General Harrison, then governor of the north-west territory, by his
confidential advisers; and, for several years, by his forbearance and
wise policy, he was enabled to counteract those plans, without
exciting their jealousy or increasing their hostility.
In September, 1809, General Harrison held a council at Fort Wayne,
where he negotiated a treaty with the Miamies and several other Indian
tribes, by which they sold to the United States a large tract of
country on both sides of the Wabash, extending up that river more than
sixty miles above Vincennes.
At the time this treaty was negotiated, Tecumseh was absent, but his
brother, the Prophet, who was present, made objection to it; but, on
the return of the former, he expressed great dissatisfaction, and even
threatened to put to death those chiefs who had signed the treaty.
From this time, no efforts of General Harrison availed to pacify the
brothers, or to quiet the restless and hostile feelings of their
followers. At length, the Indians proceeded to the perpetration of
deeds of depredation and murder; the white population of the frontier
became excited and alarmed. In this state of things, General
Harrison, by order of the president, assembled five hundred of the
militia and volunteers of Indiana, and with these, increased by a
regiment of United States' infantry, consisting of three hundred and
fifty men, and a small but gallant body of volunteers from Kentucky,
took post at Fort Harrison, sixty miles above Vincennes; whence, not
long after, he proceeded, October 28th, 1811, to the Prophet's town.
At the distance of nine or ten miles, the army encamped on the evening
of the 5th of November.
On the following day, the army proceeded towards the town in the order
of battle; and when arrived within a short distance, they were met by
a deputation of the Prophet's counsellors. "They were sent," they
said, "to ascertain why an army was advancing upon them, and to avert,
if possible, approaching hostilities. This was the wish of the Prophet
himself." A suspension of hostilities was agreed upon, for the purpose
of an interview between the governor and chiefs, to be held the
following day.
The ensuing night was dark and cloudy. The moon rose late, and soon
after midnight there commenced a light fall of drizzling rain. The
night, however, passed without interruption, and the governor and his
aids rose at a quarter to four, and were sitting in conversation
before a fire. It was still dark, as the light of the moon was
shadowed by heavy and lowering clouds. At this moment, an attack by
the Indians was commenced. They had stealthily crept up near the
sentries, with the intention of rushing upon them, and killing them
before they could give the alarm. But, fortunately, one of them
discovered an Indian creeping towards him through the grass, and fired
at him. This was immediately followed by the Indian yell, and a
furious charge upon the left flank. The camp-fires were immediately
extinguished, as their light only served to expose our men to the
deadly aim of the Indians. Upon the first alarm, the governor mounted
his horse, and proceeded to the point of attack; and, finding the line
there much weakened, he ordered two companies from the centre and
rear line to march to their support. About this time, the gallant
Colonel Daviess, of Kentucky, in attempting to dislodge some Indians
concealed behind some trees, was shot down, being pierced with three
balls, either of which would have proved fatal. His men repulsed the
Indians several times, and finally succeeded in carrying him into the
camp. Colonel Isaac White, of Indiana, another brave officer, who
served as a volunteer under Colonel Daviess, likewise fell in this
sanguinary charge. About the same time, Colonel Owen, aid to Governor
Harrison, was also killed.
[Illustration: TIPPECANOE.]
"The battle was now maintained in every direction with desperate
valor. The Indians advanced and retreated by a rattling noise, made
with deer-hoofs. They fought with great enthusiasm, and seemed
determined to conquer.
"When the day dawned, the left flank, the most assailable part of the
encampment, was rëinforced by four companies, drawn from the rear and
centre; the right flank was strengthened by two companies; the
dragoons were mounted, and, supported by them, a simultaneous charge
was made upon the enemy on both flanks; and so vigorous and determined
was the attack, that the enemy gave way on all sides. The Indians, on
the left flank, were driven into a swamp, impenetrable to cavalry,
while those on the right were put to flight with great loss, and this
severely-contested victory was at last gained by our gallant
troops."[71]
The Indians engaged in this battle were supposed to amount to one
thousand. They were led by three distinguished warriors--_White
Loomstone Eater_, and _Winnemac_--the last a Potawattomie chief, who had
made great professions of friendship to General Harrison himself.
