was suffered in the end to fall into poverty and neglect. His life was
filled with adventures and changes. For several years he was employed
in the service of the king of Spain, and during one of the expeditions
on which he was sent from that country, he made the important
discovery of the Rio de la Plata. He occasionally returned to
England, and at length made it his resting-place. Gloom overshadowed
his latter days. His pension, at the accession of Mary, was suspended
for two years, and, though restored, it was diminished the one-half.
He survived to a great age, being over eighty years, dying as is
supposed in London, but _when_ no record shows. Not the slightest
memorial points out the place of his sepulture.
It is quite certain that the date of Cabot's discovery of the Western
continent is more than one year anterior to that of Columbus, the
latter having reached the southern portion of it August 1st, 1498,
while Cabot reached the northern portion June 24th, 1497. Amerigo
Vespucci, who has carried away the honor of giving name to the
continent, did not reach it until nearly two years after the English
adventurer. But Columbus, in his first voyage, having ascertained the
existence of regions beyond the Atlantic, became in effect the
earliest and real discoverer. Except for his sublime theory and
adventurous experiment, the age, probably, would not have furnished a
Sebastian Cabot or an Amerigo Vespucci.
[Illustration]
II.--EARLY SETTLEMENTS.
[Illustration]
I. VIRGINIA, OR SOUTHERN COLONY.
UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPTS TO SETTLE AMERICA--Expeditions of Sir Humphrey
Gilbert--Sir Walter Raleigh--Sir Richard Grenville--Sir John
White-First permanent settlement at Jamestown--Colonists early
in want--Dissensions in their Councils--Hostility of the
Indians--Capture of Captain Smith--Generous conduct of
Pocahontas--Gloomy condition of the Colony--Timely arrival of
assistance--Returning prosperity--Establishment of a Provisional
government--Introduction of Negro Slavery--Cruel Massacre of the
Colonists.
When the new world, as America has since been familiarly called, was
opened to the enterprise and cupidity of Europeans, it became an
object to effect settlements in it from time to time. Accordingly,
during a period of more than one hundred years from the discovery of
San Salvador by Columbus, attempts were made for this purpose, either
by adventurers in search of other discoveries, or by expeditions
fitted out to occupy regions already known. So far, however, as the
northern portion of the continent was concerned, these attempts proved
entirely without success. There was no want of excitement and effort
at this remarkable era, on the part of _individuals_. The strange
story of the voyages of Columbus awakened the spirit of adventure in
Europe, as it was never felt before. Vessel after vessel, and fleet
after fleet, were despatched to the new-discovered continent, but the
object in view was rather to find gold than a home; and even where the
latter was sought, the preparations were either inadequate, or the
undertaking was indifferently contrived and managed. Sebastian Cabot,
who discovered Newfoundland; James Cartier, who first entered the Gulf
of St. Lawrence; Ferdinand de Soto, who first ascertained the
existence of the Mississippi; Sir Walter Raleigh, among the earliest
adventurers to Virginia, and Bartholomew Gosnold, to whom Cape Cod was
first known, and all of whom attempted settlements for a longer or
shorter period, were unsuccessful, and disappointed in the end. The
English were not thoroughly engaged in the business of colonizing
America, until the latter part of the sixteenth century, when several
successive attempts were made to settle Virginia. The first expedition
was conducted by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who failed in his object,
having never reached Virginia; and being shipwrecked, perished with
all his crew on the return voyage to England. In 1584, the enterprise
was confided to the auspices of Sir Walter Raleigh, who, in the spring
of that year, despatched two small barks, under the command severally
of Amidas and Barlow. After going much farther south than was
necessary, and experiencing the sickness incident to the season, they
proceeded northerly till they made a harbor, taking possession of the
adjoining land, "for the queen's most excellent majestie," and in a
short time afterward came to the island of Roanoke. Nothing was
effected by this voyage, except a little trafficking with the natives,
and the favorable account which was given of the country, upon the
return of the expedition. In the third expedition, which was conducted
by Sir Richard Grenville, under Sir Walter, in 1585, a company was
landed on Roanoke, consisting of one hundred and eight persons, who,
upon the return of the ship, were left to settle the country. But
being reduced to extremities for want of sustenance, and by the
hostility of the Indians, they all returned to England the next year
with Sir Francis Drake. In the mean while, 1585, Sir Walter Raleigh
and his associates made a voyage to Virginia, taking supplies for the
colony; but after spending some time in the country, and not finding
the colonists, they returned to England.
[Illustration: Early Settlers trading with the Natives.]
