FARM SHOP WORK
PROFITABLE HOME REPAIR WORK
Each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind of mechanical repair
work that should be done at home and the kind and amount of repair work
that should go to the shop in town. A great deal depends on the
mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers. However, the poorest
farm mechanic can do "first aid" service to farm implements and
machinery in the nick of time, if he is so disposed. A great many
farmers are helpless in this respect because they want to be helpless.
It is so much easier to let it go than to go right at it with a
determination to fix it, and fix it right.
[Illustration: Figure 69.--Logging Chain. One of the cleverest farm
inventions of any age is the logging chain. It is universally used in
all lumber camps and on every farm. It usually is from 16 to 20 feet in
length, with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook
on the other end that makes fast between any two links.]
[Illustration: Figure 70.--Neckyoke and Whiffletree Irons. Farmers can
make better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made. The
irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by piece.]
[Illustration: Figure 71.--Measuring a Worn Skein for a New Boxing. The
pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is
probably flattened on the bottom from wear.]
On general principles, however, farm repair work should not occupy a
farmer's time to the detriment of growing crops or the proper care of
live-stock. Farming is the business; mechanical work is a side issue. At
the same time, a farmer so inclined can find time during the year to
look over every farm machine, every implement and every hand tool on the
farm. The stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a spade and
rub the surface with an oily cloth, in which some fine emery has been
dusted. The emery will remove the rust and the oil will prevent it from
further rusting. Every laborer knows better than to use a spade or
shovel after a rivet head has given way so the handle is not properly
supported by the plate extensions. There really is no excuse for using
tools or machinery that are out of repair, but the extent to which
a farmer can profitably do his own repairing depends on many
contingencies. In every case he must decide according to circumstances,
always, however, with a desire and determination to run his farm on
business principles.
[Illustration: Figure 72.--Wooden Wagon Axles. Axle timber may be bought
in the rough or partly fitted to the skeins.]
[Illustration: Figure 73.--Showing how to fit the irons on the forward
end of a wagon reach.]
[Illustration: Figure 74.--Wire Splice. With a little practice wire may
be wound close enough to prevent slipping.]
_Home-made Bolts._--The easiest way to make a bolt is to cut a rod of
round iron the proper length and run a thread on each end. On one end
the thread may be just long enough to rivet the head, while the thread
on the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut and to take up
slack. A farmer needs round iron in sizes from one-fourth inch to
five-eighths inch. He will use more three-eighths and one-half inch than
any other sizes. Blank nuts are made in standard sizes to fit any size
of round iron. Have an assortment, in different sizes, of both the
square and the hexagon nuts.
[Illustration: Figure 75.--Emergency Bolts. A bolt may be made quickly
without a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head
and a longer thread on the other end for the nut.]
[Illustration: Figure 76.--Rivets. A stock of soft iron rivets of
different sizes and lengths should be always kept on hand ready for
immediate use.]
To make a bolt in the ordinary way requires welding, but for repair work
in a hurry it is better to select the proper iron and cut it to the
required length either with a cold chisel in the vise, or with a hardy
and a handled cold chisel over an anvil. The quickest way of cutting
that mashes the rod the least is to be preferred. The size of the rod
will determine the manner of cutting in most instances.
[Illustration: Figure 77.--Rivets.]
[Illustration: Figure 78.--Rivet Set. This style of set is used for
small rivets. The size should be selected to fit the rivets closely.
Larger rivets are made to hug the work by means of a flat piece of steel
with a hole through it.]
[Illustration: Figure 79.--Rivet Set.]
[Illustration: Figure 80.--(1) Coulter Clamp. Plow-beam clamps should be
made in the farm shop to fit each plow. (2) Garden Weeder. The quickest
hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel blade that
works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the ground.]
[Illustration: Figure 81.--Stock and Dies. Taps and dies and stocks are
best kept in compartments in a case made for the purpose.]
[Illustration: Figure 82.--Stock for Round Dies. The opening is turned
true and sized accurately to fit. The screw applies pressure to hold the
die by friction.]
[Illustration: Figure 83.--Taps and Dies. Standard threads are tapped
into blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with
accuracy and rapidity by using this style taps and dies. They may be had
in all sizes. The range for farm work should cut from 1/4" to 5/8",
inclusive.]
[Illustration: Figure 84.--Taper Tap for Blacksmith's Use.]
[Illustration: Figure 85.--Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt. The first is
used against iron and the second against wood, but this rule is not
arbitrary. The rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood; the
flat side against washers or heavier iron. Use square head bolts if you
expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on.]
[Illustration: Figure 86.--Plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be
kept in stock. Standard sizes and shapes are made for several different
makes of plows and machines.]
Taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod. If the thread on the
bolt is cut with a solid, or round, plate die, the corresponding tap is
run clear through the nut. In that case the nut will screw on the bolt
easily, possibly a little loose for some purposes. It is so intended by
the manufacturers to give the workman a little leeway. If it is
desirable to have the nut screw on the bolt very tight, then the tap is
stopped before the last thread enters the nut. A little practice soon
qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place the bolt is to
occupy.
[Illustration: Figure 87.--Lag Screw. To set a lag screw in hardwood,
bore a hole the size of the screw shank as calipered between the
threads.]
[Illustration: Figure 88.--(1) Wagon-Box Irons, showing how to attach
the box and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box
to hold it upright. There may be several of these braces on each side of
the wagon box. (2) U Bolt in Cement. A solid staple to be embedded in
concrete for a horse ring, door hinge, cow stanchion, etc.]
Generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug on parts of
machines that shake a good deal, and this applies to almost all farm
machinery and implements.
[Illustration: Figure 89.--Wagon-Box Brace. It is offset to hold the
rave and to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and
sometimes in the middle of light wagon beds.]
[Illustration: Figure 90.--Two Plow Clevises and a Plow Link.]
Ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily along like a
cart, but the ground is rough and in practical use the nuts loosen
almost as soon as haying commences.
Some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends to prevent nuts from
working loose. When the bolts have square heads, this practice is not
objectionable, because with two wrenches a nut can be twisted off over
the riveting, but a great many bolts have round heads and very short,
square shanks. Theoretically, the shanks are driven into the wood firm
enough to prevent the bolts from turning. Practically this theory is a
delusion and a snare, as every farm boy can testify.
Bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm blacksmith shop.
They can be made by machinery cheaper, but so many times a bolt is
needed on short notice that the farm shop should have the necessary
tools and materials to supply the need quickly.
_Forging Iron and Steel._--Iron and steel are composed of the same
properties, but differ chemically. Steel also is finer grained than iron
and it requires different treatment. Iron should be forged at a
light-red or white heat. If forged at a dark-red heat the iron generally
will granulate or crack open and weaken the metal. For a smooth finish
the last forging may be done at a dark-red heat, but the hammer must be
used lightly. The weight of the hammer as well as the blows also must
differ with the different size of iron under heat. Small sizes should be
treated with hammer blows that are rather light, while for large sizes
the blows should be correspondingly heavy. If light blows be given with
a light hammer in forging heavy iron the outside alone will be affected,
thus causing uneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron.
Steel should never be heated above a yellow heat. If heated to a white
heat the steel will be burned. Steel should never be forged at a
dark-red heat. If this is done it will cause considerable strain between
the inner and outer portions, which may cause it to crack while forging.
The weight of the hammer and the hammer blows in forging of steel is
vastly of more importance than in forging iron. If the blow or the
hammer is not heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thickness
of the steel it will probably crack in the process of hardening or
tempering. If steel be properly forged it will harden easily and
naturally, but if improperly forged the tempering will be very
difficult--probably a failure. The quality of a finished tool depends
greatly upon the correct heat and proper method used in forging and
hardening it.
_Making Steel Tools._--Steel for tools should first be annealed to even
the density and prevent warping. This is done by heating it to a dull
cherry red in a slow fire. A charcoal fire for this purpose is best
because it contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities. After
heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly as possible it should
be buried several inches deep in powdered charcoal and left to cool.
This completes the annealing process. While working steel into proper
shape for tools, great care is required to prevent burning. It should be
worked quickly and the process repeated as often as necessary. Practice
is the only recipe for speed.
When the tool is shaped as well as possible on the anvil it is then
finished with a file by clamping the new tool in the vise, using single
cut files. Bastard files are too rough for tool steel. After the tool is
shaped by cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is sometimes
polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around the file. Oil is used with
emery cloth to give the steel a luster finish. Tempering is the last
process in the making of such tools as cold chisels, drills, dies,
punches, scratchawls, etc.
_Tempering Steel Tools._--Good judgment is required to get the right
temper. Good eyesight is needed to catch the color at the exact instant,
and quick action to plunge it into the water before it cools too much.
Dies are made very hard. The color of the steel at dipping time should
be a bright straw color. Cold chisels will break when being used if
tempered too hard. If cold chisels are to be used for cutting iron, the
color should be violet; if the chisels are for cutting stone, purple is
the color. Drills for boring iron are tempered a dark straw color at the
cutting edge merging back into blue. The water in the dipping tub should
be warm, as steel is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in
cold water.