Tecumseh was not present at the battle, being on a visit to more
southern tribes, the object of which was supposed to be to enlist them
in a common cause against the United States. As for the Prophet, he took
no active part in the engagement, but employed himself in chanting a
war-song from a neighboring eminence. When it was announced to him that
the tide was setting strongly against his warriors, and that they were
falling on every side, his only response was "to fight on, and that they
would soon see the fulfillment of all his predictions."
A melancholy duty followed the battle--that of burying their brave
companions, who had fallen on the field. This done, and the wounded
provided for, the army took up their march from the scene of carnage,
and returned to Vincennes. The results of the engagement were
important. The haughty and discontented spirit of the Indians was
humbled, and the plan which they had devised, and which had nearly
ripened to maturity, of attacking and destroying the scattered border
settlements, was defeated.
_Early Session of Congress._--On the 5th of November, 1811, President
Madison summoned a meeting of congress. His message indicating an
apprehension of hostilities with Great Britain, the committee of
foreign relations in the house of representatives reported resolutions
for filling up the ranks of the army; for raising an additional force
of ten thousand men; for authorizing the president to accept the
services of fifty thousand volunteers, and for ordering out the
militia when he should judge it necessary; for repairing the navy, and
for authorizing the arming of merchantmen in self-defence. A bill from
the senate, for raising twenty-five thousand men, after much
discussion, was also agreed to by the house.
_Declaration of War._--Preparations in anticipation of war were now
industriously urged; yet the hope was still cherished, until May in
the following year, that a change of policy in Europe would render
unnecessary an appeal to arms. Towards the close of that season, the
Hornet arrived from London, bringing information that no prospect
existed of a favorable change. On the 1st of June, the president sent
a message to congress, recounting the wrongs received from Great
Britain, and submitting the question, whether the United States should
continue to endure them, or resort to war? The message was considered
with closed doors. On the 18th, an act was passed, declaring war
against Great Britain; soon after which, the president issued his
proclamation making public announcement of the same.
_Surrender of Hull._--At the time of the declaration of war, General
Hull was at Dayton, in Ohio, with a small American force, destined for
Detroit. This having been subsequently increased to two thousand five
hundred men, on the 12th of July he crossed into Canada, and taking
post at Sandwich, issued from that place a proclamation, couched in
bold and imposing language. By means of it, the Indians were awed into
neutrality, and the Canadians, favorable to the American cause, either
remained quietly at home or joined his ranks.
On the 1st of August, intelligence was received by the American
general of the fall of the fortress at Mackinaw on the 17th of July.
Until the moment of a demand to surrender, no intelligence had been
received by the garrison of the declaration of war. This event justly
filled Hull with surprise and consternation, as he had now no means of
checking the incursions of the restless hordes of northern savages.
On the 5th of August, a council of war was held, to deliberate upon
the expediency of attacking the fortress of Malden; but as the
artillery had not arrived, it was decided to wait two days, and then
proceed with or without it, as the case might be.
Meanwhile, however, communications were received from Generals Porter
and Hall, who commanded on the Niagara frontier, that the enemy were
leaving their posts in that quarter, and were concentrating their forces
at Malden. At the same time, Hull was informed that he could not depend
upon assistance from General Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, although
the latter had been directed by the government to invade Canada from
Niagara, and cöoperate with Hull. Under all the aspects of the case,
although his delayed artillery had arrived, Hull issued orders, on the
afternoon of the 7th, for his army to return to Detroit.
An order to the officers and army so unexpected as this--at a moment
when they were anticipating a victory and the honors due from it--was
like a thunderbolt upon them. The murmurs of the volunteers and
regular troops were loud. They upbraided their commander with
pusillanimity, and even treachery.