In the earlier attempts at settlement, after the spirit of conquest and
adventure had been somewhat satiated, the object in view, so far as the
English were engaged in it, was the acquisition of tributary provinces,
and the wealth which they would bring to the parent states. In this line
of policy, England but followed the example of Spain and Portugal, yet
with far less energy, and with no manner of success. The signal failures
that were experienced turned attention, at length, to more sober and
rational projects--to regular colonization and commerce. But the
success, even here, was quite indifferent for several years. Mercenary
views obtained the precedence. That moral heroism, which submits to any
extremity of toil and self-denial for the objects of religious faith,
could not be summoned to the support of these merely secular adventures.
So far as colonization was calculated upon as a source of wealth
directly, it did not feel the influence of a self-sustaining motive. It
needed, as will soon be seen, other views of colonization, to render the
scheme completely successful, in regions remote from tropical riches and
luxuries. What more might have been done to insure success, had the
kings and princes of Europe been at leisure to prosecute the object with
the means in their power, is not now to be ascertained. It is clear,
from the history of the times, that they could ill afford the necessary
leisure, in consequence of the multiplicity and weight of their own
individual concerns. Wars, negociations, schemes of policy, and the
adjustment of ecclesiastical relations, occupied the rulers of England
and France, as also Germany and nearly all the continent, almost
exclusively through the sixteenth century. Of that which was achieved in
the way of discovery and temporary settlement, in the northern portion
of the American continent, much was left to individual enterprise and
resources; and the universal failure of permanent colonization was
almost the unavoidable result, connected, indeed, with the mercenary
motive and bad management with which it was prosecuted.
The first settlement of a permanent character, effected by the English
in North America, was at _Jamestown_, in Virginia, in 1607. To that
portion of the continent, as has been just detailed, more numerous and
vigorous efforts at settlement had been directed than to any other on
the coast, and with what results has also appeared. No one can read
the account of these early and unfortunate attempts to settle our
country, without deeply lamenting the fate of those brave adventurers
who were engaged in them. In the Virginia enterprise, religion and its
blessings were not the direct moving influences on the minds of the
adventurers; but they were a gallant and public spirited class of the
English people, and many of them of the better orders of society.
Their failure, however, did not check the spirit of enterprise; a
settlement was determined on, and it was providentially effected.
Under the sanction of a grant from King James, of the southern equal
half of the territory lying between the thirty-fourth and forty-fifth
degrees of latitude, an association was constituted, called the London
Company, who undertook the colonization of their portion of the
country. This was called the _Southern Colony_. The expedition
consisted of three small vessels, under the command of Captain
Christopher Newport, a man of great nautical experience. Neither they
who were designed for the magistracy, nor the code of laws, could be
known until the arrival of the fleet in Virginia, when the sealed
orders, committed to the commander, might be broken. It would seem,
from the early accounts, that a portion of the emigrants were but
little influenced by the considerations of religion or propriety, from
the disorders that occurred during the voyage; but their pious
preacher, Mr. Hunt, at length, "with the water of patience and his
godly exhortations (but chiefly by his true-devoted examples) quenched
these flames of envy and dissension."
In searching for Roanoke, they were driven by a storm to a different
part of the coast; the first land they made being a cape, which they
called Cape Henry. Thus discovering and sailing up the Chesapeake bay,
they came, at length, to a place suited to their purpose. Here they
commenced in earnest their great work of settlement, calling the place
_Jamestown_, in honor of King James. According to directions, the box
containing the orders was opened, and the names of Bartholomew
Gosnold, John Smith, Edward Wingfield, Christopher Newport, John
Radcliffe, John Martin, and George Kendall, were found as constituting
the council. These were to choose a president from among themselves,
for a year, who, with the council, should conduct and govern the
colony. Mr. Wingfield was elected president, while one of the most
distinguished of them, Captain John Smith, on account of suspicions
entertained respecting his ambitious views, was excluded, for a time,
from the council. The plan of government was, that matters of moment
were to be examined by a jury, but determined by the major part of the
council, in which the president had two votes.
While erecting accommodations for themselves, and during the absence of
a portion of the men on discoveries in the country, they were molested
by the savages, with some small loss, and were in danger of total
extirpation, "had it not chanced that a crosse-barre, shot from the
ships, stroke down a bough from a tree amongst them (the savages), that
caused them to retire." These, it seems, on other occasions, after
troubling the planters, "by the nimbleness of their heeles, escaped."
What with labor by day, and watching by night--with felling trees, and
planting the ground--with resisting hostile attacks, rëloading ships,
and effecting governmental business--the settlers found their hands and
their hearts fully, and often painfully, occupied. Several weeks were
spent in this manner, and after adjusting their disputes, and receiving
Smith into the council, with a handsome remuneration for the wrong he
had received, they all partook of the Holy Communion, the savages at the
same time desiring peace with them. On the 15th of June, 1607, Captain
Newport returned to England with the intelligence of their success,
leaving in Virginia one hundred emigrants.