[Illustration: Figure 91.--Blacksmith Hammers. Some smiths use a heavy
machinist's hammer. But the flat peen is more useful when working around
the anvil and the leg vise.]
Tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position when it enters the
water to cool all sides alike. Otherwise the new tool might warp. It is
better to dip slowly, sometimes holding the point, or cutting edge, in
the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly enough to remain
soft. Some sizes of steel may be tempered too hard at first and the
temper immediately drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow
down almost to the edge, then dip. This is done quickly while watching
the colors as they move towards the point or edge.
_Draw-filing._--Making six-sided and eight-sided punches and scratchawls
out of hexagon and octagon tool steel is interesting work. The steel is
cut to length by filing a crease all around with a three-cornered file.
When it is sufficiently notched, the steel will break straight across.
To shape the tool and to draw out the point the steel is heated in the
forge to a dull cherry red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape
along the taper. Special attention must be given to the numerous
corners. A scratchawl or small punch, must be heated many times and
hammered quickly before cooling. An old English shop adage reads: "Only
one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that was for pounding cold
iron."
After the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the anvil, it is
fastened in the vise and finished by cross-filing and draw-filing.
Copper caps on the vise jaws will prevent indentations.
[Illustration: Figure 92.--Vise Jaw Guards. Soft auxiliary vise jaws are
made of sheet copper or galvanized iron.]
[Illustration: Figure 93.--Roll Filing. To file a piece of steel round
it is rolled by one hand while the file is used by the other hand.]
Draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and moving it back and
forth sidewise along the work. For this purpose single-cut files are
used. The smoothing is done with a very fine single-cut file, or if very
particular, a float file is used. Then the polish is rubbed on with fine
emery cloth and oil. The emery cloth is wrapped around the file and the
same motion is continued. With some little practice a very creditable
piece of work may be turned out. Such work is valuable because of the
instruction. A good test of skill at blacksmithing is making an octagon
punch that tapers true to the eye when finished.
_Set-Screws._--It is customary to fasten a good many gear wheels, cranks
and pulleys to machinery shafts by set-screws. There are two kinds of
set-screws; one has a cone point, the other a cup end. Both screws are
hardened to sink into the shaft. A cup is supposed to cut a ring and the
point is supposed to sink into the shaft to make a small hole sufficient
to keep the wheel from slipping. However, unless the cone-pointed screw
is countersunk into the shaft, it will not hold much of a strain. The
point is so small it will slip and cut a groove around the shaft. To
prevent this, the set-screw may be countersunk by first marking the
shaft with an indentation of the point of the screw. Then the wheel or
crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled into the shaft with a
twist-drill the same size, or a sixty-fourth smaller, than the
set-screw. Then by forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole,
the wheel is held solid.
[Illustration: Figure 94.--Machine-Bolt and Set-Screw. The bolt to the
left is used to clamp cylinder heads in place. The set-screw to the
right is the cup variety. The end is countersunk to form a cup with a
sharp rim.]
The principal objection to set-screws is that they are dangerous. The
heads always project and are ready to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft
is revolving. In all cases, set-screws should be as large as the hub
will allow, and it is better to have them protected so it is impossible
to catch anything to wind around the shaft. Cup set-screws are not
satisfactory except for very light work. If necessary to use them, the
ends may be firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp, diamond-point
cold chisel.
_Setting the Handsaw._--Nine teeth to the inch is the most satisfactory
handsaw for all kinds of lumber. Setting the teeth of this kind of saw
is best done with a hand lever set. The plunger pin should be carefully
adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give the necessary set.
For general work a saw needs more set than is needed for kiln-dried
stuff. The teeth should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade.
Anything more is a waste of time and muscle. It is better to work from
both sides of the saw by first setting one side the whole length of the
blade. Then reverse the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth in
the same manner. There should be a good solid stop between the handles
of the set to insure equal pressure against each sawtooth. The pin
should be carefully placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot
every time and the pressure should be the same for each tooth.
The best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic so far as it is
possible to make them so, but the skill of the operator determines the
quality of the work. The reason for setting a saw before jointing is to
leave the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade after the
jointing and filing is completed.
_Jointing a Handsaw._--After the saw has been set it must be jointed to
square the teeth and to even them to equal length, and to keep the saw
straight on the cutting edge. Some woodworkers give their saws a slight
camber, or belly, to correspond with the sway-back. The camber
facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre-box work without sawing into
the bed piece of the box. It also throws the greatest weight of the
thrust upon the middle teeth. A saw with even teeth cuts smoother, runs
truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess. It is easy to file a
saw when all of the teeth are the same length and all have the same set.