On the 14th, a British force, under command of General Brock, the most
active and able of the British commanders in Canada, took a position
opposite Detroit, where they proceeded to erect batteries. On the
15th, he sent a flag, bearing a summons to the American general to
surrender, in which he says: "It is far from my intention to join in a
war of extermination, but you must be aware that the numerous body of
Indians, who have attached themselves to my troops, will be beyond my
control the moment the contest commences." To this, General Hull
answered: "I have no other reply to make, than that I am prepared to
meet any force which may be at your disposal," &c. General Brock
immediately opened his batteries upon the town and fort, and several
persons within the fort were killed. The fire was returned by the
Americans with some effect.
On the morning of the 16th, the British crossed the river, and
landing, under cover of their ships, at Spring Wells, three miles
below Detroit, commenced their march towards the fort. Hull, it was
evident, was perplexed and agitated. At first, his army was drawn up
in order of battle without the fort, his artillery advantageously
planted, and his troops impatiently waiting the approach of the enemy.
At length, when the British were within five hundred yards of their
lines, most suddenly and unexpectedly an order from General Hull was
received, directing them "to retire immediately to the fort."
No sooner were the troops in the fort, than they were further directed
to stack their arms--immediately after which, a white flag was suspended
from the walls, in token of submission. A British officer rode up to
ascertain the cause, for this surrender was no less unexpected to the
assailants. A capitulation was agreed to, without even stipulating the
terms. Words are wanting to express the feelings of the Americans, in
being thus compelled to surrender to an inferior force, without firing a
gun, when they were firmly convinced that that force was in their power.
The British took immediate possession of the fort, with all the public
property it contained; among which were forty barrels of powder, four
hundred rounds of fixed twenty-four-pound shot, one hundred thousand
ball cartridges, two thousand five hundred stand of arms, twenty-five
pieces of iron cannon and eight of brass, the greater number of which
had been captured by the Americans during the revolutionary war. Besides
this great amount of warlike stores, the whole territory, forts and
garrisons were also delivered up.
In his official dispatch, General Hull labored to free his conduct
from censure, by bringing into view the inferiority of his force,
compared with that of the enemy; and, also, the dangers which
threatened him from numerous western tribes of Indians. But whether
the views which induced this surrender were in reality justly founded
or not, the public mind was altogether unprepared for an occurrence at
once so disastrous and mortifying.
Some time after, having been exchanged, Hull was arraigned before a
court-martial, of which General Dearborn was president. By this
tribunal, he was acquitted of treason, but sentenced to death for
cowardice and unofficer-like conduct. In consideration, however, of
his revolutionary services, and the recommendation of the court, the
president remitted the punishment of death, but deprived him of all
military command.
