enemy's movements, were descried. Sky-rockets shot up. Preparations, as
if for immediate action, were observed. And thus it proved. The
important day had arrived, and operations were commenced on the part of
the British, by showers of bombs and balls upon the American line: while
congreve-rockets, in multitudes, went whizzing through the air. The two
divisions, under command of Sir Edward Packenham in person, and
supported by Generals Keane and Gibbs, now moved forward. A dense fog
enabled them to approach within a short distance of the American
intrenchments without being discovered. Their march was dignified--their
step, firm--their bearing, lofty. Meanwhile, all was silence among the
Americans behind the parapets. The guns were loaded--the matches were
ready--all were waiting, with breathless anxiety, for the word of
command. Jackson stood an intent observer of the scene. He watched every
movement--weighed every circumstance--measured the lessening distance.
They had reached the critical spot to which the guns were pointed--the
voice of Jackson was heard, as in tones of thunder, "Fire!" and, in an
instant, such a storm of death rolled over the astonished British, as
was scarcely ever before witnessed. The front ranks were mowed down, and
their advance arrested. At this critical juncture, Sir Edward Packenham
threw himself in front of the astonished columns, and urged them on. But
at that instant, he fell mortally wounded, and, nearly at the same time,
Generals Gibbs and Keane were borne from the field, dangerously wounded.
The troops now fled. In their flight, they were met by General Lambert,
on the advance with a reserve force, and urged once more to renew the
attack; but his commands were unheeded.
[Illustration: BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS.]
There were, indeed, other attempts made upon the American works in
other quarters, and they were partially successful; but, in the
sequel, the British were every where repulsed--the American flag waved
in triumph--the city of New Orleans was safe--and, that night, joy and
gladness were in every family.
The American effective force, at the time, on the left bank, was three
thousand seven hundred; that of the enemy, at least nine thousand,
and, by some authorities, they were reckoned still more numerous. The
killed, wounded, and prisoners, as ascertained on the day after the
battle, by Colonel Hayne, the inspector-general, was two thousand six
hundred. General Lambert's report to Lord Bathurst, stated it to be
two thousand and seventy. Among the killed was the commander-in-chief,
and Major-general Gibbs, who died of his wounds the following day;
besides many other valuable officers. The loss of the Americans, in
killed and wounded, was but thirteen.
It is certainly surprising that generals so distinguished for their
sagacity, and so experienced in military tactics, as were the British,
should have hazarded such an assault. It seems probable that the
enterprise was one of great magnitude and danger, in their view; but
warranted by the circumstances in which they were placed. But, on the
other hand, the Americans were entitled to all possible praise. Their
bravery and zeal were conspicuous through the entire contest. It was
fortunate that their commander was possessed of great courage and
equal skill. General Jackson acquired greater reputation, on this
occasion, than he had gained at any previous period of his life,
distinguished as his military fame had become.
To the benevolent heart, there will ever be connected with this battle
one sad, sad reflection. The carnage of that day--the groans, sorrows,
sufferings caused by that conflict--might have been spared. Peace
between the two nations had actually been agreed upon. Oh! could some
breeze have wafted the intelligence to these Western shores ere the
dawn of that 8th of January, 1815, what streams of blood had been
stayed! how many precious lives would have been spared! what despair
and destitution averted from families and individuals!
_Treaty of Ghent._--The brilliant successes of the Americans were duly
appreciated, and joy and exultation pervaded the nation. Tidings of
peace soon followed. A negotiation, which had been opened at Ghent in
the Netherlands, towards the close of 1814, between the American
commissioners, J. Q. Adams, Bayard, Clay, Russel, and Gallatin, and
the British commissioners, Gambier, Goulburn, and Adams, resulted in a
treaty of peace, which was signed on the 24th of December. It
immediately received the approbation of the prince regent, and was
ratified by the president and senate on the 18th day of February. This
was a welcome event to all parties. Among a portion of the people, the
war had never been popular. A large debt had been contracted, and the
commerce of the country had greatly suffered. There was a general joy
that the war had terminated; yet some were disposed to inquire, what
object had been gained? It was true, the credit of the country in
respect to military skill, but especially as to naval tact, had been
greatly increased. An arrogant, invading foe had been driven from our
shore. Our national honor vindicated--but, in the end, the treaty
negotiated and ratified was silent as to the subjects for which the
war was professedly declared. It provided only for the suspension of
hostilities--the exchange of prisoners--the restoration of territories
and possessions obtained by the contending powers during the war--the
adjustment of unsettled boundaries--and for a combined effort to
effect the entire abolition of traffic in slaves. But, notwithstanding
several important omissions, the treaty was joyfully received, and the
various classes of society once more began to turn their attention to
their accustomed trades and occupations.