The departure of Newport was the signal for want, and an increase of
their difficulties. While the vessels were with them, provisions, at
some rate, were to be had; but after they left, "there remained
neither taverne, beere-house, nor place of reliefe, but the common
kettell. Had we beene as free from all shine as gluttony and
drunkenness, we might have been cannonized for saints--we might truly
call it (the damaged grain) so much bran than corne, our drink was
water, our lodgings castles in the air: with this lodging and diet,
our extreme toil, in bearing and planting pallisadoes, so strained and
bruised us, and our continual labor, in the extremity of the heat, had
so weakened us, as were cause sufficient to have made us miserable in
our native country, or any other place in the world."[5] This was
truly a hard lot--through the summer they lived on the products of the
sea. During that time, they buried fifty of their number. At the
point, however, of their greatest scarcity, they were happily supplied
with fruit and provisions by the Indians.
Their difficulties were greatly increased by the perverseness or
incapacity of several of their council. In this body, changes and
deposals took place from time to time, until the management of every
thing abroad, fell into the hands of Captain Smith. Of this
extraordinary man, much might be related, were there space; but we can
pursue only the course of events as they occurred in the settlement of
this country. In the mean while, by his energy and example in labor,
"himselfe alwayes bearing the greatest taske for his own share," he
set the men effectually to work in providing for themselves
comfortable lodgings. This done, the necessity of procuring a more
permanent supply of provisions, and of receiving the friendship of the
natives, or subjecting them to the power of the colonists, engaged him
for a period in the most daring projects. In this, he passed through a
wonderful vicissitude of fortune--the colony in the mean while
sustaining a precarious existence, by means of the dissensions that
prevailed, the hostility of the Indians, and the sickness that wasted
the whites. On one occasion, while exploring the country, after he
left his boat, and was proceeding in company with two Englishmen, and
a savage for his guide, he was beset with two hundred savages. The
Englishmen were killed; the savage he tied to his arm with his garter,
using him as a buckler. Smith was soon wounded and taken prisoner; but
not until he had killed three of the Indians. The fear inspired by his
bravery checked their advance, till he sunk to the middle in a miry
spot which was in his way, as he retreated backward. Even then they
dared not come near him, till, being nearly dead with cold, he threw
away his arms. Upon being taken, he presented to their king a round
ivory compass, which was the means of saving him from instant death.
Just as they were preparing to pierce him with their arrows, the
chief, lifting the compass, they all laid down their bows and arrows,
at the same time releasing him from his pitiable situation.
[Illustration: Smith saved from Death.]
At length he was brought to Powhatan, their emperor. It soon became
evident that they were preparing to put him to death after their
peculiarly fantastic and barbarous ceremonies. A long consultation was
held, and the conclusion was, "two great stones were brought before
Powhatan, then as many as could lay hands on him dragged him to them,
and thereon laid his head; and being ready with their clubs to beate
out his brains, _Pocahontas_, the king's dearest daughter, when no
entreaty could prevail, got his head into her armes, and laid her owne
upon his, to save him from death: whereat the emperor was contented he
should live."
Friendship with the whites soon followed this event. Smith was taken
to Jamestown by his guides, and contracts were made with the Indians
by means of presents, which secured a portion of their territory to
the English. Every few days, Pocahontas with her attendants brought to
Captain Smith provisions in such quantity as to save the lives of the
colonists.
This condition of things could not always last: the support thus
received could be but precarious at the best; and it happened favorably
that, for a period, the spirits and courage of the small band of
emigrants were sustained by the arrival of two ships from England, laden
with supplies, and bringing a complement of men. They arrived indeed at
different times, having been separated by stormy weather. In consequence
of these arrivals, and one other before the end of the year 1608, the
number of colonists amounted to nearly three hundred.
In 1609, a new charter was granted to the London company, with enlarged
privileges, as well as more definite limits, and with the addition of
five hundred adventurers. Sir Thomas West, Lord De la War, was now
appointed governor for life; Sir Thomas Gates, his lieutenant; Sir
George Somers, admiral; and other high officers were appointed for life.
By the new charter, the right of absolute property was vested in the
company; the crown to receive one-fifth of all ore of gold and silver
found there for all manner of services. The governor, though unable
himself immediately to leave England, lost no time in fitting out a
fleet for Virginia. Of the nine ships constituting the expedition, eight
arrived in season at Jamestown. The other, having Sir Thomas, the
admiral, on board, was wrecked on the Bermudas; and it was not until
they could fit up craft to convey them to Virginia, that they reached
Jamestown, which was in the spring of the following year. This disaster
and delay seemed to be highly providential in the end, as the colonists
were rëunited with one hundred and fifty men, and a full supply of
provisions, at a time when they had been reduced to the greatest
extremities. Captain Smith, disabled by a severe accidental wound, had
returned to England. In consequence of his departure, the settlement had
been thrown into great confusion. Complaints, disputes, and
insubordination ensued; the savages became hostile, and often imbrued
their hands in the blood of the whites; and finally, starvation followed
in the train of the other calamities. Roots, herbs, acorns, walnuts,
starch, the skins of horses, and even human flesh, were devoured in
order to support life. In a few days more, had not relief been brought
to them, the whole colony would probably have perished.