_Constitution and Guerriere._--While defeat and disgrace were
attending the American arms on the land, the ocean was the theatre of
bold and successful achievement on the part of the American navy. On
the 19th of August, three days after the disgraceful surrender of
Detroit, the Constitution achieved a splendid victory over the
Guerriere. On the 2d of August, the Constitution put to sea. On the
19th, a vessel hove in sight, which proved to be the Guerriere, and
the Constitution bore down upon her. "At first, it was the intention
of Captain Hull to bring her to close action immediately; but, on
coming within gun-shot, she gave a broadside, and filled away; then
wore, giving a broadside on the other tack, but without effect. They
now continued wearing and manœuvring on both sides, for three-quarters
of an hour, the Guerriere attempting to take a raking position; but,
failing in this, she bore up, and run with her top-sail and jib on the
quarter. The Constitution, perceiving this, made sail to come up with
her. Captain Hull, with admirable coolness, received the enemy's fire
without returning it. The enemy, mistaking this conduct on the part of
the American commander for want of skill, continued to pour out his
broadsides with a view to cripple his antagonist. From the
Constitution, not a gun had been fired. Already had an officer twice
come on deck, with information that several of the men had been
killed, at their guns. The gallant crew, burning with impatience,
silently awaited the orders of their commander. The moment so long
looked for, at last arrived. Sailing-master Aylwin having seconded the
views of the captain with admirable skill, in bringing the vessel
exactly to the station intended, orders were given at five minutes
before five P. M., to fire broadside after broadside, in quick
succession. The crew instantly discovered the whole plan, and entered
into it with all the spirit that the circumstances were calculated to
inspire. Never was any firing so dreadful. For fifteen minutes the
vivid lightning of the Constitution's guns continued one blaze, and
their thunder roared with scarce an intermission. The enemy's
mizen-mast had gone by the board, and he stood exposed to a raking
fire which swept his decks. The Guerriere had now become unmanageable;
her hull, rigging, and sails, dreadfully torn; when the Constitution
attempted to lay her on board. At this moment, Lieutenant Bush, in
attempting to throw his marines on board, was killed by a musket-ball,
and the enemy shot ahead, but could not be brought before the wind. A
raking fire now continued for fifteen minutes longer, when his
main-mast and fore-mast went, taking with them every spar excepting
the bowsprit. On seeing this, the firing ceased, and at twenty-five
minutes past five, she surrendered. "In thirty minutes" says Captain
Hull, "after we got fairly alongside of the enemy, she surrendered,
and had not a spar standing, and her hull, above and below water, so
shattered, that a few more broadsides must have carried her down." The
Guerriere was so much damaged, as to render it impossible to bring her
in; she was therefore set fire to the next day, and blown up. The
damage sustained by the Constitution was comparatively of so little
consequence, that she actually made ready for action when a vessel
appeared in sight the next day. The loss on board the Guerriere, was
fifteen killed and sixty-three wounded: on the side of the
Constitution, seven killed and seven wounded. It is pleasing to
observe, that even the British commander, on this occasion, bore
testimony to the humanity and generosity with which he was treated by
the victors. The American frigate was superior in force by a few guns,
but this difference bore no comparison to the disparity of the
conflict. The Guerriere was thought to be a match for any vessel of
her class, and had been ranked among the largest in the British navy.
The Constitution arrived at Boston on the 28th of August, having
captured several merchant vessels."[72]
The victory thus achieved was of incalculable importance to the
Americans. If unexpected and surprising to them, it was still more so
to the English. On the ocean, the latter claimed supremacy; and their
successes in respect to other nations seemed to justify their proud
pretensions. Indeed, whatever might be the result of the contest on
the land, it had scarcely occurred to the English, that the Americans
could, in any equal engagement on the water, become the victors. Nor
had the Americans themselves confident hope of any signal success. But
this beginning diffused a general joy throughout the nation, as well
it might, and excited anticipations which, if high, were destined to
be more than realized.
_Battle of Queenstown._--For the purpose of invading Canada, an army
of about five thousand New York militia had been collected on the
Niagara frontier. Of these, General Stephen Van Rensselaer, of Albany,
an officer of great merit, had the command. His head-quarters were at
Lewiston, on the river Niagara, opposite to which was Queenstown, a
fortified British post. Several hundred regular troops were also
attached to his command.
The militia displaying great eagerness to attack the enemy, the
general determined to give them an opportunity by crossing over to
Queenstown. On the morning of the 13th, the army having been
rëinforced by three hundred regulars, under Colonel Christie, the
passage of the Niagara was made. One division of the troops was
commanded by Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer; the other, was the
division of Colonel Christie. These were to be followed by Colonel
Fenwick's artillery, and the residue of the army. The first party
which effected a landing, was that of Colonels Van Rensselaer and
Christie, about four o'clock in the morning. On landing, the
detachments were formed by order of Colonel Van Rensselaer, (Colonel
Christie not having crossed with his men,) for the purpose of storming
the heights of Queenstown.