_Close of Mr. Madison's Administration._--The remainder of Mr.
Madison's administration was marked by few events or measures of
national importance. Yet, we may briefly notice the conclusion of a
treaty, conducted at Algiers, with the dey of Algiers, by William
Shaler and Commodore Stephen Decatur, on the 30th of June, 1815--a
"convention by which to regulate the commerce between the territories
of the United States and of his Britannic Majesty," concluded at
London, July 3--and the incorporation of a national bank, with a
capital of thirty-five millions of dollars.
February 12th, the electoral votes for Mr. Madison's successor were
counted in the presence of both houses of congress, when it appeared
that Mr. Monroe was elected by a large majority. The following is a
summary of the votes:
Key: A. James Monroe, of Virginia.
B. Rufus King, of New York.
C. D. D. Tompkins, of New York.
D. John E. Howard, of Maryland.
E. James Ross, of Pennsylv'a.
F. John Marshall, of Virginia.
G. Robt. G. Harper, of Maryland.
---------+-----------------+----------+------------------------
No. of | |PRESIDENT.| VICE-PRESIDENT.
Electors | STATES. |----------+------------------------
from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G.
State. | | | | | | | |
---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+----+----
8 | New Hampshire, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
22 | Massachusetts, | | 22 | | 22 | | |
4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | | 4 | | | |
9 | Connecticut, | | 9 | | | 5 | 4 |
8 | Vermont, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
29 | New York, | 29 | | 29 | | | |
8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
25 | Pennsylvania, | 25 | | 25 | | | |
3 | Delaware, | | 3 | | | | | 3
8 | Maryland, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
25 | Virginia, | 25 | | 25 | | | |
15 | North Carolina, | 15 | | 15 | | | |
11 | South Carolina, | 11 | | 11 | | | |
8 | Georgia, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
12 | Kentucky, | 12 | | 12 | | | |
8 | Tennessee, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
8 | Ohio, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
3 | Lousiana, | 3 | | 3 | | | |
3 | Indiana, | 3 | | 3 | | | |
---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+----+----
217 | Whole No. of | | | | | | |
| electors, |183 | 34 |183 | 22 | 5 | 4 | 3
| Majority, 109 | | | | | | |
FOOTNOTES:
[71] Life of William Henry Harrison.
[72] Breckenridge's History of the War.
[73] Hale's History of the United States.
[74] Willard's Republic.
[75] Hinton.
X. JAMES MONROE, PRESIDENT.
[Illustration: MONROE.]
INAUGURATED AT WASHINGTON, MARCH 4, 1817.
DANIEL D. TOMPKINS, VICE-PRESIDENT.
HEADS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.
John Q. Adams, Massachusetts, March 5, 1817,} Secretary
} of State.
William H. Crawford, Georgia, March 5, 1817,} Secretary
} of Treasury.
Isaac Shelby, Kentucky, March 5, 1817,} Secretaries
John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, December 15, 1817,} of War.
Benjamin W. (_continued_ }
Crowninshield, Massachusetts, _in office_), } Secretaries
Smith Thompson, New York, November 30, 1818.} of the Navy.
Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, December 9, 1823,}
Return J. Meigs, Ohio, (_continued_ } Postmasters
_in office_), } General.
John M'Lean, Ohio, December 9, 1823,}
Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, (_continued_ } Attorneys
_in office_), } General.
William Wirt, Virginia, December 15, 1817,}
SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.
Henry Clay, Kentucky, Fifteenth Congress, 1817.
Henry Clay, Kentucky, Sixteenth do. 1819.
John W. Taylor, New York, Sixteenth do. 1820.
Philip P. Barbour, Virginia, Seventeenth do. 1821.
Henry Clay, Kentucky, Eighteenth do. 1823.
