See Sir George Robertson, _Chitral_ (1898). (T. H. H.*)

CHITTAGONG, a seaport of British India, giving its name to a district

and two divisions of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It is situated on the

right bank of the Karnaphuli river, about 12 m. from its mouth. It is

the terminus of the Assam-Bengal railway. The municipal area covers

about 9 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 22,140. The sea-borne exports consist

chiefly of jute, other items being tea, raw cotton, rice and hides.

There is also a large trade by country boats, bringing chiefly cotton,

rice, spices, sugar and tobacco. Since October 1905 Chittagong has

become the chief port of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam.

The DISTRICT OF CHITTAGONG is situated at the north-east corner of the

province, occupying a strip of coast and hills between the sea and the

mountains of Burma. Its area is 2492 sq. m. In 1901 the population was

1,353,250, showing an increase of 5% in the decade. A few unimportant

ranges rise within the north-eastern portion, the highest hill being

the sacred Sitakund, 1155 ft. high. The principal rivers are the

Karnaphuli, on which Chittagong town is situated, navigable by

sea-going ships as far as Chittagong port, and by large trading boats

for a considerable distance higher up, and the Halda and the Sangu,

which are also navigable by large boats. The wild animals are tigers,

elephants, rhinoceros, leopards and deer. The climate is comparatively

cool, owing to the sea breeze which prevails during the day; but for

the same reason, the atmosphere is very moist, with heavy dews at

night and fogs. Chittagong was ceded to the East India Company by

Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760. The northern portion of the district is

traversed by the Assam-Bengal railway. Tea cultivation is moderately

successful.

The CHITTAGONG HILL TRACTS formed an independent district from 1860 to

1891, were then reduced to the status of a sub-division, but were

again created a district in 1900. They occupy the ranges between

Chittagong proper and the south Lushai hills. The area covers 5138 sq.

m. In 1901 the population was 124,762, showing an increase of 16% in

the decade. The inhabitants, who are either Arakanese or aboriginal

tribes, are almost all Buddhists. The headquarters are at Rangamati,

which was wrecked by the cyclone of October 1897.

The DIVISION OF CHITTAGONG lies at the north-east corner of the Bay of

Bengal, extending northward along the left bank of the Meghna. It

consists of the districts of Chittagong, the Hill Tracts, Noakhali and

Tippera. Its area covers 11,773 sq. m.; the population in 1901 was

4,737,731.

CHITTUR, a town of British India, in the North Arcot district of Madras,

with a station on the South Indian railway. Pop. (1901) 10,893. Formerly

a military cantonment, it is now only the civil headquarters of the

district. It has an English church, mission chapel, and Roman Catholic

chapel, a high school, and several literary institutes.

CHITTY, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1828-1899), English judge, was born in

London. He was the second son of Thomas Chitty (himself son and brother

of well-known lawyers), a celebrated special pleader and writer of legal

text-books, in whose pupil-room many distinguished lawyers began their

legal education. Joseph Chitty was educated at Eton and Balliol, Oxford,

gaining a first-class in _Literae Humaniores_ in 1851, and being

afterwards elected to a fellowship at Exeter College. His principal

distinctions during his school and college career had been earned in

athletics, and he came to London as a man who had stroked the Oxford

boat and captained the Oxford cricket eleven. He became a member of

Lincoln's Inn in 1851, was called to the bar in 1856, and made a queen's

counsel in 1874, electing to practise as such in the court in which Sir

George Jessel, master of the rolls, presided. Chitty was highly

successful in his method of dealing with a very masterful if exceedingly

able judge, and soon his practice became very large. In 1880 he entered

the house of commons as liberal member for Oxford (city). His

parliamentary career was short, for in 1881 the Judicature Act required

that the master of the rolls should cease to sit regularly as a judge of

first instance, and Chitty was selected to fill the vacancy thus created

in the chancery division. Sir Joseph Chitty was for sixteen years a

popular judge, in the best meaning of the phrase, being noted for his

courtesy, geniality, patience and scrupulous fairness, as well as for

his legal attainments, and being much respected and liked by those

practising before him, in spite of a habit of interrupting counsel,

possibly acquired through the example of Sir George Jessel. In 1897, on

the retirement of Sir Edward Kay, L.J., he was promoted to the court of

appeal. There he more than sustained--in fact, he appreciably

increased--his reputation as a lawyer and a judge, proving himself to

possess considerable knowledge of the common law as well as of equity.

He died in London on the 15th of February 1899. He married in 1858 Clara

Jessie, daughter of Chief Baron Pollock, and left children who could

thus claim descent from two of the best-known English legal families of

the 19th century.

See E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (1904).

CHIUSI (anc. _Clusium_), a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of

Siena, 55 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Siena, and 26 m. N.N.W. of

Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 6011. It is situated on a hill 1305 ft. above

sea-level, and is surrounded by medieval walls, in which, in places,

fragments of the Etruscan wall are incorporated. The cathedral of S.

Mustiola is a basilica with a nave and two aisles, with eighteen columns

of different kinds of marble, from ancient buildings. It has been

restored and decorated with frescoes in modern times. The campanile

belongs to the 13th century. The place was devastated by malaria in the

middle ages, and did not recover until the Chiana valley was drained in

the 18th century. For the catacombs see CLUSIUM.

CHIVALRY (O. Fr. _chevalerie_, from Late Lat. _caballerius_), the

knightly class of feudal times, possessing its own code of rules, moral

and social (see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY). The primary sense in the

middle ages is "knights" or "fully armed and mounted fighting men."

Thence the term came to mean that gallantry in battle and high sense of

honour in general expected of knights. Thus "to do chivalry" was a

medieval phrase for "to act the knight." Lastly, the word came to be

used in its present very general sense of "courtesy." In English law

chivalry meant the tenure of land by knights' service. It was a service

due to the crown, usually forty days' military attendance annually. The

_Court of Chivalry_ was a court instituted by Edward III., of which the

lord high constable and earl marshal of England were joint judges. When

both sat the court had summary criminal jurisdiction as regards all

offences committed by knights, and generally as to military matters.

When the earl marshal alone presided, it was a court of honour deciding

as to precedence, coats of arms, &c. This court sat for the last time in

1737. The heraldic side of its duties are now vested in the earl marshal

as head of the Heralds' College.

CHIVASSO, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province

of Turin, 18 m. N.E. by rail from the town of Turin, 600 ft. above

sea-level. Pop. (1901) 4169 (town), 9804 (commune). It is situated on

the left bank of the Po, near the influx of the Orco. The cathedral is

of the 15th century with a fine façade ornamented with statues in

terra-cotta. It was an important fortress in the middle ages, and until

1804, when the French dismantled it. One tower only of the old castle of

the marquesses of Monferrato, who possessed the town from 1164 to 1435,

remains. Chivasso is on the main line from Turin to Milan, and is the

junction of branches for Aosta and Casale Monferrato.

CHIVE (_Allium Schoenoprasum_), a hardy perennial plant, with small

narrow bulbs tufted on short root-stocks and long cylindrical hollow

leaves. It is found in the north of England and in Cornwall, and growing

in rocky pastures throughout temperate and northern Europe and Asiatic

Russia, and also in the mountain districts of southern Europe. It is

cultivated for the sake of its leaves, which are used in salads and

soups as a substitute for young onions. It will grow in any good soil,

and is propagated by dividing the roots into small clumps in spring or

autumn; these are planted from 8 to 12 in. apart and soon form large

tufts. The leaves should be cut frequently so as to obtain them tender

and succulent.

CHLOPICKI, GREGORZ JOZEF (1772-1854), Polish general, was born in March

1772 in Podolia. He was educated at the school of the Basilians at

Szarogrod, from which in 1787 he ran away in order to enlist as a

volunteer in the Polish army. He was present at all the engagements

fought during 1792-1794, especially distinguishing himself at the battle

of Raclawice, when he was General Rymkiewicz's adjutant. On the

formation of the Italian legion he joined the second battalion as major,

and was publicly complimented by General Oudinot for his extraordinary

valour at the storming of Peschiera. He also distinguished himself at

the battles of Modena, Busano, Casabianca and Ponto. In 1807 he

commanded the first Vistulan regiment, and rendered good service at the

battles of Eylau and Friedland. In Spain he obtained the legion of

honour and the rank of a French baron for his heroism at the battle of

Epila and the storming of Saragossa, and in 1809 was promoted to be

general of brigade. In 1812 he accompanied the _Grande Armée_ to Russia,

was seriously wounded at Smolensk, and on the reconstruction of the

Polish army in 1813 was made a general of division. On his return to

Poland in 1814, he entered the Russian army with the rank of a general

officer, but a personal insult from the grand duke Constantine resulted

in his retiring into private life. He held aloof at first from the

Polish national rising of 1830, but at the general request of his

countrymen accepted the dictatorship on the 5th of December 1830; on the

23rd of January 1831, however, he resigned in order to fight as a common

soldier. At Wavre (Feb. 19) and at Grochow (Feb. 20) he displayed all

his old bravery, but was so seriously wounded at the battle of Olszyna

that he had to be conveyed to Cracow, near which city he lived in

complete retirement till his death in 1854.

