OLD HOUSES IN HOLLAND
TEXT AND ILLUSTRATIONS
BY SYDNEY R. JONES, WITH
SOME ADDITIONAL PLATES IN
COLOUR AFTER OTHER ARTISTS
Edited by Charles Holme.
MCMXIII
"THE STUDIO" LTD.
LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK
PREFATORY NOTE
The Editor desires to express his indebtedness to the following, who
have rendered valuable assistance in the preparation of this volume:
Mr. A. Pit, Director of the Nederlandsch Museum voor Geschiedenis
en Kunst, and other officials of the Rijks Museum, Amsterdam;
Messrs. P. C. J. A. Boeles and D. Draaisma, of the Friesch Museum,
Leeuwarden; Dr. B. van Rijswijk, Secretary of the Vereeniging
Oud-Dordrecht; Mr. W. Polman Kruseman, Secretary of the Zeeuwsch
Genootschap der Wetenschappen, Middelburg; and the Directors of the
British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the National Gallery,
and the Wallace Collection, London.
ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR
After--
Pieter de Hooch "Interior of a Dutch House"
Frontispiece
,, ,, ,, "Interior with Woman peeling Apples" Opposite page 16
,, ,, ,, "Dutch Interior" ,, ,, 44
Johannes Vermeer "The Letter" ,, ,, 66
Catherine Bisschop-Swift "The Mirror" ,, ,, 80
Sydney R. Jones "Nijmegen, Gelderland" ,, ,, 98
Baron J. A. Hendrik Leys "Seventeenth-Century Dutch
Interior" ,, ,, 130
Sydney R. Jones "Hindeloopen Room at the Frisian
Museum, Leeuwarden" ,, ,, 140
Enamelled Earthenware Tiles (early 18th century)
Opposite pages 136 & 138
Delft Dishes (18th century) ,, ,, 144 & 146
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introduction 1
Illustrations:--
Breda, North Brabant 5
Monnikendam, North Holland 7
Veere, Zeeland 9
Nijmegen, Gelderland (dated 1544) 11
Dordrecht, South Holland 13
Leiden, Rhijnland (dated 1612) 15
Haarlem, North Holland 17
Brigdamme, Zeeland 18
I.--The Development of Domestic Architecture 19
Illustrations:--
Groningen (1509) 21
Boxmeer, North Brabant 22
Gorinchem (Gorcum), South Holland 23
Breda, North Brabant 24
Middelburg, Zeeland 25
Franeker, Friesland 26
Dordrecht, South Holland 27
Dordrecht (dated 1702) 28
Haarlem, North Holland 29
Spaarwoude, North Holland 30
St. Laurens, near Middelburg, Zeeland 31
Haarlem, North Holland 32
Alkmaar, North Holland (dated 1609) 33
Hoorn, North Holland (dated 1612) 34
Middelburg, Zeeland 35
Hoorn, North Holland 36
,, ,, ,, 37
Woudrichem, North Brabant 38
Leiden, Rhijnland 39
Middelburg, Zeeland 40
Nijmegen, Gelderland (dated 1606) 41
Zutphen, Gelderland 42
,, ,, (dated 1547) 43
Veere, Zeeland 44
Haarlem, North Holland 45
Delft, South Holland 46
Haarlem, North Holland (dated 1637) 47
Alkmaar, North Holland (dated 1673) 48
Franeker, Friesland (dated 1634) 49
Corbel from Dordrecht 50
Mosaic brick and stonework from Dordrecht 50
Dordrecht, South Holland (dated 1608) 51
Workum, Friesland (dated 1663) 52
Arnhem, Gelderland (dated 1642) 53
Amsterdam--Rembrandt's House (dated 1606) 54
Zwolle, Overijssel--The Guild Hall (dated 1571) 55
Vlissingen (Flushing), Zeeland (dated 1614) 56
Dordrecht, South Holland (dated 1626) 57
Kampen, Overijssel (dated 1631) 58
,, ,, (dated on dormers 1634, 1626, 1730, 1630
and 1619) 59
Groningen--The "Goudkantoor" (dated 1635) 60
Groningen (1661) 61
Franeker, Friesland (dated 1662) 62
's Hertogenbosch, North Brabant (dated 1671) 63
Iron Wall-tie from Alkmaar 64
Alkmaar, North Holland (dated 1672) 65
's Gravenhage (The Hague), South Holland--"T'Goutsmits Keur
Huijs" 66
Velsen, North Holland 67
Spaarwoude, North Holland 68
Zutphen, Gelderland 69
Halfweg, North Holland 70
,, ,, ,, --showing construction of farmhouse 70
Spaarndam, North Holland 71
Schooten, North Holland 72
The Ferry House, near Gennep, North Brabant 73
Beek, Gelderland 74
Brigdamme, Zeeland (dated 1622) 75
Beek, Gelderland 76
Bloemendaal, North Holland 77
Broek, North Holland 78
,, ,, ,, 79
Well at Beugen, North Brabant 80
Beek, Gelderland 81
Bridge at Zuiderwoude, North Holland (dated 1799) 82
II.--Exterior Features--Doors, Windows, Gables and Ornaments 83
Illustrations:--
Woudrichem, North Brabant (dated 1611) 85
Leeuwarden, Friesland 86
Delft, South Holland 87
,, ,, ,, (dated 1547) 88
Haarlem, North Holland (dated 1632) 89
Leeuwarden, Friesland (dated 1675) 89
Leiden, Rhijnland (dated 1612) 89
,, ,, (dated 1615) 90
Vlissingen (Flushing), Zeeland 91
Marssum, Friesland (dated 1713) 92
Kampen, Overijssel (dated 1665) 93
Arnhem, Gelderland 94
Wooden Door, with iron fittings, from Dordrecht 95
,, ,, with carved lintel, from Haarlem 95
Leiden, Rhijnland (dated 1655) 96
Veere, Zeeland--The "Scotch House" 97
Wooden Window-frame, with iron fittings and lead glazing, from
Dordrecht 98
Window Shutter from Velsen 98
,, ,, ,, Nijmegen 99
,, ,, ,, Leiden 99
,, ,, ,, Dordrecht 99
,, ,, ,, Haarlem 100
,, ,, ,, Monnikendam 100