The elevation of Mr. Monroe to the presidency was an event highly
auspicious to the interests of the nation. Besides having been
employed for many years in high and responsible stations under the
government, he possessed a sound and discriminating judgment, and a
remarkably calm and quiet temperament. In not a few of the qualities
of his mind, he resembled Washington, and, like that great and good
man, apparently had the true interests of his country in view in the
acts and measures of his administration. He may be said to be
fortunate in respect to the time and circumstances of his accession to
the presidency. A war, of whose justice and expediency a respectable
portion of the country had strong doubts--and as to which, therefore,
loud and even angry debate had existed, both in congress and
throughout the country--that war had terminated, and the asperities
growing out of different views entertained of it, were fast subsiding.
Commerce, too, was beginning to revive, and the manufacturers were
hoping for more auspicious days. In every department of industry,
there was the commencement of activity; and, although the country had
suffered too long and too seriously to regain at once her former
prosperity, hopes of better times were indulged, and great confidence
was reposed in the wise and prudent counsels of the new president.
A review of the principal measures and events during the presidency of
Mr. Monroe, will require us to notice the following topics:
Tour of the President, Revision of the Tariff,
Admission of Missouri, Visit of Lafayette,
Provision for indigent officers, &c., Review of Mr. Monroe's
Rëelection of Mr. Monroe, Administration,
Seminole War, Election of Mr. Adams.
_Tour of the President._--This took place in the summer and autumn
following Mr. Monroe's inauguration, and extended through the Northern
and Eastern states of the Union. It was an auspicious measure, and
contributed, no doubt, in a degree, to his popularity. He had in view,
the better discharge of his duty as president, in superintending the
works of public defence, and most probably the cultivation of friendly
feelings with the great mass of the people. These objects were happily
accomplished. The works of public defence, which he wished personally
to inspect or to provide for, were the fortifications of the sea-coast
and inland frontiers, naval docks, and the navy itself. For all these
objects, congress had made liberal appropriations, and by personal
observation, he sought the means of guiding his judgment as to the
best mode of promoting the interests thus committed to his care.
[Illustration: Reception of Mr. Monroe at New York.]
The president made two other visits of a similar kind, during his
first term, viz: one in the summer of the following year, and the
other in the summer of 1819. The former was to the Chesapeake bay and
the country lying on its shores. The other was to the Southern and
South-western states of the Union. In the course of a few weeks he
visited Charleston, Savannah, and Augusta, as also the Cherokee
nation, Nashville, Louisville, and other places. The same national
objects commanded his attention as during his other tours, and the
same spirit of courtesy and deference was manifested towards him.
_Admission of Missouri._--In another place, (p. 538,) we have had
occasion to notice the periods at which the several states, formed
since the adoption of the Federal Constitution, have been admitted
into the Union, and Missouri among them; but, as in respect to this
state, there were new and peculiar considerations involved, it is
deemed important to speak of them in this place more at large.--The
proposition to admit Missouri into the Union, was considered at the
same time with Maine; but, although congress passed the act of
admission for both at once, it was _conditional_ in regard to
Missouri. A clause in the constitution of this state, requiring the
legislature to enact a law "to prevent free negroes and mulattoes from
coming to and settling in the state," was obnoxious to a majority of
the members of congress. After a long debate in that body, it was
decided that Missouri should be admitted, on the condition that no
laws should be passed, by which any free citizens of the United States
should be prevented from enjoying the rights to which they were
entitled by the constitution of the United States.
There had previously been a long and exciting debate in congress, on
the subject of the restriction of slavery in the bill admitting
Missouri. The bill for admitting that territory, contained a provision
prohibiting slavery within the new state; but, having passed the house
of representatives, it was arrested in the senate. Strong sectional
parties, in reference to this subject, appeared, not only in congress,
but throughout the country. It was deemed imminently a time of danger
to the general interests of the nation and the Union itself. The
dissolution of the general government seemed to be threatened. That
the pernicious system of involuntary servitude should be further
extended, seemed to be abhorrent to the minds of most of the wise and
good. On the other hand, the rights of the slave-holding states were
thought by themselves, at least, to be invaded. Accordingly, members
of congress from the non-slave-holding states, strenuously advocated
the restriction; while members from the slave-holding portion of the
country as strenuously opposed it.