At this critical moment, the American troops were attacked on either
flank, during which the brave Colonel Van Rensselaer received four
severe wounds, which were then supposed to be mortal. The command now
devolved upon Captain Wool, the senior officer of the regular troops,
who, although sorely wounded, repaired to Van Rensselaer, and
volunteered for any service which might relieve the troops of the
latter. Colonel Van Rensselaer directed the storming of the British
battery upon the heights. Wool immediately conducted his force
silently and circuitously, leaving the battery to his right, until he
had passed it, and attained an eminence which commanded it. The
British, finding that resistance would not avail them any thing, left
it to the Americans, and retreated down the heights of Queenstown.
Elated with their success, the Americans had fallen into disorder, when
suddenly they beheld the intrepid Brock advancing at the head of a
rëinforcement of about three hundred men from Fort George. In a moment
of alarm, an officer raised a white flag, in token of surrender, but
which Wool indignantly pulled down. To keep the enemy at bay, until he
could form his men, he dispatched a body of sixty men, who advanced, but
retreated without firing a gun. The British followed, and drove the
Americans to the brink of the precipice. One soldier, who was about to
descend, Wool ordered to be shot; but, as the musket was levelling, he
returned. Thus prohibiting either surrender or retreat, and being ably
seconded by his officers, Wool rallied, and led on his troops to the
attack. The British, in their turn, gave way, and retreated down the
hill. Brock, in attempting to rally them amidst a galling fire from the
Americans, was mortally wounded. His party no longer attempted
resistance, but fled in disorder.
The Americans were now congratulating themselves on their success,
when, unexpectedly, they were attacked by a body of British and
Indians, amounting to one thousand, under General Sheaffe, who had
followed the energetic Brock from Fort George. The battle becoming
warm, and the Americans being hard pressed, General Van Rensselaer
rëcrossed the Niagara, for the purpose of bringing over the militia,
who were on the opposite bank.
But their ardor had abated. The sight of the wounded, and the groans
of the dying, who most unfortunately had been carried in boats to the
American side, had served to destroy all their courage. They could not
be persuaded to cross, although their gallant general besought them
with tears. Two thousand and five hundred of the militia, quite
sufficient to have maintained the works which had been taken, remained
idle and cowardly spectators of this most interesting scene. For this
conduct, they found an excuse in the unconstitutionality of obliging
militia to enter a foreign territory for the purpose of aggressive
war. Thus the day was lost, and the troops, who had fought so nobly,
had fought in vain, and were obliged, at length, to surrender. Sixty
were killed, one hundred wounded, and seven hundred made prisoners.
_Wasp and Frolic._--On the 13th of October, the American sloop-of-war
Wasp, mounting sixteen thirty-two-pound carronades, two long twelves,
with one hundred and thirty men, left the Delaware on a cruise. On the
night of the 17th, several sail were discovered, which, in the
morning, proved to be English merchantmen from Honduras, under convoy
of a brig and two ships, armed with sixteen guns each. The brig
shortened sail, with an evident disposition for an engagement.
Meanwhile, the Wasp having prepared for action, ranged close up on the
starboard side of the enemy, receiving her broadside at the distance
of some sixty yards, and delivering her own. From this moment, the
action became unremitted. The fire of the Frolic, for so she proved to
be, was to that of the Wasp, as three to two; but with this remarkable
difference, that while the former uniformly fired as she rose, the sea
being rough, the latter as uniformly fired when she sunk. And the
consequence was, that the shot of the Frolic were either lost, or only
touched the rigging of the Wasp, while those from the latter struck
the hull of her antagonist.
In the brief space of five minutes, the maintop-mast of the Wasp was
shot away, and, falling down with the maintop-sail yard across the
larboard fore and foretop-sail, rendered her head yards unmanageable
during the rest of the action. Soon after, her gaff and
mizen-gallant-masts were shot away.