Zwolle, Overijssel 101
Kampen, Overijssel (dated 1626) 102
,, ,, (dated 1634) 102
Marssum, Friesland 102
Gorinchem (Gorcum), South Holland (dated 1566) 103
Kampen, Overijssel 104
Vlissingen (Flushing), Zeeland 105
Monnikendam, North Holland 106
Haarlem, North Holland 106
Dordrecht, South Holland (dated 1523) 107
Arnhem, Gelderland 108
Haarlem, North Holland 109
Leiden, Rhijnland 109
Amsterdam, North Holland 110
Wood details from Gelderland and South Holland 111
Zutphen, Gelderland 112
Hoorn, North Holland 112
Franeker, Friesland (curved gables dated 1573) 113
Carved stone lettering from Haarlem 114
,, ,, panel from Franeker 114
,, ,, ,, ,, Zutphen (dated 1615) 115
,, ,, ,, ,, Sneek 115
,, ,, ,, ,, Haarlem 115
,, ,, ,, ,, Workum 115
,, ,, ,, ,, Middelburg (house dated 1590) 116
,, ,, ,, ,, Haarlem 116
Woudrichem, North Brabant 117
Brick and Stone Mosaic from Zwolle 118
,, ,, ,, ,, Nijmegen 118
,, ,, ,, ,, Woudrichem 118
Zwolle, Overijssel (dated 1609) 119
Detail of Diaper-work from Franeker 120
Workum, Friesland 120
Iron Wall-ties 121
,, Date-sign from St. Anna, near Nijmegen 122
,, Wall-tie from Nijmegen 122
,, Weather-vane from Broek 122
,, Terminal from Middelburg 122
Lead Spout-heads from Zutphen 122
Oval Window with Stanchion-bar, from Leiden 122
Iron Wall-tie from Beugen 122
,, Door-furniture from Middelburg 123
,, Door-knocker 123
,, Weather-vane from Hees 124
Lead Finials from Hoorn 124
III.--Interiors and Decoration 125
Illustrations:--
Brass Candelabrum from Haarlem 127
Seventeenth-century Room from Dordrecht, South Holland 128
,, ,, ,, Leeuwarden, Friesland 129
Fireplace in the Bricklayers' Guild, Amsterdam 130
,, from Maastricht, Limburg (dated 1510) 131
Cast-iron Fireback from Leiden 132
Cast-iron Fireback from Nijmegen 132
Fireplace from Middelburg, Zeeland 133
Cast-iron Fireback from Middelburg 134
,, ,, ,, Jisp 134
Fireplace from The Westerwold, Groningen 135
Interior of a wooden house at Marken, North Holland 136
Brass Chimney-crane from Leeuwarden 136
Hindeloopen Room at the Frisian Museum, Leeuwarden 137
Carved Oak Panel from Zwolle (16th century) 138
Iron Hangers, Fire-irons and Fire-standard 139
Oak Panelling from Leiden 140
Hindeloopen Room at the Frisian Museum, Leeuwarden 141
Carved Door from Groningen (17th century) 142
Iron Lock-plate (16th century) 143
,, ,, (dated 1587) 143
,, Lock and Bolt 143
,, Door-handle and Escutcheon 143
Carved Door of Wall-cupboard, with pierced and engraved iron
fittings 143
Wall-cupboard with iron lock and hinges (16th century) 144
Carved Table from Edam 145
,, Cabinet from Haarlem 145
Table from Amsterdam 146
Wrought-iron Stair-Railing from Zierikzee 146
Brass Warming-pan (dated 1602) 147
Wickerwork Coffer with brass mounts (18th century) 147
Brass Fire-side set (18th century) 147
,, Candlestick ( ,, ,, ) 148
,, Tea-caddy ( ,, ,, ) 148
,, Pastille-burner 148
,, Foot-warmer (dated 1733) 148
,, Lantern (18th century) 148
Corridor in "St. Pietershofje," Hoorn, North Holland 149
Tiled Fireplace from Volendam, North Holland 150
,, ,, ,, Marken, North Holland 151
Interior of a wooden house at Marken, North Holland 152
INTRODUCTION
It is in the old towns of Holland that the architectural expression
of the Dutch people is to be sought. Theirs was an intimate and human
architecture, concerned with everyday events, and it developed out of
the civil and domestic life. Many of the towns continue to be busy
and prosperous, and new buildings here and there crowd in upon the
picturesque groups of houses that for centuries have clustered round
the great churches and market-places: in others, the active days of
commerce are over, the merchants come no more, and the streets and
waterways are quiet. But all Dutch towns having any pretension to
age possess, to a wonderful degree, what may be termed an old-world
atmosphere. Much of their charm, it is true, is due to the rivers and
canals that encircle and intersect them in all directions, imparting
a sense of quaintness and novelty; but it is the extraordinary number
of old buildings still existing, unchanged in form since the days
when they were erected and mellowed by ages of sun and rain, that ever
appeal to the eye and imagination. The fantastic gables and red roofs,
above which rise slender spires and belfries surmounted by leaden
flèches and wrought vanes, together with the waterways and canal life,
the windmills, and changing skies, are as characteristic now as when
the masters of the great Dutch School of painting were living and
working. Such scenes were to them inspiration; to picture the intimate
events associated was their delight. If the painters have gone--and
with them the arquebusiers and governors and burgomasters--the gables,
the sunlit courts, and many other familiar features remain.