Anyone can do a good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin
with, but no one can put a saw in good working order with a
three-cornered file as his only tool.
[Illustration: Figure 95.--Saw Jointer. The wooden block is about two
inches square by 12" or 14" in length. The block is made true and
scribed carefully to have the ripsaw slot square, straight and true. The
file is set into a mortise square with the block.]
_Filing the Handsaw._--First comes the three-cornered file. It should be
just large enough to do the work. There is no economy in buying larger
files thinking that each of the three corners will answer the same
purpose as a whole file of smaller size. In the first place the small
file is better controlled and will do better work. In the second place
the three corners are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions
between the teeth. There is much more wear on the corners than on the
sides of a saw-file. Also the corners of a small file are more acute,
which means a good deal in the shape of the finished teeth.
After the saw is carefully set and jointed, clamp it in the saw vise and
file one side of the saw from heel to point. Then reverse the saw in the
saw clamp and file the other side, being careful to keep the bevel of
each tooth the same. It is better to stop filing just before the tooth
comes to a point. A triangular or diamond shaped point will cut faster
and leave a smoother saw kerf and last longer than a needle point.
As the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both edges, it is
necessary to make allowances when filing the first side, otherwise some
of the teeth will come to a sharp point before the gumming is deep
enough.
_Using a Handsaw._--Anyone can saw a board square both up and down and
crossways by following a few simple rules. Have the board supported on
the level by two well made saw-benches 24" high. Stand up straight as
possible and look down on both sides of the saw blade. Use long even
strokes and let the saw play lightly and evenly through the saw cut.
Do not cut the mark out; cut to it on the waste end, or further end, if
there are more pieces to be cut from the board. The saw kerf is about
3/32" wide for a nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension
stuff. If both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and none from the next
then one length will be 3/16" shorter than the other.
For practice it is a good plan to make two marks 3/32" apart and cut
between them. Use a sharp-pointed scratchawl to make the marks. A
penknife blade is next best, but it must be held flat against the blade
of the square, otherwise it will crowd in or run off at a tangent.
_Setting a Circular Saw._--A good saw-set for a circular saw may be made
out of an old worn-out flat file. Heat the file in the forge fire to
draw the temper and anneal it by covering it with ashes. Smooth it on
the grindstone. Put it in the vise and file a notch in one edge. The
notch should be just wide enough to fit loosely over the point of a
sawtooth. The notch should be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter
of the length of the tooth.
Make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or steel one inch wide
and about four inches long. File a notch into and parallel to one edge
at one corner, about one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and
about half an inch long measuring from the end. With the home-made
saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the points just miss the iron
gauge in the corner notch. The edges of the gauge should be straight and
parallel and the notch should be parallel with the edge. In use the edge
of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw so the projecting tooth
reaches into the notch. One-sixteenth of an inch may be too much set for
a small saw but it won't be too much for a 24-inch wood saw working in
green cord wood.
_Jointing a Circular Saw._--Run the saw at full speed. Lay a 14-inch
file flat on the top of the saw table at right angles to the saw. Move
the file slowly and carefully towards the saw until it ticks against the
teeth. Hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth ticks
lightly against the file. A saw in good working order needs very little
jointing, but it should have attention every time the saw is set and it
should be done after setting and before filing.
_Filing a Circular Saw._--The teeth of a crosscut circular saw point a
little ahead. Sometimes they point so nearly straight out from the
center that you have to look twice to determine which way the saw should
run. There are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth, but they are
subject to many qualifications. What interests a farmer is a saw that
will cut green poles and crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least
possible delay. A saw 20 inches in diameter will cut a stick eight
inches through without turning it to finish the cut. The front or
cutting edges of the teeth of a 24-inch crosscut circular saw for wood
sawing should line to a point a little back from the center. This may
not sound definite enough for best results, so the more particular
farmers may use a straight edge. Select a straight stick about half an
inch square. Rest it on top of or against the back of the saw mandrel
and shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the upper side
or rear side of the straight edge. The teeth will stand at the proper
pitch when the saw is new, if it was designed for sawing green wood. If
it works right before being filed, then the width of the straight edge
may be made to conform to the original pitch and kept for future use.
The gumming is done with the edge of the file while filing the front
edges of the teeth. It is finished with the flat side of the file while
filing the rear edges of the teeth. The depth, or length, of the teeth
should be kept the same as the manufacturer designed them. A wood saw
works best when the front edges of the teeth have but little bevel. The
back edges should have more slant. The teeth should have three-cornered
or diamond-shaped points. Needle points break off when they come against
knots or cross-grained hardwood. Short teeth do no cutting. Single cut
flat files are used for circular saws. The file should fit the saw. It
should be about 1/8" wider than the length of the front side of the
teeth. The back edges require that the file shall have some play to show
part of the tooth while the file is in motion. Large files are clumsy.