On the arrival of Sir Thomas, the affairs of the settlement seemed so
desperate, that it was determined to return with the miserable remnant
to England. In putting the plan into execution, and just as they were
leaving the mouth of the river, the long-boat of Lord De la War was
descried. As he had three ships well furnished with provisions, the
colonists were persuaded to return, and renew their efforts to settle
the country. This was on the 9th of June, 1610, and proved to be the
crisis of the colony. It was now, in the providence of God, destined
to live. Improvements began to be made--forts were erected--and the
former idleness and misrule of the people in a great measure
disappeared. In the spring of the succeeding year, however, the health
of Lord De la War became seriously affected, and he consequently
returned to England. The administration was then committed to Sir
Thomas Dale for a short period. He acquitted himself well in it,
though he had some difficulty with the colonists, who had not all been
reduced to the requisite order and submission. The government passed
into the hands of Sir Thomas Gates, upon his arrival at Jamestown, in
August, 1611. He came over with a fleet of six ships, and three
hundred men, bringing with him kine and other cattle, munitions of
war, and a large supply of provisions.
Being thus strengthened, the English extended their domain from time
to time. In the course of the present year, they built a town, which
they called Henrico, in honor of Prince Henry, and in the subsequent
year, they seized a place called Apamatuck, on account of some injury
they had received from its inhabitants. Here they built a town, which
they called the _New Bermudas_. About this period, a Captain Argal,
sailing up the Patawomeakee, secured Pocahontas by stratagem; the
consequence of which was, her acquaintance with an English gentleman,
named John Rolfe, and her marriage to him, together with peace between
the whites and Powhatan.
The plan of providing for the colony was now changed. Instead of
feeding out of the common store, and laboring jointly together, the
people were allowed to hold each a lot of his own, with a sufficient
time to cultivate it. This change produced the most beneficial
results, as it prevented the idleness and inefficiency which are apt
to attend a common-stock social establishment, and multiplied, in a
ten-fold degree, the amount of their provisions. The experiment having
been so propitious, the original plan of a community of labor and
supply was finally abandoned. The government of the colony at this
time was again in the hands of Sir Thomas Dale; the former governor,
Sir Thomas Gates, having returned to England in the spring of 1614.
Governor Dale continued about two years, superintending satisfactorily
the affairs of the colony, and, having chosen Captain George Yeardley
to be deputy-governor, he returned to England, accompanied by
Pocahontas and her husband. Pocahontas became a Christian and a
mother; and it may be added, that her descendants, in a subsequent
age, inherited her lands in Virginia, and that some of the first
families of that state trace from her their lineage.
Yeardley applied himself to the cultivation of tobacco, and was highly
successful in an attack on the savages, who refused to pay their annual
tribute of corn. He continued in the colony about a year, when, by an
appointment made in England, the government devolved on Captain Argal,
before named. Argal found Jamestown in a bad condition; the dwellings,
which were slight structures, had mostly disappeared, and the public
works neglected or in decay, and "the colonie dispersed all about,
planting _Tobacco_." A reformation to some extent was effected. At this
period, 1617, more colonists arrived; but it would seem, from a remark
in a narrative of that date, that the number of the higher classes of
society exceeded their wants; "for, in Virginia, a plaine souldier, that
can use a pickaxe and spade, is better than five knights, although they
were knights that could break a lance; for men of great place, not
inured to those encounters, when they finde things not suitable, grow
many times so discontented, they forget themselves, and oft become so
carelesse, that a discontented melancholy brings them to much sorrow,
and to others, much miserie." When it was ascertained that great
multitudes were preparing, in England, to be sent, the colonists, in a
communication to the council, entreated that provisions might be
forwarded as well as people, and gave the company to understand, "what
they did suffer for want of skilful husbandmen and meanes to set their
plough on worke, having as good land as any man can desire."
In the year 1619, the settlements of Virginia were favored with the
establishment of a provincial legislature, which was constituted of
delegates chosen by themselves, as they were divided into eleven
corporations. The first meeting of the legislature was on the 19th of
June, having been convoked by the governor-general of the colony. This
was a great and desirable change from the sort of vassalage in which
they had previously lived. This general assembly debated and decided
all matters that were deemed essential to the welfare of the colony. A
great addition was made to the number of the colonists the two
following years, among whom were one hundred and fifty young women, of
good character, designed as the future wives of the colonists. During
the summer of 1620, a Dutch armed ship arrived at the colony, and sold
them twenty negroes, at which period the system of slave holding, with
its attendant crimes and evils, commenced in this country.