The peculiar geographical conditions that have always existed in
Holland have affected in no small degree the development of the land
and the temperament of the people. Most of the country is below sea
level. Behind the dunes and dykes the sea threatens inundation; the
fear of accident by flood has kept the nation watchful and in perpetual
war with its ancient enemy. The influence of this natural check has
been far-reaching. It has produced the system of canals, determined
the character of the landscape, made accordant life and work, method,
regularity and order, and brought philosophy and fortitude to the
national mind. In the domain of building, as in other spheres, water
has been a powerful underlying agent affecting the evolution of style,
just as the mountains, forests and deserts of other countries have
imparted distinction to architecture.
Side by side with the external conditions imposed by Nature, conditions
that, if accepted, might well be expected to have produced an attitude
of extreme lack of initiative in those living amongst them, the Dutch
have ever been an enterprising people. The same spirit that defied
and conquered the inroads of the sea characterised their dealings
in the domain of commerce. Trade was to them the great business of
life. From very early times, and continuing for a long period, the
prosperity of the Low Countries was foremost in Europe. The towns
became centres of busy and pulsative life, the homes of virile civil
and domestic communities. Many old buildings still existing, town
halls, weigh houses, trade and guild halls, warehouses and merchants'
premises, bear witness to those strenuous days. An architecture in
close touch with the events of the times developed through, and by
reason of the successes achieved by industry and sustained advances
of conquest and colonization.
The phase of domestic art which is reviewed in this volume was
essentially the expression of a nation urgently concerned with the
material, matter-of-fact side of everyday life, and bore close kindred
to its needs, its aspirations and its achievements; it was corporeal
rather than spiritual in aspect, reflective of the market-place, the
fireside and the home. And while the continuous building tradition
of certain other countries was allied to ecclesiasticism, or was a
movement instigated by the aristocracy, in Holland it was democratic
in general trend, an art bound up in the interests of the people and
existing for their good and welfare. It was urban rather than rural in
its principles. Unlike the English growth, where the native building
art developed vigorously and lingered longest in the countryside--as
many an old village, manor-house or farm will demonstrate--the
equivalent vernacular Dutch development was pre-eminently of the
towns, and trade was the influence that gave it life. In a country
notable for its manufactures and commercial activities men congregated
together for mutual gain. A sturdy race they were, unimpressionable,
but kindly and charitable, and their comfortable homes were in keeping
with their temperament.
To better appreciate the course of architectural development,
it will be well to briefly cite the main circumstances connected
with these towns and with the country's history. Records of Dutch
towns prior to the twelfth century are scanty, although at that time
orderly government had begun to develop. Then followed the municipal
charters, many dating from the thirteenth century. These charters
were granted by the feudal lords to the townspeople and secured to
them certain rights and protection in return for taxation and levies;
justice was administered by various governing bodies and magistrates,
and the municipal finances were properly supervised. There thus
grew up a strong communal movement which was steadily developed
and strengthened. Then it was that the cities began their era
of great prosperity and each became practically self-governing
and semi-independent. Revenue was derived from the river commerce
and markets, over-sea trading, and from the industries which were
fostered. So powerful did they become, so energetic was their municipal
life, so well organised their trade, that these cities came to be
reckoned, together with the neighbouring towns of Flanders, the most
prosperous and wealthy in the world. As time went on the chief cities
became members of the Hanseatic League, which influential association
embraced trading colonies in places as far apart as London, Visby on
the island of Gotland, Novgorod the Great in Russia, Hamburg, Amsterdam
and Kampen on the Zuider Zee. Through the impetus of this remarkable
movement, the long-continued commercial relations between England and
Holland were established. About the middle of the thirteenth century
Hanse merchants settled in London, obtained privileges from Henry III.,
founded the Steelyard, and there developed a flourishing trade. The
intercourse between the two countries was very considerable, and it
was of the utmost importance to the Netherlands that nothing should
happen to weaken their good relations with England. For England
was then the principal wool-producing country of Europe, the only
place, in fact, able to supply it in large quantities, and the men
of the Low Countries, famed above all for their skill as weavers
and depending upon the woollen industry for their greatest wealth,
were eager buyers of English wool in the raw state. In the fifteenth
century, through dissension and war, the cities of Holland were ejected
from the Hanseatic League; but the Dutch, with their fine ships and
business acumen, continued to prosper and carried their conquests by
trade into far-distant lands.