See Jozef Maczynski, _Life and Death of Joseph Chlopicki_ (Pol.)

(Cracow, 1858); Ignacy Pradzynski, _The Four Last Polish Commanders_

(Pol.) (Posen, 1865).

CHLORAL, or TRICHLORACETALDEHYDE, CCl3·CHO, a substance discovered by J.

von Liebig in 1832 (_Ann._, 1832, 1, p. 189) and further studied by

J.B.A. Dumas and Staedeler. It is a heavy, oily and colourless liquid,

of specific gravity 1.541 at 0° C., and boiling-point 97.7° C. It has a

greasy, somewhat bitter taste, and gives off a vapour at ordinary

temperature which has a pungent odour and an irritating effect on the

eyes. The word _chloral_ is derived from the first syllables of

_chlorine_ and _alcohol_, the names of the substances employed for its

preparation. Chloral is soluble in alcohol and ether, in less than its

own weight of water, and in four times its weight of chloroform; it

absorbs chlorine, and dissolves bromine, iodine, phosphorus and sulphur.

Chloral deliquesces in the air, and is converted by water into a

hydrate, with evolution of heat; it combines with alcohols and

mercaptans. An ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate is reduced by

chloral; and nascent hydrogen converts it into aldehyde. By means of

phosphorus pentachloride, chlorine can be substituted for the oxygen of

chloral, the body CCl3·CCl2H being produced; an analogous compound,

CCl3·C(C6H5)2H, is obtained by treating chloral with benzene and

sulphuric acid. With an alkali, chloral gives chloroform (q.v.) and a

formate; oxidizing agents give trichloracetic acid, CCl3·CO(OH). When

kept for some days, as also when placed in contact with sulphuric acid

or a very small quantity of water, chloral undergoes spontaneous change

into the polymeride _metachloral_ (C2Cl3OH)3, a white porcellaneous

body, slowly volatile in the air, and reconverted into chloral without

melting at 180° C. Chloral unites directly with hydrocyanic acid to form

[beta]-trichloracetonitrile, CCl3·CH(OH)CN, and with hydroxylamine it

forms chlorglyoxime, C2H3ClN2O2.

Chloral is prepared by passing dry chlorine into absolute alcohol; the

latter must be cooled at first, but towards the end of the operation has

to be heated nearly to boiling. The alcohol is converted finally into a

syrupy fluid, from which chloral is procured by treatment with sulphuric

acid (see P. Fritsch, _Ann._, 1894, pp. 279, 288). The crude chloral is

distilled over lime, and is purified by further treatment with sulphuric

acid, and by redistillation. A mixture of starch or sugar with manganese

peroxide and hydrochloric acid may be employed instead of alcohol and

chlorine for the manufacture of chloral (A. Staedeler, _Ann. Ch.

Pharm._, 1847, 61, p. 101). An isomer of chloral, _parachloralide_, is

made by passing excess of dry chlorine into absolute methyl alcohol.

_Chloral hydrate_, CCl3·CH(OH)2, forms oblique, often very short,

rhombic prisms. The crystals are perfectly transparent, only slightly

odorous, free from powder, and dry to the touch, and do not become

white by exposure. The melting-point of pure chloral hydrate is 57°,

the boiling-point 96-98° C. When heated with sulphuric acid it is

converted into anhydrous chloral and _chloralide_, C6H2Cl6O3. When

mixed with water, chloral hydrate causes a considerable degree of

cold; and, as with camphor, small fragments of it placed on the

surface of water exhibit gyratory movements. Chloral hydrate does not

restore the colour to a solution of fuchsine which has been

decolorized by sulphurous acid, and so one must assume that the water

present is combined in the molecular condition (V. Meyer, _Ber._,

1880, 13, p. 2343). Chloral may be estimated by distilling the hydrate

with milk of lime and measuring the volume of chloroform produced

(C.H. Wood, _Pharm. Journ._, (3) 1, p. 703), or by hydrolysis with a

known volume of standard alkali and back titration with standard acid

(V. Meyer, _Ber._, 1873, 6, p. 600). Chloral hydrate has the property

of checking the decomposition of a great number of albuminous

substances, such as milk and meat; and a mixture of it with glycerin,

according to J. Personne, is suitable for the preservation of

anatomical preparations. When heated with concentrated glycerin to a

temperature of 110° to 230° C, chloral hydrate yields chloroform,

CHCl3, and allyl formate, HCO(OC3H5).

_Pharmacology and Therapeutics._--The breaking up of chloral hydrate,

in the presence of alkalis, with the production of chloroform and

formates, led Liebreich to the conjecture that a similar decomposition

might be produced in the blood; and hence his introduction of the

drug, in 1869, as an anaesthetic and hypnotic. It is now known,

however, that the drug circulates in the blood unchanged, and is

excreted in the form of urochloralic acid. The dose is from five to

twenty grains or somewhat more, and it is often given in the form of

the pharmacopoeial _Syrupus Chloral_, which contains ten grains of

chloral hydrate to the fluid drachm. Chloral hydrate must be well

diluted when given by the mouth, as otherwise it may cause

considerable gastro-intestinal irritation. In large doses chloral

hydrate is a depressant to the circulation and the respiration, and

also lowers the temperature. In the above doses the drug is a powerful

and safe hypnotic, acting directly on the brain, and producing no

preliminary stage of excitement. Very soon--perhaps twenty

minutes--after taking such a dose, the patient falls into a sleep

which lasts several hours, and is not distinguishable from natural

sleep. When he wakes, it is without disagreeable after-symptoms, but

with a feeling of natural refreshment. The pupils are always

contracted under its influence, except in large doses. There is also

rapidly induced a depression of the anterior horns of grey matter in

the spinal cord, and as the symptoms of strychnine poisoning are due

to violent stimulation of these areas, chloral hydrate is a valuable

antidote in such cases. It should not be hypodermically injected. Its

disadvantages are that it is powerless when there is pain, resembling

in this feature nearly all hypnotics except opium (morphine) and

hyoscin. Its action on the gastro-intestinal canal and on the

respiratory and circulatory systems renders its use inadvisable when

disease of these organs is present. Its action on the spinal cord has

been employed with success in cases of tetanus, whooping-cough,

urinary incontinence, and strychnine poisoning. In the latter case

twenty grains in "normal saline" solution may be directly injected

into a subcutaneous vein, but not into the subcutaneous tissues.

_Toxicology._--In cases of acute poisoning by chloral hydrate, the

symptoms may be summarized as those of profound coma. The treatment is

to give a stimulant emetic such as mustard; to keep up the temperature

by hot bottles, &c.; to prevent or disturb the patient's morbid sleep

by the injection of hot strong coffee into the rectum; and by

shouting, flipping with towels, &c.; to use artificial respiration in

extreme cases; and to inject strychnine. Strychnine is much less

likely, however, to save life after poisoning by chloral hydrate, than

chloral hydrate is to save life in poisoning by strychnine.

Chronic poisoning by chloral is a most pernicious drug-habit. The vice

is easily and very rapidly acquired. The victim is usually excited and

loquacious. He is easily fatigued and suffers from attacks of easily

induced syncope. There are signs of gastro-intestinal irritation, and

a tendency to cutaneous eruptions of an erythematous type. The patient

may succumb to a dose only slightly larger than usual. The treatment

is on general principles, there being no specific remedy. The patient

must be persuaded to put himself under restraint, and the drug must be

stopped at once and entirely.

CHLORATES, the metallic salts of chloric acid; they are all solids,

soluble in water, the least soluble being the potassium salt. They may

be prepared by dissolving or suspending a metallic oxide or hydroxide in

water and saturating the solution with chlorine; by double

decomposition; or by neutralizing a solution of chloric acid by a

metallic oxide, hydroxide or carbonate. They are all decomposed on

heating, with evolution of oxygen; and in contact with concentrated

sulphuric acid with liberation of chlorine peroxide. The most important

is potassium chlorate, KClO3, which was obtained in 1786 by C.L.