The long and earnest debates on the subject, were concluded, only by
the parties accepting a _compromise_, in consequence of which, slavery
was to be tolerated in Missouri, but forbidden in all that part of
Louisiana as ceded by France, lying north of thirty-six degrees thirty
minutes north latitude, except so much as was embraced within the
limits of the state. The vote in the house of representatives was
several times given for excluding slavery; but the senate disagreed,
and would not yield to the house. When the house yielded, at length,
to the opinion of the senate, it was by a majority of _four_ only, in
favor of the bill, omitting the clause of exclusion, and containing
that of the interdiction of slavery elsewhere, as already defined. The
compromise happily averted whatever danger there might have been to
the union of the states.
When Missouri, by a solemn act of her legislature, had accepted the
fundamental condition imposed by congress, that she would not
authorize the passage of any laws excluding citizens of other states
from enjoying the privileges to which they were entitled by the
constitution of the United States, she was declared a member of the
Union. This occurred August 10th, 1821.
_Provision for indigent Officers and Soldiers._--In 1818, a law was
passed by congress, granting pensions to the surviving officers and
soldiers of the Revolutionary war, which included all who had served
nine months in the continental army at any period of the war, provided
it was at one term of enlistment. Another act of congress, following
at the expiration of two years, modified, and in some degree
restricted this law, by confining the pension to those who were in
destitute circumstances. Still, under this condition, the number who
received the bounty, or rather the justice of their country, was very
large, not less than thirteen thousand having experienced the grateful
relief. Through the inability of the government, soon after the war,
these soldiers who had so largely contributed to the liberties of
their country, had never been duly compensated. They now received a
welcome, though late remuneration.
_Rëelection of Mr. Monroe._--In March, 1821, Mr. Monroe entered upon his
second term of office, having been rëelected president by nearly an
unanimous vote. Mr. Tompkins was also continued in the vice-presidency.
The following table exhibits the vote of the several electoral colleges:
Key: A. James Monroe, of Virginia.
B. John Q. Adams, of Massa'tts.
C. D. D. Tompkins, of New York.
D. Rich'd. Stockton, of New Jersey.
E. Robt. G. Harper, of Maryland.
F. Richard Rush, of Pennsylv'a.
G. Daniel Rodney, of Delaware.
---------+-----------------+----------+------------------------
No. of | |PRESIDENT.| VICE-PRESIDENT.
Electors | STATES. |----------+------------------------
from each| | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G.
State. | | | | | | | |
---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+----+----
8 | New Hampshire, | 7 | 1 | 7 | | | 1 |
15 | Massachusetts, | 15 | | 7 | 8 | | |
4 | Rhode Island, | 4 | | 4 | | | |
9 | Connecticut, | 9 | | 9 | | | |
8 | Vermont, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
29 | New York, | 29 | | 29 | | | |
8 | New Jersey, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
25 | Pennsylvania, | 24 | | 24 | | | |
4 | Delaware, | 4 | | | | | | 4
11 | Maryland, | 11 | | 10 | | 1 | |
25 | Virginia, | 25 | | 25 | | | |
15 | North Carolina, | 15 | | 15 | | | |
11 | South Carolina, | 11 | | 11 | | | |
8 | Georgia, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
12 | Kentucky, | 12 | | 12 | | | |
8 | Tennessee, | 7 | | 7 | | | |
8 | Ohio, | 8 | | 8 | | | |
3 | Lousiana, | 3 | | 3 | | | |
3 | Indiana, | 3 | | 3 | | | |
3 | Mississippi, | 2 | | 2 | | | |
3 | Illinois, | 3 | | 3 | | | |
3 | Alabama, | 3 | | 3 | | | |
9 | Maine, | 9 | | 9 | | | |
3 | Missouri, | 3 | | 3 | | | |
---------+-----------------+----+-----+----+----+----+----+----
235 | Whole No. of | | | | | | |
| electors, |231 | 1 |218 | 8 | 1 | 1 | 4
| Majority, 118 | | | | | | |
No president, since Washington, has received so decided an expression
of the public will. His popularity seemed to be the result of his
moderation in politics, his candid temper, and his wise and useful
measures. His administration throughout was the era of good feeling.