It was while at the height of their material success that the provinces
of Holland came under the dominion of the house of Burgundy. The
peculiar independent constitution of the cities promoted rivalry
between them, rather than a common national interest which would
have been best for the preservation of their just rights. They were
heavily taxed and oppressed and were continually at variance with the
ruling power, fighting for the redress of their grievances. By the
first half of the sixteenth century the kingdom of the Netherlands
had passed to the Emperor Charles V., King of Spain, and Philip,
his son, inherited his father's throne. He thereby became monarch
of vast territories. Philip determined to utterly subjugate the
provinces and carried out a policy of relentless persecution. The
people rebelled, brutal punishment followed, and they became victims of
the worst excesses of the Inquisition. Deeds of cruelty, tyranny and
murder, almost unparalleled in history, were enacted. In those dark
days arose that great champion of the people, "William the Silent,"
Prince of Orange, the "father of his fatherland." Intent on defending
the liberties of the nation, he gathered around him a company of
gallant spirits, and, principally at his own expense, commenced what
at first appeared to be a hopeless struggle. But early victories,
hardly won, roused a cowed populace to action. The nation embarked
upon the memorable Eighty Years' War, which resulted in the Spanish
yoke being overthrown and the founding of the Dutch Republic. William
was basely assassinated at Delft in 1584, and Maurice, his second
son, succeeded him as Stadtholder. He was ambitious, shrewd, and
skilled in the arts of war, and under his rule, and that of his
brother Frederick Henry, who succeeded him in 1625, the fortunes of
the Dutch gradually rose high. Through times of trial and suffering,
hardships endured and conquests won, they emerged valorous and strong,
a nation of heroes. Triumphs of arms by land and sea, successes of
the merchant fleets and navigators who explored remote parts of the
world, the founding of colonies, and ingenuity on the part of the
workers in home manufactures, characterised a notable period of great
prosperity; the Dutch became supreme in trade, chief rulers of the
sea, and accumulated vast wealth. As the seventeenth century advanced
commercial welfare continued to increase. Admirals Tromp and De Ruyter
swept the seas, gaining brilliant naval victories; in 1667 the safety
of London itself was threatened by the appearance of the Dutch fleet
in the Thames. But the mastery of the sea eventually passed to England
and from that time the fortunes of the Dutch declined. The election
of William III.--who had married Princess Mary, daughter of the Duke
of York--to the English throne in 1689 marked the close of Holland's
greatest days.
Early Dutch secular architecture is in the spirit of the late
Gothic style. The most valuable monuments of that period are the
civic buildings which herald a time when public life--as opposed to
ecclesiastical--assumed an importance and dignity capable of being
symbolized in brick and stone; when power acquired by trade found
expression in its own distinctive forms, and the wealthy burghers of
the towns erected municipal buildings which stand for all time as the
embodiment of their ideals. Such is the Town Hall at Middelburg by
Ant. Keldermans the Younger, one of that famous family of architects
of Malines. It is a stone erection of fine proportions, enriched with a
wealth of detail, sculptured figures, sunk panelling and many turrets;
tiers of dormers break up the roof surface and the whole is surmounted
by a noble and boldly conceived tower. At Veere, not far distant,
is a smaller example (opposite) built in 1474 by another member of
the Keldermans family. While owning some similarity to its fellow
at Middelburg, the treatment is simpler, but the proportions are
exquisite, and the peculiar grace of the belfry is outstanding. The
characteristic richness of surface decoration which was then common
may also be seen on the sandstone façade of the "Gemeenlandshuis"
at Delft, with its elaborate traceries and parapet belonging to the
early sixteenth century. The aforementioned are stone buildings
and betray the influence of French Gothic, but the especially
individual Netherlandish interpretation of Gothic was developed in
the brick architecture. Brickwork was much employed and the nature
of the material--not so responsive as stone in the hands of the
craftsmen--limited the possibilities of ornamental treatment. Detail
had to be simplified and adapted to the means available for carrying
it out; the example from Nijmegen (p. 11), dated 1544, furnishes an
instance of how it was handled. It is in this early brickwork that the
germs of the Dutch transitional Renaissance style are to be traced;
its root principles were derived not only from the public buildings,
but from the churches also--vast piles whose bold masses and ornaments
were logically developed out of the material, and whose millions of
little bricks, jointed together, stand as impressive memorials of
patient labour.
Mediæval domestic work followed in the wake of the civic. Not many
examples remain. Of those that have survived most belong to the late
fifteenth or the first half of the sixteenth century. The current
forms of the period were employed--panelling and projecting surface
decoration, more often in brickwork than stone; arched window-heads
ornamented with tracery; circular brick turrets surmounted by conical
roofs; stepped gables having pinnacles rising from the copings;
steep roofs pierced by dormers; and the somewhat florid, rich, but
carefully wrought detail.
