solemn or ordinary magisterium; (b) through the
writings of the Fathers of the Church; (c) through the practice of the
Church expressed in her universal customs and laws; (d) through the
worship of the Church expressed in her universal forms of prayer and
liturgical observance.
9. Decisions.--In addition to divine tradition just spoken of, Moral
Theology uses: (a) Apostolic tradition, which comes down from the
Apostles, but whose subject-matter is not a teaching revealed to them,
but an ordinance which they themselves made as rulers of the Church
(e.g., the law that Sunday be sanctified as the Lord’s day); (b)
ecclesiastical tradition, which contains regulations made by the
authorities in the Church and handed down to succeeding times (e.g.,
the introduction of certain days of feast or fast).
10. Authority of Doctors and Theologians.--(a) St. Thomas Aquinas has
been recognized by the Church as her highest theological authority, and
the Code of Canon Law (Canons 589, Sec. 1, and 1366, Sec. 2) orders
that in all seminaries and religious houses of study the courses of
theology shall be made according to his method, teaching and principles.
(b) When the theologians agree with unanimity that a certain doctrine
pertaining to faith or morals is divinely revealed, it would be next
to heresy to hold the opposite; if they agree only that it is certain,
it would be rash to contradict them, unless new and serious objections
unknown to them can be offered; if they are divided between schools
and systems (even though great claims for opinions are made by their
partisans), it is lawful for competent theologians to use their
own judgment and decide for the side that seems to have the better
arguments in its favor.
11. Reason.--The uses of natural reason in Moral Theology are: (a) it
demonstrates certain preambles to the teachings of Moral Theology, such
as the existence of God, His omniscience and veracity; (b) it
corroborates from philosophy many of the revealed teachings, viz., that
man’s end is not in things finite, that he has duties to God, to
society, to himself, etc.; (e) it affords analogies in the natural
order by which we may illustrate the end and duties of man in the
supernatural order; (d) it supplies the means by which the teachings on
morals may be developed into the conclusions that are contained in
them, by which those teachings may be defended against the fallacious
objections of adversaries, and by which the whole may be arranged
scientifically into a body of doctrine.
12. Moral Theology is served not only by the various branches of
philosophy (such as Ethics, Theodicy, Psychology, Logic), but also by
many of the natural sciences. Thus: (a) Medicine and Physiology are
useful for understanding the morality and imputability of acts; (b)
Sociology and Economics may throw light on problems concerning justice;
(c) Jurisprudence is, of course, closely related to questions
concerning duties that arise from human laws; (d) History confirms the
teachings of Christian morality by the lessons of experience.
13. The Method to Be Followed in Moral Theology.-(a) The positive
method is a simple statement of moral principles and doctrines, with
little attention to argument, except such as is found in the positive
sources (e.g., scripture, tradition, the decisions of the Church).
(b) The Scholastic method is a scientific statement of moral teaching
through accurate definition of terms, systematic coordination of parts,
strict argumentation and defense, attention to controversies, and
recourse to philosophy and other natural knowledge.
(c) The casuistic method, or case-system, is the application of moral
principles to the solution of concrete problems of lawfulness or
unlawfulness.
14. The Scholastic method is the one best suited for the study of Moral
Theology, because it is more scientific, and fits one better to
understand, retain, and apply what one learns. But it is not exclusive
of the other methods, since it perfects the positive method, and is the
groundwork for the case method. Each method has a special suitability
for certain ends. Thus: (a) the positive method is well adapted to
preaching, and hence was much in favor with the Fathers of the Church,
as can be seen from their moral homilies and treatises; (b) the
Scholastic method is the best for study, teaching, apologetic, and was
followed by the great classical works of theology in the Middle Ages
and later; (c) the case method is very helpful to the seminarian and
the priest in the exercise of the ministry of the confessional.
15. The History of Moral Theology.--There are three periods in the
history of Moral Theology: the Patristic, the Medieval, and the Modern.
(a) The Patristic Period (1st to 12th century).--The moral writings of
the-Fathers are popular, exhortatory, and occasional; and it is not
till the Middle Ages that we meet with works of systematic Moral
Theology. The following are among the most notable moral works of the
Fathers: the _Paedagoga_ of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 217), which
explains what the everyday life of the Christian should be; the
_Catecheses_ of St. Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386); the _De Officiis
Ministrorum_ of St. Ambrose (d. 397), a Christian counterpart of
Cicero’s work _De Officiis_; the _De Civitate Dei_ of St. Augustine (d.
430), which contrasts love of God and love of self; the _Expositio in
Job seu Moralium libri XXV_ of St. Gregory the Great (d. 604), which
consists of moral instructions based on the Book of Job.
Celebrated among the ascetical and mystical writings are: the _Ladder
of Paradise_ of St. John Climacus (6th century), the Conferences of
Cassian (about 416), the _Libri V de Consideratione_ of St. Bernard (d.