_Seminole War._--Within the southern limits of the United States, but
mostly in Florida, lived a tribe, or confederacy of Indians, named
_Seminoles_. They consisted, originally, of fugitives from the
northern tribes, resident within the limits of the United States. To
these fugitives, additions were made from the Creek Indians, numbers
of whom were dissatisfied with the provisions of the treaty of 1814,
and negroes, who had absconded from their masters. The resentments
enkindled in the breasts of these miserable people, are believed to
have been fanned by foreign emissaries, of whom the most noted were
two Englishmen, Alexander Arbuthnot and Robert C. Ambrister. The
consequence was, that outrages were committed upon the inhabitants of
the states on our southern borders, the progress of which it became
necessary to arrest.
General Gaines, the United States' officer in that quarter, made a
demand to deliver up the authors of these outrages, but the Indians
refused to comply. In consequence of this refusal, the Indians, who
were still on the lands ceded to the United States by the Creeks, in
1814, were placed at the disposal of General Gaines, to remove them or
not, as he should see fit.
The general availed himself of his discretionary power to take an
Indian village called Fowl Town, near the Florida line. In this
undertaking, one man and one woman were killed, and two women made
prisoners. It was executed by a detachment under Major Twiggs. A few
days after, a second detachment, who were on a visit to the town to
obtain property, were fired upon, and a skirmish ensued, in which
there was a loss of several on both sides. Shortly after, a large
party of Seminole Indians formed an ambuscade upon the Appalachicola
river, attacked one of the American boats, ascending near the shore,
and killed, wounded, and took the greater part of the detachment,
consisting of forty men, commanded by Lieutenant R. W. Scott, of the
seventh infantry. There were also on board, killed or taken, seven
women, the wives of soldiers. Six of the detachment only escaped, four
of whom were wounded.[76]
[Illustration: Attack of the Seminoles on Lieutenant Scott's Boats.]
This event led to increased hostilities. Fort Scott, in which General
Gaines with about six hundred regular soldiers was confined for a time,
was openly attacked by a large force of the enemy. General Andrew
Jackson was directed, December 26, to take the field. In connection with
this, he was authorized, if he deemed the force of General Gaines to be
insufficient to carry on the war, "to call on the executives of the
neighboring states for such an additional militia force as he might deem
requisite." General Jackson varied from the order addressed to him, by
sending out a circular to the patriots of West Tennessee, inviting them,
to the number of one thousand, to take up arms with him against the
Indians. The General's call was promptly responded to, and the thousand
volunteers were, in due time, gathered to his standard.
In this affair, General Jackson was widely censured for departing from
the letter and spirit of his instructions; although the apology
offered, was the delay that would have been caused, had the governor
of Tennessee, who was either at Knoxville or in the Cherokee nation,
been first called upon. The account of his proceedings, which he sent
to the secretary of war, seems to have met with favor by the public
authorities at Washington. The troops thus raised, were joined by a
number of friendly Creeks under General M'Intosh. Meanwhile, it
appears from the instructions of the president to General Gaines, that
the war was to be prosecuted in Florida, only in the event of the
Indians fleeing into that country, and, in that case, the Spanish
authority was to be respected wherever it was maintained. Jackson,
however, did not conform to these instructions, and particularly in
regard to the interdiction not to attack a Spanish fort, should any
Indians take shelter under one, which was also a matter of
instruction. He justified his non-compliance, in this case, on the
ground that, orders issued to one officer, could not be construed as
orders to his successor, without a special reference to the
first--that his orders were general and discretionary, and that the
circumstances contemplated by the orders to General Gaines, never
existed. The Indians were found sheltered _within_ a fort, and not
merely under the protection of its guns on the outside.
On the plan of warfare, which the American general deemed it
justifiable to act, he not only entered Florida in pursuit of the
Indians as they fled thither, but he forcibly seized the Spanish
garrison, St. Marks. While at St. Marks, information was imparted to
General Jackson, that the governor of Pensacola was favoring the
Indians; upon which, although the executive had given instruction not
to attack a Spanish fort, he took up his march for the fort at
Pensacola, before which, after twenty days, he appeared prepared to
subdue it, at whatever expense it might cost. The fortress was
invested on the 25th of May, and, after a bombardment and cannonading
for two days, the garrison surrendered prisoners of war. The officers
of the government, civil and military, were transported to Havana, and
a new government established for the province. These matters being
settled, General Jackson announced to the secretary of war that the
Seminole war was terminated, and returned to his house at Nashville.
[Illustration: Taking the Fort at Pensacola.]