In contrast to the scarcity of Gothic domestic buildings, those
of the Transitional period--from Gothic to Renaissance--are very
numerous. Many examples are to be found in the old towns where rows
of houses, much out of the perpendicular, rise from the canalsides
and paved roadways. They are narrow and very high and are surmounted
by gables which are often of fantastic shape and curious outline,
picturesque from the draughtsman's point of view and full of subject
for the painter. Strange though it now seems, and quite beyond
reasonable explanation, the greatest art movement that Holland has
ever known flourished at the close of those troublous times when she
was at war with Spain. It was then that the painters, with startling
suddenness, came into their full powers, and Hals, Rembrandt, Van der
Helst, Gerard Dou, Paul Potter, Jan Steen, Ruysdael and De Hooch, with
a host of brilliant companions, followed in quick succession. They
created a new art, a school of painting with original conceptive
views and unrivalled executive skill. Contemporaneously with this
artistic activity developed the peculiarly specific Dutch style of
domestic architecture. Existing examples prove how energetically the
building craft was then carried on, and show how its characteristics
were matured during the closing years of the sixteenth century and
onwards through the century following. Many of the Town Halls and
Weigh Houses, which set the fashion for the private dwellings, are of
this time; Leiden 1598, Haarlem 1602, Nijmegen 1612, Bolsward 1614,
Workum 1650, and numerous others.
It was in the sixteenth century that the influence of the Renaissance
gained ground in Holland, and with it came new canons and new impulses,
revived interest in classical literature and art. And in connection
with it, it is significant to note that Erasmus, one of the most
distinguished of the Humanists, was born at Rotterdam in 1466;
during a life of much travel and varied residence he was often in
the Low Countries, prosecuting his own self-culture and advocating
his doctrines.
The Transitional period lasted long and the buildings associated with
it in many ways resemble those of England, erected in the style known
as Elizabethan. The real significance of the revolutionary Renaissance
art was not grasped or understood. The Gothic form of house long held
its own and to it was added the heavy Dutch interpretation of the newer
style, a rendering showing French rather than Italian feeling. But
nevertheless, however well or ill applied, the use of Classic motifs
in architecture became a firmly-established and general practice.
But the great changes in religious and intellectual thought that
transpired during the sixteenth century did not so quickly influence
the domain of architecture as might be supposed. No sudden breach
with the inherited style occurred, although the ancient life and
faith were passing. The Gothic tradition, which had been handed
down from generation to generation, continued on. The national
temperament was opposed to innovation, and the Dutch people clung to
that which had been evolved through long years of experiment; they
were unwilling to give up those forms that had been satisfying to
their forefathers. So the new fashion in architecture was at first
but tardily accepted and made little headway against the olden
practices. Early tentative efforts were confined to novelties of
detail introduced in gable ornaments, window-heads and doorways; the
traditional forms of building remained unaltered, and fresh types of
ornament were simply added to them for no very definite or intelligent
reason. As time went on the Renaissance influence gradually became
more established, but there was evidently no unanimity of opinion on
the merits of it. Some looked upon it with favour; others viewed it
with suspicion and preferred to keep to that which had served so well
for preceding generations. As a consequence, the development was not
uniform throughout the country. Thus a house at Alkmaar, bearing the
late date of 1673, has arched window-heads and step gable terminated
with a pointed arch quite in the Gothic manner; while a façade erected
at Zwolle one hundred and two years earlier unmistakably betrays its
Classic origin by the details with which it is adorned.
After a changeful period, during which the architectural impulses
were halting between the acceptance of the new and the retention of
the old, men who directed public taste eventually adopted what they
understood to be the Renaissance ideas. Behind them was a strong tide
of inherited tradition which continued to flow on. To it they brought
their own interpretation of the new movement, and the two forces ran
side by side for many years.
Foremost among the earlier architects who turned to classicism for
fresh inspiration were Lieven de Key, Hendrik de Keyzer and Cornelius
Danckerts. Hendrik de Keyzer was born at Utrecht in 1565 and died at
Amsterdam in 1621. He was appointed architect to the city of Amsterdam
in 1594, and his name is connected with buildings both in that town
and elsewhere. One of his most notable works is the monument erected
at Delft to the memory of William the Silent. Cornelius Danckerts was
associated with de Keyzer and lived from 1561 to 1631. Born at Ghent
about the year 1560, Lieven de Key worked principally at Haarlem and
Leiden. He was the author of the celebrated Meat Market at Haarlem,
a remarkable building which has evoked both praise and disparagement;
it was completed in 1603. He was responsible for the design of other
civic buildings as well as numerous private dwellings. Such men as
these had their followers and founded schools of architecture in the
places of their professional activities. There was thus a vigorous
body of men working at Haarlem; while Amsterdam, which had become
virtually the political and commercial capital as well as the centre
of the arts, had its own assembly of architects who were particularly
energetic in the city and exercised great influence in the adjacent
districts. The results of their accomplishments are still apparent,
and the many large and sober gabled houses suggest to the imagination
the comparative splendour of seventeenth-century Amsterdam.