Berthollet by the action of chlorine on caustic potash, and this method

was at first used for its manufacture. The modern process consists in

the electrolysis of a hot solution of potassium chloride, or,

preferably, the formation of sodium chlorate by the electrolytic method

and its subsequent decomposition by potassium chloride. (See ALKALI

MANUFACTURE.) Potassium chlorate crystallizes in large white tablets, of

a bright lustre. It melts without decomposition, and begins to give off

oxygen at about 370° C. According to F.L. Teed (_Proc. Chem. Soc._,

1886, p. 141), the decomposition of potassium chlorate by heat is not at

all simple, the quantities of chloride and perchlorate produced

depending on the temperature. A very gentle heating gives decomposition

approximating to the equation of 22KClO3 = 14KClO4 + 8KCl + 5O2, whilst

on a more rapid heating the quantities correspond more nearly to 10KClO3

= 6KClO4 + 4KCl + 3O2. The decomposition is rendered more easy and

regular by mixing the salt with powdered manganese dioxide. The salt

finds application in the preparation of oxygen, in the manufacture of

matches, for pyrotechnic purposes, and in medicine. Sodium chlorate,

NaClO3, is prepared by the electrolytic process; by passing chlorine

into milk of lime and decomposing the calcium chlorate formed by sodium

sulphate; or by the action of chlorine on sodium carbonate at low

temperature (not above 35° C). It is much more soluble in water than the

potassium salt.

Potassium chlorate is very valuable in medicine. Given in large doses it

causes rapid and characteristic poisoning, with alterations in the blood

and rapid degeneration of nearly all the internal organs; but in small

doses--5 to 15 grains--it partly undergoes reduction in the blood and

tissues, the chloride being formed and oxygen being supplied to the

body-cells in nascent form. Its special uses are in ulceration of the

mouth or tongue (_ulcerative stomatitis_), tonsillitis and pharyngitis.

For these conditions it is administered in the form of a lozenge, but

may also be swallowed in solution, as it is excreted by the saliva and

so reaches the diseased surface. Its remarkable efficacy in healing

ulcers of the mouth--for which it is the specific--has been ascribed to

a decomposition effected by the carbonic acid which is given off from

these ulcers. This releases chloric acid, which, being an extremely

powerful antiseptic, kills the bacteria to which the ulcers are due.

CHLORINE (symbol Cl), atomic weight 35.46 (O = 16), a gaseous chemical

element of the halogen group, taking its name from the colour,

greenish-yellow (Gr. [Greek: chloros]). It was discovered in 1774 by

Scheele, who called it _dephlogisticated muriatic acid_; about 1785,

C.L. Berthollet, regarding it as being a compound of hydrochloric acid

and oxygen, termed it _oxygenized muriatic acid_. This view was

generally held until about 1810-1811, when Sir H. Davy showed definitely

that it was an element, and gave it the name which it now bears.

Chlorine is never found in nature in the uncombined condition, but in

combination with the alkali metals it occurs widely distributed in the

form of rock-salt (sodium chloride); as sylvine and carnallite, at

Stassfürt; and to a smaller extent in various other minerals such as

matlockite and horn-mercury. In the form of alkaline chlorides it is

found in sea-water and various spring waters, and in the tissues of

animals and plants; while, as hydrochloric acid it is found in volcanic

gases.

The preparation of chlorine, both on the small scale and commercially,

depends on the oxidation of hydrochloric acid; the usual oxidizing agent

is manganese dioxide, which, when heated with concentrated hydrochloric

acid, forms manganese chloride, water and chlorine:--MnO2 + 4HCl = MnCl2

+ 2H2O + Cl2. The manganese dioxide may be replaced by various other

substances, such as red lead, lead dioxide, potassium bichromate, and

potassium permanganate. Instead of heating hydrochloric acid with

manganese dioxide, use is frequently made of a mixture of common salt

and manganese dioxide, to which concentrated sulphuric acid is added and

the mixture is then heated:--MnO2 + 2NaCl + 3H2SO4 = MnSO4 + 2NaHSO4 +

2H2O + Cl2. Chlorine may also be obtained by the action of dilute

sulphuric acid on bleaching powder.

Owing to the enormous quantities of chlorine required for various

industrial purposes, many processes have been devised, either for the

recovery of the manganese from the crude manganese chloride of the

chlorine stills, so that it can be again utilized, or for the purpose of

preparing chlorine without the necessity of using manganese in any form

(see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).

Owing to the reduction in the supply of available hydrochloric acid

(on account of the increasing use of the "ammonia-soda" process in

place of the "Leblanc" process for the manufacture of soda) Weldon

tried to adapt the former to the production of chlorine or

hydrochloric acid. His method consisted in using magnesia instead of

lime for the recovery of the ammonia (which occurs in the form of

ammonium chloride in the ammonia-soda process), and then by

evaporating the magnesium chloride solution and heating the residue in

steam, to condense the acid vapours and so obtain hydrochloric acid.

One day before him E. Solvay had patented the same process, but

neither of them was able to make the method a commercial success.

However, in conjunction with Pechiney, of Salindres (near Alais,

France), the Weldon-Pechiney process was worked out. The residual

magnesium chloride of the ammonia-soda process is evaporated until it

ceases to give off hydrochloric acid, and is then mixed with more

magnesia: the magnesium oxychloride formed is broken into small pieces

and heated in a current of air, when it gives up its chlorine, partly

in the uncombined condition and partly in the form of hydrochloric

acid, and leaves a residue of magnesia, which can again be utilized

for the decomposition of more ammonium chloride (W. Weldon, _Journ. of

Soc. of Chem. Industry_, 1884, p. 387). Greater success attended the

efforts of Ludwig Mond, of the firm of Brunner, Mond & Co. In this

process the ammonium chloride is volatilized in large iron retorts

lined with Doulton tiles, and then led into large upright wrought-iron

cylinders lined with fire-bricks. These cylinders are filled with

pills, made of a mixture of magnesia, potassium chloride and fireclay,

the object of the potassium chloride being to prevent any formation of

hydrochloric acid, which might occur if the magnesia was not perfectly

dry. At 300° C. the ammonium chloride is decomposed by the magnesia,

with the formation of magnesium chloride and ammonia. The mixture is

now heated to 600° C. in a current of hot dry gas, containing no free

oxygen (the gas from the carbonating plant being used), and then a

current of air at the same temperature is passed in. Decomposition

takes place and the issuing gas contains 18-20% of chlorine. This

percentage drops gradually, and when it is reduced to about 3% the

temperature of the apparatus is lowered, by the admission of air, to

about 350° C., and the air stream containing the small percentage of

chlorine is led off to a second cylinder of pills, which have just

been treated with ammonium chloride vapour and are ready for the hot

air current. With four cylinders the process is continuous (L. Mond,

_British Assoc. Reports_, 1896, p. 734).

More recently, owing to the production of caustic soda by electrolytic

methods, much chlorine has consequently been produced in the same

manner (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).

Chlorine is a gas of a greenish-yellow colour, and possesses a

characteristic unpleasant and suffocating smell. It can be liquefied at

-34° C. under atmospheric pressure, and at -102° C. it solidifies and

crystallizes. Its specific heat at constant pressure is 0.1155, and at

constant volume 0.08731 (A. Strecker, _Wied. Ann._, 1877 [2], 13, p.

20); and its refractive index 1.000772, whilst in the liquid condition

the refractive index is 1.367. The density is 2.4885 (air = 1)

(Treadwell and Christie, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1905, 47, p. 446). Its

critical temperature is 146° C. Liquid and solid chlorine are both

yellow in colour. The gas must be collected either by downward

displacement, since it is soluble in water and also attacks mercury; or

over a saturated salt solution, in which it is only slightly soluble. At

ordinary temperatures it unites directly with many other elements; thus

with hydrogen, combination takes place in direct sunlight with explosive

violence; arsenic, antimony, thin copper foil and phosphorus take fire

in an atmosphere of chlorine, forming the corresponding chlorides. Many

compounds containing hydrogen are readily decomposed by the gas; for

example, a piece of paper dipped in turpentine inflames in an atmosphere

of chlorine, producing hydrochloric acid and a copious deposit of soot;

a lighted taper burns in chlorine with a dull smoky flame. The solution

of chlorine in water, when freshly prepared, possesses a yellow colour,

but on keeping becomes colourless, on account of its decomposition into

hydrochloric acid and oxygen. It is on this property that its bleaching

and disinfecting power depends (see BLEACHING). Water saturated with

chlorine at 0° C. deposits crystals of a hydrate Cl2·8H2O, which is

readily decomposed at a higher temperature into its constituents.