1153). St. Gregory the Great’s _De Cura Pastorali_ is a systematic work
of pastoral theology, and is regarded as a classic.
(b) The Medieval Period (12th to 16th century).--The method of the
moralists of this period differs from that of the Fathers in that the
former is systematic and philosophical, and more proximately adapted to
the use of confessors. The masterpiece of scientific Moral Theology is
of course found in the _Summa Theologica_ of St. Thomas Aquinas (d.
1274). Works of casuistry were composed by St. Raymond of Pennafort
(about 1235), by John of Freiburg (d. 1314), by John of Asti (about
1317), by Angelus of Chiavasso (about 1476), by Sylvester Prierias (d.
1523). The _Summa Theologica_ of St. Antoninus of Florence (d. 1459)
has been called an inexhaustible storehouse for manuals of casuistry.
Among the ascetical writers are: St. Bonaventure, the Seraphic Doctor
(d. 1274), John Gerson (d. 1429), John Tauler (d. 1361), Bl. Henry Suso
(d. 1366), and Denis the Carthusian (d. 1471).
(c) The Modern Period (16th century to the present).--Characteristic of
this period are the commentaries written on St. Thomas, the
controversies over the systems of conscience, the appearance of
numerous manuals and special treatises, and the attention given to
changed conditions of society and ecclesiastical discipline. Noteworthy
among modern works are: the Commentary on St. Thomas by Cajetan (d.
1534); the writings of Bartholomew de Medina (d. 1581), called the
father of moderate Probabilism; the _De Paenitentia_ of Lugo (d. 1660),
a handbook that combines speculative and casuistical theology; the
_Roman Catechism_, which was issued by the authority of the Council of
Trent in 1566; the _Theologia Moralis_ of St. Alphonsus Liguori (d.
1787), a work whose authority is universally recognized; the celebrated
treatise on the virtues by Lessius (d. 1623); the classic work of
Suarez (d. 1617), _De Religione_; the _Summa Casuum Conscientiae_ of
Toletus (d. 1596); the commentaries of Francis de Victoria (d. 1546),
which are writings of extraordinary merit. More recent works are so
numerous that it is impossible to mention them here.
18. Among the many modern works on Moral Theology which have been
published abroad, not a few are in the vernacular--in German, French,
Italian, Spanish, etc. While they are not intended to replace the Latin
text-books used in seminaries, these are nevertheless a very great help
to a fuller knowledge of the matter treated and to a more ready use of
it in the work of the ministry.
So far there has been a dearth of works on Moral Theology in English;
and it is this want that has occasioned the present work, which aims at
presenting Moral Theology, not only in its essentials, but even more in
detail and with greater fullness than is done by most of the text-books
commonly in use. And yet, while pursuing this larger and more
comprehensive plan, the authors of this new work have tried to be as
brief and compact as possible. It has been their endeavor especially to
avoid digressions into other fields and to sum up pertinent matter in
as clear and simple a manner as the subjects treated will permit.
17. The Division and Order of Parts in Moral Theology.--The arrangement
of his matter made by St. Thomas Aquinas in the _Summa Theologica_ is
admittedly unsurpassed and unsurpassable in the qualities that good
distribution should have, viz., clearness, connection between parts,
completeness. Hence, we cannot do better than follow the order he has
used in his treatment of moral subjects. His general division is as
follows:
(1) The Last End of Man.--From the Last End acts derive their morality,
those being good that advance man towards its attainment, and those
evil that turn him away from its possession. The Last End is
considered; (a) as to its existence; (b) as to its nature (i.e., the
constituents of supreme beatitude).
(2) The General Means Tending to the Last End.--God is approached, not
by the steps of the body, but by the operations of the soul, and thus
it is human acts that lead one to one’s Last End. These acts are
considered: (a) as they are in themselves or absolutely, and according
to the twofold division of acts proper to man (human acts) and acts
common to man and beast (passions); (b) as to the internal principles
from which they proceed, i.e., habits, whether good (virtues) or bad
(vices); (c) as to the external principles by which they are
influenced. The external principle of evil is the demon, who tempts man
to sin. The external principle of good is God, who instructs us by His
law and the voice of conscience, and assists us by His grace.
(3) The Special Means Tending to the Last End.--These are our own good
works; hence, here are considered the virtues incumbent on all classes
of men, i.e., the theological and moral virtues.
18. Some of the topics just mentioned (e.g., divine grace) are
discussed fully in works on Dogmatic Theology, and hence may be omitted
here. Again, since the Last End of man is considered at great length in
dogmatic works on Eschatology, little need be said about it here.
Hence, it will be convenient to divide this work into two parts as
follows: General Moral Theology, in which are treated the more remote
principles on duty, such as the Last End, human acts, good and bad
habits, laws and conscience, grace; (b) Special Moral Theology, in
which are treated the more immediate rules concerning duty, i.e., man’s
obligations as regards the virtues and the Commandments.