The buildings of this period are quaint and charming. If somewhat
lacking in serious architectonic qualities, they are inseparably
connected with the national sentiments; they stand as lasting evidences
of human emotion expressed through the medium of brick and stone. The
streets lined with ancient houses are witnesses of a great past, and
bring to remembrance those strong and earnest men who honoured hearth
and threshold and fought to save their fatherland from tyranny and
threatened ruin. Above all, the structures bear upon them the impress
of the intellectual life which was concerned with their production. The
work itself is thoroughly Dutch in character, full of suggestion, and
the materials are well handled. That of the early Renaissance is the
best, and in it the two streams of thought--mediæval and classic--are
seen harmoniously blended. A good example from Leiden, by Lieven de
Key, is illustrated opposite; signs of the new influence are obvious in
the details, yet it has the traditional form of stepped gable; while
there is a freedom of handling discernible in the disposition of the
ground floor features which was dictated by convenience rather than
symmetrical arrangement. All the work, however, was not so reasonable
as this. Gables of extraordinary and curious outline began to appear,
remarkable certainly for fertility of invention, but often lacking
in delicacy and restraint. Isolated stone ornaments, unconnected with
constructive principles, were applied to vacant wall spaces. They were
decorated with lion-heads, armorial bearings, strapwork, cartouches,
winged heads and panels in relief, all vigorously carved. Many of
the subjects were seemingly derived from published pattern books and
decorative designs, and lack that independence of conception which
distinguishes all inspired craftsmanship.
Evidence goes to prove that the men who made the designs for the
buildings had not yet become detached from the building trades. They
were not architects within the present meaning of that term. They
were described as masons, stonecutters, and the like, and no doubt
were master-builders who, in addition to supplying the design, had
a personal hand in the execution of the work of their own particular
craft. The idea that a trained director should conceive the work as a
whole, and marshal all the supplementary arts to proper subjugation,
had not yet been evolved. Architecture as a separate force was not
recognised.
Results automatically grew out of the united efforts of the sculptors,
bricklayers, carpenters and masons who were engaged on the same
production. So de Key, in addition to acting as a designer, was
the city mason of Haarlem; H. de Keyzer was sculptor to the city of
Amsterdam; and these are typical instances of the conditions then
prevailing. It is also not surprising to find in this country, where
government by municipalities was so well developed, that the architects
were often official servants of the towns. Two such are mentioned
above; Dryfhout was town architect of Middelburg, and Ambrosius van
Hanenberch held a similar position at 's Hertogenbosch. [1] The demand
for qualified men to protect and guide the public artistic needs was
appreciated, a wise and excellent practice from which present-day
authorities in England might well take a lesson.
With the advancing seventeenth century came a keener desire for the
employment of purer forms of Renaissance art. Architects turned their
thoughts to the Italian ideal, which they modified, yet preserved
in its essential characteristics. Chief among the exponents of the
developed style were Jacob van Campen and Phillippus Vinckboons,
both of Amsterdam; and Pieter Post of Haarlem. The massive Town Hall
of Amsterdam--now the Royal Palace--by van Campen, is one of the
most important buildings of this period. It was erected between the
years 1648 and 1655. But the severe classic ideas, directing towards
uniformity and symmetrical arrangements, were never really at home, nor
did they displace the weakening influence of inherited tradition. In
the general mass of work the Dutch national genius continued to
assert itself. Up to the time when the native architecture became
devoid of character and personality, the houses and trade buildings
in which the people lived and worked--even if of strange appearance
or sometimes fantastic beyond description--retained an unmistakable
flavour of the vernacular and owned something of that playfulness
and quaint invention that were the heritage of mediæval times.
It is fitting to conclude this Introduction by referring to the
effect of Dutch upon English architecture. For our style of domestic
building has in the past owed something to knowledge gained from the
Low Countries; details have been derived from the Dutch and their
practices adopted. Most obviously the influence is to be seen in the
Eastern counties, although it penetrated more or less throughout the
country; Staffordshire can show it as well as Norfolk, Wiltshire as
well as Kent. To those men of the Netherlands who early engaged in
English commerce the germs of this influence are to be traced. Not
that many of these foreigners were actively connected with the building
trades, but, during a long period of trading intercourse and settlement
by merchants and artisans, they, as a matter of course, left distinct
impressions of their own ideas. Onward from the fourteenth century
the influx of Flemings and Dutchmen into England was considerable
and the reasons for their coming various. Apart from the traders,
skilled artisans were encouraged to settle for the purpose of
improving the home manufactures. Oppression, too, was responsible
for many immigrants; to cite an instance, thousands of people left
Holland when the harsh Duke of Alva, acting for Philip of Spain,
was in 1567 appointed commander of the forces, and numbers of
them found refuge in England. But the presence of foreigners such
as these, most of whom were not engaged in the building crafts,
had only an indirect effect upon the local architecture. It was the
imported artificers, coming from Germany as well as the Netherlands,
who brought a new development to English building. "Throughout the
reign of Elizabeth," writes Professor Blomfield, "their influence
was in the air and predominant." The results of it are obvious in
work then erected, notably in the long series of country houses with
strapwork ornament, peculiar decoration of porches and fireplaces,
and much patterned woodwork. Again, with the advent of Dutch William
to the English throne, further new features were introduced and they
are especially traceable in the admirable brickwork of the Queen
Anne style. But the lasting and altogether good effect of Dutch
influence was on traditional, rather than academic architecture, on
those quiet and unpretentious buildings of the countryside. Here the
foreign motives were almost imperceptibly blended with those existing,
neither suddenly nor inharmoniously. A feature was added here, a detail
there, yet the work remained truly English in character. Old villages
can yet show buildings that bear upon them traces of an alien hand, or
embody ideas drawn from other than local sources of inspiration. Such
are the East Kentish cottages at Sandwich, Ickham, Reading Street and
Sarre; the halls and manor-houses of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, with
corbie-stepped and curved gables; the high brick barns of the Eastern
counties; and endless picturesque groupings of certain distinction
that exist up and down the land. The industrious settlers from over
the water certainly brought something to our traditional architecture,
gave it qualities that helped to make it what it was. And when they
came to erect their dwellings on foreign soil, they cherished the
memory of their own country, and turned their thoughts to home and
to the houses on the tree-lined streets and waterways of Holland.