Chlorine hydrate has an historical importance, as by sealing it up in a

bent tube, and heating the end containing the hydrate, whilst the other

limb of the tube was enclosed in a freezing mixture, M. Faraday was

first able to obtain liquid chlorine.

Chlorine is used commercially for the extraction of gold (q.v.) and

for the manufacture of "bleaching powder" and of chlorates. It also

finds an extensive use in organic chemistry as a substituting and

oxidizing agent, as well as for the preparation of addition compounds.

For purposes of substitution, the free element as a rule only works

slowly on saturated compounds, but the reaction may be accelerated by

the action of sunlight or on warming, or by using a "carrier." In

these latter cases the reaction may proceed in different directions;

thus, with the aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorine in the cold or in the

presence of a carrier substitutes in the benzene nucleus, but in the

presence of sunlight or on warming, substitution takes place in the

side chain. Iodine, antimony trichloride, molybdenum pentachloride,

ferric chloride, ferric oxide, antimony, tin, stannic oxide and

ferrous sulphate have all been used as chlorine carriers.

The atomic weight of chlorine was determined by J. Berzelius and by

F. Penny (_Phil, Trans._, 1839, 13). J.S. Stas, from the synthesis of

silver chloride, obtained the value 35.457 (O = 16), and C. Marignac

found the value 34.462. More recent determinations are: H.B. Dixon and

E.C. Edgar (_Phil. Trans._, 1905); T.W. Richards and G. Jones (_Abst.

J.C.S._, 1907); W.A. Noyes and H.C. Weber (ibid., 1908), and Edgar

(ibid., 1908).

_Hydrochloric Acid._--Chlorine combines with hydrogen to form

hydrochloric acid, HCl, the only known compound of these two elements.

The acid itself was first obtained by J.R. Glauber in about 1648, but J.

Priestley in 1772 was the first to isolate it in the gaseous condition,

and Sir H. Davy in 1810 showed that it contained hydrogen and chlorine

only, as up to that time it was considered to contain oxygen. It may be

prepared by the direct union of its constituents (see Burgess and

Chapman, _J.C.S._, 1906, 89, p. 1399), but on the large scale and also

for the preparation of small quantities it is made by the decomposition

of salt by means of concentrated sulphuric acid, NaCl+H2SO4=NaHSO4+HCl.

It is chiefly obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of soda-ash by

the Leblanc process (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE). The commercial acid is

usually yellow in colour and contains many impurities, such as traces of

arsenic, sulphuric acid, chlorine, ferric chloride and sulphurous acid;

but these do not interfere with its application to the preparation of

bleaching powder, in which it is chiefly consumed. Without further

purification it is also used for "souring" in bleaching, and in tin and

lead soldering.

It is a colourless gas, which can be condensed by cold and pressure to

a liquid boiling at -83.7° C., and can also be solidified, the solid

melting at -112.5° C. (K. Olszewski). Its critical temperature is

52.3° C., and its critical pressure is 86 atmos. The gas fumes

strongly in moist air, and it is rapidly dissolved by water, one

volume of water at 0° C. absorbing 503 volumes of the gas. The gas

does not obey Henry's law, that is, its solubility in water is not

proportional to its pressure. It is one of the "strong" acids, being

ionized to the extent of about 91.4% in decinormal solution. The

strongest aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid at 15° C. contains

42.9% of the acid, and has a specific gravity of 1.212. Perfectly dry

hydrochloric acid gas has no action on metals, but in aqueous solution

it dissolves many of them with evolution of hydrogen and formation of

chlorides.

The salts of hydrochloric acid, known as _chlorides_, can, in most

cases, be prepared by dissolving either the metal, its hydroxide,

oxide, or carbonate in the acid; or by heating the metal in a current

of chlorine, or by precipitation. The majority of the metallic

chlorides are solids (stannic chloride, titanic chloride and antimony

pentachloride are liquids) which readily volatilize on heating. Many

are readily soluble in water, the chief exceptions being silver

chloride, merçurous chloride, cuprous chloride and palladious chloride

which are insoluble in water, and thallous chloride and lead chloride

which are only slightly soluble in cold water, but are readily soluble

in hot water. Bismuth and antimony chlorides are decomposed by water

with production of oxychlorides, whilst titanium tetrachloride yields

titanic acid under the same conditions. All the metallic chlorides,

with the exception of those of the alkali and alkaline earth metals,

are reduced either to the metallic condition or to that of a lower

chloride on heating in a current of hydrogen; most are decomposed by

concentrated sulphuric acid. They can be distinguished from the

corresponding bromides and iodides by the fact that on distillation

with a mixture of potassium bichromate and concentrated sulphuric acid

they yield chromium oxychloride, whereas bromides and iodides by the

same treatment give bromine and iodine respectively. Some metallic

chlorides readily form double chlorides, the most important of these

double salts being the platinochlorides of the alkali metals. The

chlorides of the non-metallic elements are usually volatile fuming

liquids of low boiling-point, which can be distilled without

decomposition and are decomposed by water. Hydrochloric acid and its

metallic salts can be recognized by the formation of insoluble silver

chloride, on adding silver nitrate to their nitric acid solution, and

also by the formation of chromium oxychloride (see above). Chlorides

can be estimated quantitatively by conversion into silver chloride, or

if in the form of alkaline chlorides (in the absence of other metals,

and of any free acids) by titration with standard silver nitrate

solution, using potassium chromate as an indicator.

Chlorine and oxygen do not combine directly, but compounds can be

obtained indirectly. Three oxides are known: chlorine monoxide, Cl2O,

chlorine peroxide, ClO2, and chlorine heptoxide, Cl2O7.

Chlorine monoxide results on passing chlorine over dry precipitated

mercuric oxide. It is a pale yellow gas which can be condensed, on

cooling, to a dark-coloured liquid boiling at 5° C. (under a pressure

of 737.9 mm.). It is extremely unstable, decomposing with extreme

violence on the slightest shock or disturbance, or on exposure to

sunlight. It is readily soluble in water, with which it combines to

form hypochlorous acid. Sulphur, phosphorus, carbon compounds, and

the alkali metals react violently with the gas, taking fire with

explosive decomposition. A.J. Balard determined the volume composition

of the gas by decomposition over mercury on gentle warming, followed

by the absorption of the chlorine produced with potassium hydroxide,

and then measured the residual oxygen.

Chlorine peroxide was first obtained by Sir H. Davy in 1815 by the

action of concentrated sulphuric acid on potassium chlorate. As this

oxide is a dangerous explosive, great care must be taken in its

preparation; the chlorate is finely powdered and added in the cold, in

small quantities at a time, to the acid contained in a retort. After

solution the retort is gently heated by warm water when the gas is

liberated:--3KClO3 + 2H2SO4 = KClO4 + 2KHSO4 + H2O + ClO2. A mixture

of chlorine peroxide and chlorine is obtained by the action of

hydrochloric acid on potassium chlorate, and similarly, on warming a

mixture of potassium chlorate and oxalic acid to 70° C. on the water

bath, a mixture of chlorine peroxide and carbon dioxide is obtained.

Chlorine peroxide must be collected by displacement, as it is soluble

in water and readily attacks mercury. It is a heavy gas of a deep

yellow colour and possesses an unpleasant smell. It can be liquefied,

the liquid boiling at 9.9° C., and on further cooling it solidifies at

-79° C. It is very explosive, being resolved into its constituents by

influence of light, on warming, or on application of shock. It is a

very powerful oxidant; a mixture of potassium chlorate and sugar in

about equal proportions spontaneously inflames when touched with a rod

moistened with concentrated sulphuric acid, the chlorine peroxide

liberated setting fire to the sugar, which goes on burning. Similarly,

phosphorus can be burned under water by covering it with a little

potassium chlorate and running in a thin stream of concentrated

sulphuric acid (see papers by Bray, _Zeit. phys. Chem._, 1906, et

seq.).

Chlorine heptoxide was obtained by A. Michael by slowly adding

perchloric acid to phosphoric oxide below -10° C.; the mixture is

allowed to stand for a day and then gently warmed, when the oxide

distils over as a colourless very volatile oil of boiling-point 82° C.

It turns to a greenish-yellow colour in two or three days and gives

off a greenish gas; it explodes violently on percussion or in contact

with a flame, and is gradually converted into perchloric acid by the

action of water. On the addition of iodine to this oxide, chlorine is

liberated and a white substance is produced, which decomposes, on

heating to 380° C, into iodine and oxygen; bromine is without action

(see A. Michael, _Amer. Chem. Jour._, 1900, vol. 23; 1901, vol. 25).