The file should be carefully selected.
[Illustration: Figure 96.--How to Sharpen a Hoe. Grinding a hoe is
difficult, but filing it sharp and straight at the cutting edge is easy.
If the hoe chatters when held in the vise, spring a wooden block under
the blade. Use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank.]
_How to Sharpen a Hoe._--It is quicker and more satisfactory to file a
hoe sharp than to grind it on the grindstone. The shank of the hoe must
be held firmly in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood
under the blade of the hoe, a little back from the edge; to keep the
file from chattering. A single cut flat file is the best to use. It
should be long enough to be easily held in one position to make a
smooth, even bevel at the same angle to the face of the blade all the
way across. To make sure not to file a feather edge it is better to
joint the hoe to begin with, then to stop filing just before reaching
the edge. If the edge be left 1/64" thick it will wear longer and work
more easily after having been used an hour or two than it will if the
edge be filed thin. This is especially noticeable when the ground
contains small stones. Hoes are sharpened from the under side only. The
inside of a hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge. Hoes should
always have sharp corners. When working around valuable plants you want
to know exactly where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried
out of sight in the ground.
_Shoeing Farm Horses._--Farmers have no time or inclination to make a
business of shoeing horses, but there are occasions when it is necessary
to pull a shoe or set a shoe and to do it quickly. Shoeing tools are not
numerous or expensive. They consist first of a tool box, with a stiff
iron handle made in the shape of a bale. The box contains a shoeing
hammer, hoof rasp, hoof knife, or paring-knife, as it is usually called,
and two sizes of horseshoe-nails. Sometimes a foot pedestal is used to
set the horse's front foot on when the horse wants to bear down too
hard, but this pedestal is not necessary in the farm shop.
There are flat-footed horses that cannot work even in summer without
shoes. Common sense and shoeing tools are the only requirements
necessary to tack on a plate without calks. Shoes to fit any foot may be
purchased at so much a pound.
A paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the hoof so that it will
have an even bearing on the shoe all the way round. It is not desirable
to pare the frog or the braces in the bottom of a horse's foot. If the
foot is well cupped, a little of the horny rim may be taken off near the
edges. Generally it is necessary to shorten the toe. This is done partly
with the hoof chisel and rasp after the shoe is nailed fast. Sometimes
one-fourth of an inch is sufficient; at other times a horse's hoof is
very much improved by taking off one-half inch or more of the toe growth
either from the bottom or the front or both.
Like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a horse's foot should be
studied and planned before starting. A long toe is a bad leverage to
overcome when pulling a heavy load. At the same time, nature intended
that a horse should have considerable toe length as a protection to the
more tender parts of the foot. And the pastern bone should play at the
proper angle.
[Illustration: Figure 97.--Tool Box for Field Use. The long open side is
for tools. On the other side of the center partition bolts, keys,
screws, nails, bits of wire, leather, tin, etc., are kept in the
different divisions.]
_Handy Tool Box._--A tool box with a high lengthwise partition in the
middle and a handle in the middle of the top of the partition is the
handiest tool box ever used on a farm. At haying and harvest time it
should be fitted with the common tools required about haying and harvest
machinery. One side is partitioned into square boxes to hold split wire
keys, washers, bolts, rivets, and a collection of wire nails, bits of
copper wire, a leather punch, etc. On the other side of the box is an
assortment of wrenches, cold chisels, punches, pliers and hammers. This
tool box belongs in the wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field.
[Illustration: Figure 98.--Melting Ladle. Babbitting shaft boxing
requires a melting ladle. It should be about five inches across the bowl
and about three inches deep. That is a good size to heat in a forge
fire.]
_Babbitting Boxings._--Babbitting boxings is one of the repair jobs on
the farm. Some men are careless about oiling; sometimes sand cuts them
out. Every year some boxings need rebabbitting. The melting ladle should
be large enough to pour the largest box. Usually a 5-inch bowl is about
right. A large ladle will pour a small box but a small ladle won't pour
a large one. In cold weather the shaft and box should be warmed to
insure an even flow of metal. Pasteboard is fitted against the shaft
when pouring the cap or top half of the box. Pasteboard is fitted around
the shaft at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from running
out. Never use clay or putty, it is too mussy and the babbitt is made
rough and uneven at the edges. Some skill is required to fit either wood
or metal close enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job.
If the boxing is small, both top and bottom may be poured at once by
making holes through the dividing pasteboard. The holes must be large
enough to let the melted metal through and small enough to break apart
easily when cold.