DIVISION I
THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
The only really abundant building materials in Holland were
bricks. Stone was available in limited quantities, but not readily
so. Brick-earths there were in plenty, and brick-building has been
practised continuously from the dawn of Dutch architecture to the
present day. The inhabitants, after long and intimate association,
became very proficient in the use of bricks, skilful in applying
them, and apt to quickly realize the possibilities afforded by this
material. There is, therefore, a great deal of old work of exceptional
interest which is, in addition, valuable for the suggestions it
presents.
The creation and development of an architectural style, depending
upon brickwork as the medium for its execution, call into being
considerable powers of ingenuity. For the limitations of bricks
are definite and circumscribed; the unit is small and its size not
subject to variation. Moreover, enrichment can only be obtained by
careful disposition and arrangement of the units, and the almost
unlimited scope possessed by stone, wood or plaster--both in respect
to size of parts and effects of surface decoration--is nearly
non-existent. Difficulties such as these have to be realised and
overcome, but good results are not easily secured. The preconceived
ideas in the mind, the general proportions, and the disposition of
features, are governed to a degree by the nature of the building
material. And for these reasons, the bonding of the walling, colour
arrangements, width and finish of the mortar joints, and the precise
manner of forming details, all contribute markedly to the ultimate
appearance of the whole. Good brickwork depends, even more than other
forms of building, upon a complete understanding of the capabilities
of the medium; skill in manipulating it is secondary only to capacity
for design.
It was in the use of bricks that the Dutch were especially
successful. Qualified by experience gained through years of experiment,
their achievements were dexterous and often daring. They were
thoroughly at home with brickwork, alive to its restrictions as well as
its possibilities, and they handled it in a spontaneous and reasonable
way. All the features and details of some buildings had to be suitably
designed for execution in this not very pliable material--gables
(page 21), windows, doorways (shown above), decoration, mouldings
and traceries. Problems such as these, definitely existing, were
satisfactorily solved. The craftsmen thought in brickwork, as it
were, and forms were more or less dictated by the means available
for carrying them out. Not that stone was ignored; on the contrary,
it was doubtless used when it could be obtained, as our illustrations
plainly show. Thus, it was employed not only for ornamental details
but often for the entire structures. Wood had its uses too, as may be
seen in the half-timbered houses at Dordrecht or the wooden-fronted
ones at Gorinchem (Gorcum), illustrated opposite; and plaster entered
into the construction of many country buildings. But the prevailing
conditions brought about an advanced development of brickwork and
through it the vital building tradition was evolved.
The old bricks themselves were particularly well shaped and the
proportion of height to length gave a long and narrow appearance. How
narrow they actually were will be realised when it is stated that it
not infrequently happens we find them no more than 1-1/4 inches high.