Several oxy-acids of chlorine are known, namely, hypochlorous acid,

HClO, chlorous acid, HClO2 (in the form of its salts), chloric acid,

HClO3, and perchloric acid, HClO4. Hypochlorous acid is formed when

chlorine monoxide dissolves in water, and can be prepared (in dilute

solution) by passing chlorine through water containing precipitated

mercuric oxide in suspension. Precipitated calcium carbonate may be

used in place of the mercuric oxide, or a hypochlorite may be

decomposed by a dilute mineral acid and the resulting solution

distilled. For this purpose a filtered solution of bleaching-powder

and a very dilute solution of nitric acid may be employed. The acid is

only known in aqueous solution, and only dilute solutions can be

distilled without decomposition. The solution has a pale yellow

colour, and is a strong oxidizing and bleaching agent; it is readily

decomposed by hydrochloric acid, with evolution of oxygen. The salts

of this acid are known as hypochlorites, and like the acid itself are

very unstable, so that it is almost impossible to obtain them pure. A

solution of sodium hypochlorite (_Eau de Javel_), which can be

prepared by passing chlorine into a cold aqueous solution of caustic

soda, has been extensively used for bleaching purposes. One of the

most important derivatives of hypochlorous acid is bleaching powder.

Sodium hypochlorite can be prepared by the electrolysis of brine

solution in the presence of carbon electrodes, having no diaphragm in

the electrolytic cell, and mixing the anode and cathode products by

agitating the liquid. The temperature should be kept at about 15° C.,

and the concentration of the hypochlorite produced must not be allowed

to become too great, in order to prevent reduction taking place at the

cathode.

Chlorous acid is not known in the pure condition; but its sodium salt

is prepared by the action of sodium peroxide on a solution of chlorine

peroxide: 2ClO2 + Na2O2 = 2NaClO2 + O2. The silver and lead salts are

unstable, being decomposed with explosive violence at 100° C. On

adding a caustic alkali solution to one of chlorine peroxide, a

mixture of a chlorite and a chlorate is obtained.

Chloric acid was discovered in 1786 by C.L. Berthollet, and is best

prepared by decomposing barium chlorate with the calculated amount of

dilute sulphuric acid. The aqueous solution can be concentrated _in

vacuo_ over sulphuric acid until it contains 40% of chloric acid.

Further concentration leads to decomposition, with evolution of oxygen

and formation of perchloric acid. The concentrated solution is a

powerful oxidizing agent; organic matter being oxidized so rapidly

that it frequently inflames. Hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen

and sulphurous acid are rapidly oxidized by chloric acid. J.S. Stas

determined its composition by the analysis of pure silver chlorate.

The salts of this acid are known as chlorates (q.v.).

Perchloric acid is best prepared by distilling potassium perchlorate

with concentrated sulphuric acid. According to Sir H. Roscoe, pure

perchloric acid distils over at first, but if the distillation be

continued a white crystalline mass of hydrated perchloric acid,

HClO4·H2O, passes over; this is due to the decomposition of some of

the acid into water and lower oxides of chlorine, the water produced

then combining with the pure acid to produce the hydrated form. This

solid, on redistillation, gives the pure acid, which is a liquid

boiling at 39° C. (under a pressure of 56 mm.) and of specific gravity

1.764 (22/4)°. The crystalline hydrate melts at 50° C. The pure acid

decomposes slowly on standing, but is stable in dilute aqueous

solution. It is a very powerful oxidizing agent; wood and paper in

contact with the acid inflame with explosive violence. In contact with

the skin it produces painful wounds. It may be distinguished from

chloric acid by the fact that it does not give chlorine peroxide when

treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, and that it is not reduced

by sulphurous acid. The salts of the acid are known as the

_perchlorates_, and are all soluble in water; the potassium and

rubidium salts, however, are only soluble to a slight extent.

Potassium perchlorate, KClO4, can be obtained by carefully heating the

chlorate until it first melts and then nearly all solidifies again.

The fused mass is then extracted with water to remove potassium

chloride, and warmed with hydrochloric acid to remove unaltered

chlorate, and finally extracted with water again, when a residue of

practically pure perchlorate is obtained. The alkaline perchlorates

are isomorphous with the permanganates.

CHLORITE, a group of green micaceous minerals which are hydrous

silicates of aluminium, magnesium and ferrous iron. The name was given

by A.G. Werner in 1798, from [Greek: chlôritis], "a green stone."

Several species and many rather ill-defined varieties have been

described, but they are difficult to recognize. Like the micas, the

chlorites (or "hydromicas") are monoclinic in crystallization and have a

perfect cleavage parallel to the flat face of the scales and plates. The

cleavage is, however, not quite so prominent as in the micas, and the

cleavage flakes though pliable are not elastic. The chlorites usually

occur as salt (H=2-3) scaly aggregates of a dark-green colour. They vary

in specific gravity between 2.6 and 3.0, according to the amount of iron

present. Well-developed crystals are met with only in the species

clinochlore and penninite; those of the former are six-sided plates and

are optically biaxial, whilst those of the latter have the form of acute

rhombohedra and are usually optically uniaxial. The species prochlorite

and corundophilite also occur as more or less distinct six-sided plates.

These four better crystallized species are grouped together by G.

Tschermak as orthochlorites, the finely scaly and indistinctly fibrous

forms being grouped by the same author as leptochlorites.

Chemically, the chlorites are distinguished from the micas by the

presence of a considerable amount of water (about 13%) and by not

containing alkalis; from the soft, scaly, mineral talc they differ in

containing aluminium (about 20%) as an essential constituent. The

magnesia (up to 36%) is often in part replaced by ferrous oxide (up to

30%), and the alumina to a lesser extent by ferric oxide; alumina may

also be partly replaced by chromic oxide, as in the rose-red varieties

kämmererite and kotschubeite. The composition of both clinochlore and

penninite is approximately expressed by the formula H8(Mg,Fe)5Al2Si3O18,

and the formulae of prochlorite and corundophilite are

H40(Mg,Fe)23Al14Si13O90 and H20(Mg,Fe)20Al8Si6O45 respectively. The

variation in composition of these orthochlorites is explained by G.

Tschermak by assuming them to be isomorphous mixtures of H4Mg3Si2O9 (the

serpentine molecule) and H4Mg3Al2SiO9 (which is approximately the

composition of the chlorite amesite). The leptochlorites are still more

complex, and the intermixture of other fundamental molecules has to be

assumed; the species recognized by Dana are daphnite, cronstedtite,

thuringite, stilpnomelane, strigovite, diabantite, aphrosiderite,

delessite and rumpfite.

The chlorites usually occur as alteration products of other minerals,

such as pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, garnet, &c., often occurring as

pseudomorphs after these, or as earthy material filling cavities in

igneous rocks composed of these minerals. Many altered igneous rocks owe

their green colour to the presence of secondary chlorite. Chlorite is

also an important constituent of many schistose rocks and phyllites, and

of chlorite-schist it is the only essential constituent.

Well-crystallized specimens of the species clinochlore are found with

crystals of garnet in cavities in chlorite-schist at Achmatovsk near

Zlatoust, in the Urals, and at the Ala valley near Turin, Piedmont;

also as large plates at West Chester in Pennsylvania and at other

American localities. Crystals of penninite are found in serpentine at

Zermatt in Switzerland and in the green schists of the Zillerthal in

Tirol.

Closely allied to the chlorites is another group of micaceous minerals

known as the vermiculites, which have resulted by the alteration of the

micas, particularly biotite and phlogopite. The name is from the Latin

_vermiculor_, "to breed worms," because when heated before the blowpipe

these minerals exfoliate into long worm-like threads. They have the same

chemical constituents as the chlorites, but the composition is variable

and indefinite, varying with that of the original mineral and the extent

of its alteration. Several indistinct varieties have been named, the

most important of which is jeffersonite. (L. J. S.)

CHLOROFORM (trichlor-methane), CHCl3, a valuable anaesthetic, a

colourless liquid, possessing an agreeable smell and a pleasant taste.

It may be prepared by the action of bleaching powder on many carbon

compounds, such, for example, as ethyl alcohol and acetone (E.

Soubeiran, _Ann. chim. phys._, 1831 [2], 48, p. 131; J.v. Liebig,

_Ann._, 1832, I, p. 199), by heating chloral with alkalis (Liebig),

CCl3CHO + NaHO = CHCl3 + NaHCO2, or by heating trichloracetic acid with

ammonia (J. Dumas, _Ann._, 1839, 32, p. 113). In the preparation of

chloroform by the action of bleaching powder on ethyl alcohol it is

probable that the alcohol is first oxidized to acetaldehyde, which is

subsequently chlorinated and then decomposed. Chloroform solidifies in

the cold and then melts at -62° C.; it boils at 61.2° C., and has a

specific gravity 1.52637 (0°/4°) (T.E. Thorpe). It is an exceedingly

good solvent, especially for fats, alkaloids and iodine. It is not

inflammable. The vapour of chloroform when passed through a red-hot tube

yields hexachlorbenzene C6Cl6, perchlorethane C2Cl6, and some

perchlorethylene C2Cl4 (W. Ramsay and S. Young, _Jahresberichte_, 1886,

p. 628). Chromic acid converts it into _phosgene_ (carbonyl chloride,

COCl2). It reacts with sodium ethylate to form ortho-formic ester,

CH(OC2H5)3, and when heated with aqueous ammonia for some hours at

200-220° C. gives carbon monoxide and ammonium formate, 2CHCl3 + 7NH3 +

3H2O = NH4·HCO2 + CO + 6NH4Cl (G. André, _Jahresb._, 1886, p. 627). When

digested with phenols and caustic soda it forms oxyaldehydes (K. Reimer,

_Ber._, 1876, 9, p. 423); and when heated with alcoholic potash it is

converted into potassium formate, CHCl3 + 4KHO = KHCO2 + 3KCl + 2H2O. It

combines with acetoacetic ester to form the aromatic compound

meta-oxyuvitic acid, C6H2·CH3·OH·(COOH)2. A hydrate, of composition

CHCl3·18H2O, has been described (G. Chancel, _Fresenius Zeitschrift f.

anal. Chemie_, 1886, 25, p. 118); it forms hexagonal crystals which melt

at 1.6° C.

Chloroform may be readily detected by the production of an isonitrile

when it is heated with alcoholic potash and a primary amine; thus with

aniline, phenyl isocyanide (recognized by its nauseating smell) is

produced,

CHCl3 + C6H5NH2 + 3KHO = C6H5NC + 3KCl + 3H2O.

For the action and use of chloroform as an anaesthetic, see ANAESTHESIA.

Chloroform may be given internally in doses of from one to five drops.

The _British Pharmacopoeia_ contains a watery solution--the _Aqua

Chloroformi_--which is useful in disguising the taste of nauseous drugs;

a liniment which consists of equal parts of camphor liniment and

chloroform, and is a useful counter-irritant; the _Spiritus Chloroformi_

(erroneously known as "chloric ether"), which is a useful anodyne in

doses of from five to forty drops; and the _Tinctura Chloroformi et

Morphinae Composita_, which is the equivalent of a proprietary drug

called chlorodyne. This tincture contains chloroform, morphine and

prussic acid, and must be used with the greatest care.

Externally chloroform is an antiseptic, a local anaesthetic if allowed

to evaporate, and a rubefacient, causing the vessels of the skin to

dilate, if rubbed in. Its action on the stomach is practically identical

with that of alcohol (q.v.), though in very much smaller doses. The uses

of chloroform which fall to be mentioned here are:--as a

counter-irritant; as a local anaesthetic for toothache due to caries, it

being applied on a cotton-wool plug which is inserted into the carious

cavity; as an antispasmodic in tetanus and hydrophobia; and as the best

and most immediate and effective antidote in cases of strychnine

poisoning.

CHLOROPHYLL (from Gr. [Greek: chloros], green, [Greek: phyllon], a

leaf), the green colouring matter of leaves. It is universally present

in growing vegetable cells. The pigment of leaves is a complex mixture

of substances; of these one is green, and to this the name, originally

given in 1817 by Pelletier and Caventou, is sometimes restricted;

xanthophyll (Gr. [Greek: xanthos], yellow) is dark brown; carotin is

copper-coloured. Chlorophyll is related chemically to the proteids; a

decomposition product, phylloporphyrin, being very closely related to

haematoporphyrin, which is a decomposition product of haemoglobin, the

red colouring matter of the blood. Chlorophyll is neutral in reaction,

insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, &c, the solutions

exhibiting a green colour and a vivid red fluorescence. Magnesium is a

necessary constituent. (See S.B. Schryver, _Science Progress_, 1909, 3,

p. 425.)

CHLOROSIS (Gr. [Greek: chloros], pale green), the botanical term for

loss of colour in a plant-organ, a sign of disease; also in medicine, a

form of anaemia (see BLOOD: _Pathology_).

CHLORPICRIN (Nitrochloroform), C·NO2·Cl3, the product of the

distillation of many nitro compounds (picric acid, nitromethane, &c.)

with bleaching powder; it can also be prepared by the action of

concentrated nitric acid on chloral or chloroform. A. W. von Hofmann

(_Annalen_, 1866, 139, p. 111) mixed 10 parts of bleaching powder into a

paste with cold water and added a solution (saturated at 30° C.) of 1

part of picric acid. A violent reaction is set up and the chlorpicrin

distils over, generally without the necessity for any external heating.

It is a colourless liquid of boiling-point 112° C., and of specific

gravity 1.692. It is almost insoluble in water, but is readily soluble

in alcohol; it has a sharp smell, and its vapour affects the eyes very

powerfully. Iron filings and acetic acid reduce it to trimethylamine,

whilst alcoholic ammonia converts it into guanidine, HN:C(NH2)2, and

sodium ethylate into ortho-carbonic ester, C(OC2H5)4. The corresponding

brompicrin is also known.

CHMIELNICKI, BOGDAN (c. 1593-1657), hetman of the Cossacks, son of

Michael Chmielnicki, was born at Subatow, near Chigirin in the Ukraine,

an estate given to the elder Chmielnicki for his lifelong services to

the Polish crown. Bogdan, after learning to read and write, a rare

accomplishment in those days, entered the Cossack ranks, was dangerously

wounded and taken prisoner in his first battle against the Turks, and

found leisure during his two years' captivity at Constantinople to

acquire the rudiments of Turkish and French. On returning to the Ukraine

he settled down quietly on his paternal estate, and in all probability

history would never have known his name if the intolerable persecution

of a neighbouring Polish squire, who stole his hayricks and flogged his

infant son to death, had not converted the thrifty and acquisitive

Cossack husbandman into one of the most striking and sinister figures of

modern times. Failing to get redress nearer home, he determined to seek

for justice at Warsaw, whither he had been summoned with other Cossack

delegates to assist Wladislaus IV. in his long-projected war against the

Turks. The king, perceiving him to be a man of some education and

intelligence, appointed him _pisarz_ or secretary of the registered

Cossacks, and he subsequently served under Koniecpolski in the Ukraine

campaign of 1646. His hopes of distinction were, however, cut short by a

decree of the Polish diet, which, in order to vex the king, refused to

sanction the continuance of the war. Chmielnicki, now doubly hateful to

the Poles as being both a royalist and a Cossack, was again maltreated

and chicaned, and only escaped from gaol by bribing his gaolers.

Thirsting for vengeance, he fled to the Cossack settlements on the Lower

Dnieper and thence sent messages to the khan of the Crimea, urging a

simultaneous invasion of Poland by the Tatars and the Cossacks (1647).

On the 11th of April 1648, at an assembly of the Zaporozhians (see

POLAND: _History_), he openly declared his intention of proceeding

against the Poles, and was elected ataman by acclamation. At Zheltnaya

Vodui (Yellow Waters) in the Ukraine he annihilated, on the 19th of May,

a detached Polish army corps after three days' desperate fighting, and

on the 26th routed the main Polish army under the grand hetman, Stephen

Potocki, at Kruta Balka (Hard Plank), near the river Korsun. The

immediate consequence of these victories was the outbreak of a "serfs'

fury." Throughout the Ukraine the Polish gentry were hunted down, flayed

and burnt alive, blinded and sawn asunder. Every manor-house was reduced

to ashes. Every Uniat and Catholic priest was hung up before his own

altar, along with a Jew and a hog. The panic-stricken inhabitants fled

to the nearest strongholds, and soon the rebels were swarming all over

the palatinates of Volhynia and Podolia. But the ataman was as crafty as

he was cruel. Disagreeably awakened to the insecurity of his position by

the refusal of the tsar and the sultan to accept him as a vassal, he

feigned to resume negotiations with the Poles in order to gain time,

dismissed the Polish commissioners in the summer of 1648 with impossible

conditions, and on the 23rd of September, after a contest of three days,

utterly routed the Polish chivalry, 40,000 strong, at Pildawa, where the

Cossacks are said to have reaped an immense booty after the fight was

over. All Poland now lay at his feet, and the road to the defenceless

capital was open before him; but he wasted the precious months in vain

before the fortress of Zamosc, and was then persuaded by the new king of

Poland, John Casimir, to consent to a suspension of hostilities. In June

1649, arrayed in cloth-of-gold and mounted on a white charger,

Chmielnicki made his triumphal entry into Kiev, where he was hailed as

the Maccabaeus of the Orthodox faith, and permitted the committal of

unspeakable atrocities on the Jews and Roman Catholics. At the ensuing

peace congress at Pereyaslavl he demanded terms so extravagant that the

Polish commissioners dared not listen to them. In 1649, therefore, the

war was resumed. A bloody battle ensued near Zborow, on the banks of the

Strypa, when only the personal valour of the Polish king, the

superiority of the Polish artillery, and the defection of Chmielnicki's

allies the Tatars enabled the royal forces to hold their own. Peace was

then patched up by the compact of Zborow (August 21, 1649), whereby

Chmielnicki was virtually recognized as a semi-independent prince.