Some of the sizes noted are 1-1/4 inches by 6-3/4 inches to 7 inches at
Workum; 1-1/2 inches by 7 inches at Breda (page 24); 1-1/2 inches by
8-1/2 inches, and 1-3/4 inches by 7 inches to 8-1/2 inches at Haarlem;
and 2 inches by 9 inches at 's Hertogenbosch. They were laid with five,
six, or seven courses to the foot, and sometimes the door and window
openings were formed with smaller sized bricks than those used for the
main walling. It was only rarely that comparatively large bricks were
employed. Some may be seen in the walls of the old Abbey at Middelburg,
and "Thvis van Leeninge" (page 25), situated in the same town, has
bricks measuring 2-1/2 inches by 9-1/2 inches; while a building at
Franeker, in Friesland, is carried out in unusually large bricks,
which vary in size from 3 inches to 3-1/2 inches by 10-1/2 inches
to 11-1/2 inches. The joints are widest in the older work and were
either finished with dark mortar, no lighter in tone than the bricks,
or were raked out and pointed up with light mortar. The bond almost
universally adopted was that known by the name of "English" and not,
as is often erroneously stated, "Flemish." English bond consists of
alternate courses of headers and stretchers; that is to say, one course
of bricks, all placed longways, upon a course all laid endways, and so
continuously up the wall. Flemish bond, rarely to be seen in Holland,
has alternate headers and stretchers in every course. Dutch brickwork
shows a wide range of colouring. Some is very dark and of a purple
tint; some is yellow, particularly in the neighbourhood of Dordrecht;
red bricks there are in every town; while at Breda they gradate from
lemon yellow to a delicate salmon pink. It will be perceived that
materials such as these offered means for harmonious combinations. The
possibilities were appreciated, and about the country there exist
many happy effects which were secured by blending the various coloured
bricks. It was a favourite method to build walls with parti-coloured
bands running horizontally through them in the manner shown from
Franeker (page 26), where four courses of red bricks interchange
with one of yellow. Mouldings and surrounds to openings often
contrasted with the prevailing colour of the building. As an
illustration of this, the example from Dordrecht (below) may be
cited; the walls are formed with yellow bricks and the decorated
window-heads with red. In addition to effects obtained by colour
harmonies, enrichment was secured by applying moulded and shaped
brickwork. It was confined principally to the doorways, windows and
string courses, and how successful this system of ornamentation can
be will be realised by further reference to the two above-mentioned
drawings. Among other familiar features of Dutch buildings are the
mosaic decorations which generally occupy the arched spaces over
window-heads. Made up of simple units--square or shaped bricks and
little pieces of stone--they were set together to form repeating
patterns and devices. Many of the houses, such as that at Dordrecht
(page 27), attain distinction by reason of these interesting and
freely rendered details, and they will be more fully considered in
the following chapter on exterior features.
Pantiles were almost universally used for roof-coverings in the towns,
while in the country thatching was freely employed. Under certain
conditions the good qualities of pantiles show conspicuously. Where the
country is level and the landscape low, and big changing sky-effects
constantly recur, they look particularly homely and suitable. Their
curved surfaces quickly respond to play of light, becoming successively
bright in the sunlight or mellow-toned in the shadow. They have the
appearance, too, of being well able to withstand the wind and the
rain. Holland is a country having the attributes for the successful use
of these tiles; moreover, they blended in every way with the prevailing
brick architecture, both of the towns and of the villages, as is shown
by the illustrations from Haarlem (page 29) and St. Laurens (page
31). They were not always of that bright red colour usually associated
with pantiles. Many were made from a grey clay and look not unpleasing;
especially in the town and neighbourhood of Zutphen they can be well
observed. The thatched roofs of the countryside do not present any
special characteristics. They were contrived to accomplish their
purpose in a straightforward way. Brought down directly from ridge
to eaves, or arranged pyramidally, they have no added decoration in
straw-work. The ridge was protected by a course of half-round tiles
of which the farmhouse at Spaarwoude (page 30) furnishes an example,
and the roof of this building, arranged part in thatch and part in
pantiles, is an instance of a fairly prevalent practice.
Passing from the consideration of building materials to that of
planning, it may be stated as a general rule that the ground plans of
the old work were usually determined by the exigencies of practical
requirements. The very narrow frontage of many of the houses gave
little latitude for variation of interior disposition: for it will be
noticed that the majority of the houses were built with gable-ends
facing to the streets, and these consequently became the principal
elevations. The measurement from front to back of each was thus much
greater than that from side to side. The economical and practical
way of treating such an area would be to arrange a passage at the
side, directly through from front to back, which would, as well,
give access to the rooms and stairs; and this is what was generally
done. Such a passage, sketched from the outside pavement, is shown on
this page. This expedient was not necessary when the building had a
wider frontage, and in such a case the way through was often placed
more or less centrally, in the manner illustrated from Alkmaar on
page 33. On the other hand, the narrow house at Hoorn (page 34) has
a central entrance, and here it gives immediate access to the front
room. But the passage was an important feature of Dutch planning and
gave the fundamental idea for general disposition.
The internal arrangements were disclosed by the elevations and a
guiding principle of Gothic design was thereby followed. The positions
of lofty rooms, ways of access, staircases and different floor levels,
were as much as possible made obvious on the outside of the buildings.
This practice led to many happy results. Not fettered by artificial
conventions or limited by unyielding laws, the designers were able to
give scope to their invention. Utility and convenience set the theme
for spontaneous fancy to adorn. These were the motive powers, the
guiding impulses that lay behind the early work, and they continued
to operate with more or less force for many generations. The series of
houses in the "Balans" at Middelburg (page 35) furnishes a good example
of a group that owed its inception to such influences. While there is
harmony between part and part no two are alike. One house is higher
than its fellow; one comes forward over the paved way while another
recedes. Doorways and windows are conveniently, but not too evenly
disposed. The brightly painted window-shutters give lively colour, and
isolated features--such as the staircase turret seen on the right--show
with telling effect. Gables of differing shape break the skyline.
Utilitarian in lighting the rooms of the roofs, the dormers
æsthetically serve to carry the eye up to the ridges. The whole
impression, if irregular, is picturesque to a degree. Contemplating
an effect such as this, so powerful in its human appeal to the eye
and mind, it is difficult to appreciate those arguments which are
advanced against principles capable of giving such satisfying results.