For the next eighteen months he was the absolute master of the Ukraine,

which he divided into sixteen provinces, made his native place Chigirin

the Cossack capital, and entered into direct relations with foreign

powers. Poland and Muscovy competed for his alliance, and in his more

exalted moods he meditated an Orthodox crusade against the Turk at the

head of the northern Slavs. But he was no statesman, and his

difficulties proved overwhelming. Instinct told him that his old ally

the khan of the Crimea was unreliable, and that the tsar of Muscovy was

his natural protector, yet he could not make up his mind to abandon the

one or turn to the other. His attempt to carve a principality for his

son out of Moldavia, which Poland regarded as her vassal, led to the

outbreak in 1651 of a third war between subject and suzerain, which

speedily assumed the dignity and the dimensions of a crusade.

Chmielnicki was now regarded not merely as a Cossack rebel, but as the

arch-enemy of Catholicism in eastern Europe, and the pope granted a

plenary absolution to all who took up arms against him. But Bogdan

himself was not without ecclesiastical sanction. The archbishop of

Corinth girded him with a sword which had lain upon the Holy Sepulchre,

and the metropolitan of Kiev absolved him from all his sins, without the

usual preliminary of confession, before he rode forth to battle. But

fortune, so long his friend, now deserted him, and at Beresteczko (July

1, 1651) the Cossack ataman was defeated for the first time. But even

now his power was far from broken. In 1652 he openly interfered in the

affairs of Transylvania and Walachia, and assumed the high-sounding

title of "guardian of the Ottoman Porte." In 1653 Poland made a supreme

effort, the diet voted 17,000,000 gulden in subsidies, and John Casimir

led an army of 60,000 men into the Ukraine and defeated the arch-rebel

at Zranta, whereupon Chmielnicki took the oath of allegiance to the tsar

(compact of Pereyaslavl, February 19, 1654), and all hope of an

independent Cossack state was at an end. He died on the 7th of August

1657. With all his native ability, Chmielnicki was but an eminent

savage. He was the creature of every passing mood or whim, incapable of

cool and steady judgment or of the slightest self-control--an

incalculable weather-cock, blindly obsequious to every blast of passion.

He could destroy, but he could not create, and other people benefited by

his exploits.

See P. Kulish, _On the Defection of Malo-Russia from Poland_ (Rus.)

(Moscow, 1890); S.M. Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.) (Moscow,

1857, &c.), vol. x.; Robert Nisbet Bain, _The First Romanovs_, chaps.

3-4 (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)

CHOATE, JOSEPH HODGES (1832- ), American lawyer and diplomat, was born

at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 24th of January 1832. He was the son of

Dr George Choate, a physician of considerable note, and was a nephew of

Rufus Choate. After graduating at Harvard College in 1852 and at the law

school of Harvard University in 1854, he was admitted first to the

Massachusetts (1855) and then (1856) to the New York bar, and entered

the law office of Scudder & Carter in New York City. His success in his

profession was immediate, and in 1860 he became junior partner in the

firm of Evarts, Southmayd & Choate, the senior partner in which was

William M. Evarts. This firm and its successor, that of Evarts, Choate &

Beaman, remained for many years among the leading law firms of New York

and of the country, the activities of both being national rather than

local. During these busy years Mr Choate was associated with many of the

most famous litigations in American legal history, including the Tilden,

A.T. Stewart, and Stanford will cases, the Kansas prohibition cases, the

Chinese exclusion cases, the Maynard election returns case, and the

Income Tax Suit. In 1871 he became a member of the "Committee of

Seventy" in New York City, which was instrumental in breaking up the

"Tweed Ring," and later assisted in the prosecution of the indicted

officials. In the retrial of the General Fitz John Porter case he

obtained a reversal of the decision of the original court-martial. His

greatest reputation was won perhaps in cross-examination. In politics he

allied himself with the Republican party on its organization, being a

frequent speaker in presidential campaigns, beginning with that of 1856.

He never held political office, although he was a candidate for the

Republican senatorial nomination against Senator Thomas C. Platt in

1897. In 1894 he was president of the New York state constitutional

convention. He was appointed, by President McKinley, ambassador to Great

Britain to succeed John Hay in 1899, and remained in this position until

the spring of 1905. In England he won great personal popularity, and

accomplished much in fostering the good relations of the two great

English-speaking powers. He was one of the representatives of the United

States at the second Peace Congress at the Hague in 1907.

Several of his notable public addresses have been published. _The

Choate Story Book_ (New York, 1903) contains a few of his addresses

and after-dinner speeches, and is prefaced by a brief biographical

sketch.

CHOATE, RUFUS (1799-1859), American lawyer and orator, was born at

Ipswich, Massachusetts, on the 1st of October 1799, the descendant of a

family which settled in Massachusetts in 1667. As a child he was

remarkably precocious; at six he is said to have been able to repeat

large parts of the Bible and of _Pilgrim's Progress_ by heart. He

graduated as valedictorian of his class at Dartmouth College in 1819,

was a tutor there in 1819-1820, spent a year in the law school of

Harvard University, and studied for a like period at Washington, in the

office of William Wirt, then attorney-general of the United States. He

was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1823 and practised at what was

later South Danvers (now Peabody) for five years, during which time he

served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1825-1826) and in

the state senate (1827). In 1828 he removed to Salem, where his

successful conduct of several important law-suits brought him

prominently into public notice. In 1830 he was elected to Congress as a

Whig from the Salem district, defeating the Jacksonian candidate for

re-election, B.W. Crowninshield (1772-1851), a former secretary of the

navy, and in 1832 he was re-elected. His career in Congress was marked

by a notable speech in defence of a protective tariff. In 1834, before

the completion of his second term, he resigned and established himself

in the practice of law in Boston. Already his fame as a speaker had

spread beyond New England, and he was much sought after as an orator for

public occasions. For several years he devoted himself unremittingly to

his profession, but in 1841 succeeded Daniel Webster in the United

States Senate. Shortly afterwards he delivered one of his most eloquent

addresses at the memorial services for President Harrison in Faneuil

Hall, Boston. In the Senate he made a series of brilliant speeches on

the tariff, the Oregon boundary, in favour of the Fiscal Bank Act, and

in opposition to the annexation of Texas. On Webster's re-election to

the Senate, Choate resumed (1845) his law practice, which no amount of

urging could ever persuade him to abandon for public office, save for a

short term as attorney-general of Massachusetts in 1853-1854. In 1853 he

was a member of the state constitutional convention. He was a faithful

supporter of Webster's policy as declared in the latter's famous

"Seventh of March Speech" (1850) and laboured to secure for him the

presidential nomination at the Whig national convention in 1852. In 1856

he refused to follow most of his former Whig associates into the

Republican party and gave his support to James Buchanan, whom he

considered the representative of a national instead of a sectional

party. In July 1859 failing health led him to seek rest in a trip to

Europe, but he died on the 13th of that month at Halifax, Nova Scotia,

where he had been put ashore when it was seen that he probably could not

outlive the voyage across the Atlantic. Choate, besides being one of the

ablest of American lawyers, was one of the most scholarly of American

public men, and his numerous orations and addresses were remarkable for

their pure style, their grace and elegance of form, and their wealth of

classical allusion.

His _Works_ (edited, with a memoir, by S.G. Brown) were published in 2

vols. at Boston in 1862. The _Memoir_ was afterwards published

separately (Boston, 1870). See also E.G. Parker's _Reminiscences of

Rufus Choate_ (New York, 1860); E.P. Whipple's _Some Recollections of

Rufus Choate_ (New York, 1879); and the _Albany Law Review_

(1877-1878).

CHOBE, a large western affluent of the middle Zambezi (q.v.). The

river was discovered by David Livingstone in 1851, and to him was known

as the Chobe. It is also called the Linyante and the Kwando, the last

name being that commonly used.

CHOCOLATE, a paste of the ground kernels of the cocoa bean, mixed with

sugar, vanilla or other flavouring, made into a cake, which is used for

the manufacture of various forms of sweetmeat, or in making the

beverage, also known as "chocolate," obtained by dissolving cakes of

chocolate in boiling water or milk (see COCOA). The word came into Eng.

through the Fr. _chocolat_ or Span. _chocolate_ from the Mex.

_chocolatl_. According to the _New English Dictionary_ (quoting R.

Siméon, _Dict. de la langue Nahuatl_), this was "an article of food made

of ... the seeds of cacao and of the tree pochotl (_Bombax ceiba_)," and

was etymologically distinct from the Mexican _cacauatl_, cacao, or

cocoa.

CHOCTAWS, CHAHTAS, or CHACATOS (apparently a corruption of Span.

_chato_, flattened), a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean

stock. They are now settled in Oklahoma, but when first known to

Europeans they occupied the district now forming the southern part of

Mississippi and the western part of Alabama. On the settlement of

Louisiana they formed an alliance with the French, and assisted them

against the Natchez and Chickasaws; but by degrees they entered into

friendly relations with the English, and at last, in 1786, recognized

the supremacy of the United States by the treaty of Hopewell. Their

emigration westward began about 1800, and the last remains of their

original territory were ceded in 1830. In their new settlements the

Choctaws continued to advance in prosperity till the outbreak of the

Civil War, which considerably diminished the population and ruined a

large part of their property. They sided with the Confederates, and

their territory was occupied by Confederate troops; and accordingly at

the close of the war they were regarded as having lost their rights.

Part of their land they were forced to surrender to the government;

their slaves were emancipated; and provision was claimed for them in the

shape of either land or money. Since then they have considerably

recovered their position. They long constituted a quasi-independent

people under the title of the Choctaw nation, and were governed by a

chief and a national council of forty members, according to a written

constitution, dating in the main from 1838; they possessed a regular

judicial system and employed trial by jury. Tribal government virtually

ceased in 1906. The Choctaws number some 18,000. A few groups still

linger in Mississippi and Louisiana. The Choctaw language has been

reduced to writing, and brought to some degree of literary precision.

See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN; _Handbook of American Indians_, ed. F.W.

Hodge (Washington, 1907).

CHODKIEWICZ, JAN KAROL (1560-1621), Polish general, was the son of

Hieronymus Chodkiewicz, castellan of Wilna. After being educated at the

Wilna academy he went abroad to learn the science of war, fighting in

the Spanish service under Alva, and also under Maurice of Nassau. In

1593 he married the wealthy Sophia Mielecka, by whom he had one son who

predeceased him. His first military service at home was against the

Cossack rising of Nalewajko as lieutenant to Zolkiewski, and he

subsequently assisted Zamoyski in his victorious Moldavian campaign.

Honours and dignities were now showered upon him. In 1599 he was

appointed starosta of Samogitia, and in 1600 acting commander-in-chief

of Lithuania. In the war against Sweden for the possession of Livonia he

brilliantly distinguished himself, capturing fortress after fortress and

repulsing the duke of Sudermania, afterwards Charles IX, from Riga. In

1604 he captured Dorpat, twice defeated the Swedish generals at Bialy

Kamien, and was rewarded with the grand bâton of Lithuania. Criminally

neglected by the diet, which from sheer niggardliness turned a deaf ear

to all his requests for reinforcements and for supplies and money to pay

his soldiers, Chodkiewicz nevertheless more than held his own against

the Swedes. His crowning achievement was the great victory of Kirkholm

(Aug. 27th, 1605), when with barely 5000 men he annihilated a threefold

larger Swedish army; for which feat he received letters of

congratulation from the pope, all the Catholic potentates, of Europe,

and even from the sultan of Turkey and the shah of Persia. Yet this

great victory was absolutely fruitless, owing to the domestic

dissensions which prevailed in Poland during the following five years.

Chodkiewicz's own army, unpaid for years, abandoned him at last _en

masse_ in order to plunder the estates of their political opponents,

leaving the grand hetman to carry on the war as best he could with a

handful of mercenaries paid out of the pockets of himself and his

friends. Chodkiewicz was one of the few magnates who remained loyal to

the king, and after helping to defeat the rebels in Poland a fresh

invasion of Livonia by the Swedes recalled him thither, and once more he

relieved Riga besides capturing Pernau. Meanwhile the war with Muscovy

broke out, and Chodkiewicz was sent against Moscow with an army of 2000

men--though if there had been a spark of true patriotism in Poland he

could easily have marshalled 100,000. Moreover, the diet neglected to

pay for the maintenance even of this paltry 2000, with the result that

they mutinied and compelled their leader to retreat through the heart of

Muscovy to Smolensk. Not till the crown prince Wladislaus arrived with

tardy reinforcements did the war assume a different character,

Chodkiewicz opening a new career of victory by taking the fortress of

Drohobu in 1617. The Muscovite war had no sooner been ended by the

treaty of Deulina than Chodkiewicz was hastily despatched southwards to

defend the southern frontier against the Turks, who after the

catastrophe of Cecora (see ZOLKIEWSKI) had high hopes of conquering

Poland altogether. An army of 160,000 Turkish veterans led by Sultan

Osman in person advanced from Adrianople towards the Polish frontier,

but Chodkiewicz crossed the Dnieper in September 1621 and entrenched

himself in the fortress of Khotin right in the path of the Ottoman

advance. Here for a whole month the Polish hero held the sultan at bay,

till the first fall of autumn snow compelled Osman to withdraw his

diminished forces. But the victory was dearly purchased by Poland. A few

days before the siege was raised the aged grand hetman died of

exhaustion in the fortress (Sept. 24th, 1621).

See Adam Stanislaw Naruszewicz, _Life of J.K. Chodkiewicz_ (Pol.; 4th

ed., Cracow, 1857-1858); Lukasz Golebiowski, _The Moral Side of J.K.

Chodkiewicz as indicated by his Letters_ (Pol.; Warsaw, 1854).

(R. N. B.)

CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL NICOLAS (1726-1801), German painter and engraver of

Polish descent, was born at Danzig. Left an orphan at an early age, he

devoted himself to the practice of miniature painting, the elements of

which his father had taught him, as a means of support for himself and

his mother. In 1743 he went to Berlin, where for some time he worked as

clerk in an uncle's office, practising art, however, in his leisure

moments, and gaining a sort of reputation as a painter of miniatures for

snuff-boxes. The Berlin Academy, attracted by a small engraving of his,

entrusted to him the illustration of its yearly almanac. After designing

and engraving several subjects from the story of the Seven Years' War,

Chodowiecki produced the famous "History of the Life of Jesus Christ," a

set of admirably painted miniatures, which made him at once so popular

that he laid aside all occupations save those of painting and engraving.

Few books were published in Prussia for some years without plate or

vignette by Chodowiecki. It is not surprising, therefore, that the

catalogue of his works (Berlin, 1814) should include over 3000 items, of

which, however, the picture of "Jean Calas and his Family" is the only

one of any reputation. He became director of the Berlin Academy in 1797.

The title of the German Hogarth, which he sometimes obtained, was the

effect of an admiration rather imaginative than critical, and was

disclaimed by Chodowiecki himself. The illustrator of Lavater's _Essays

on Physiognomy_, the painter of the "Hunt the Slipper" in the Berlin

museum, had indeed but one point in common with the great

Englishman--the practice of representing actual life and manners. In

this he showed skilful drawing and grouping, and considerable

expressional power, but no tendency whatever to the use of the

grotesque.

His brother Gottfried (1728-1781) and son Wilhelm (1765-1803) painted

and engraved after the style of Daniel, and sometimes co-operated with

him.

CHOERILUS. (1) An Athenian tragic poet, who exhibited plays as early as

524 B.C. He was said to have competed with Aeschylus, Pratinas and even

Sophocles. According to F.G. Welcker, however, the rival of Sophocles

was a son of Choerilus, who bore the same name. Suidas states that

Choerilus wrote 150 tragedies and gained the prize 13 times. His works

are all lost; only Pausanias (i. 14) mentions a play by him entitled

_Alope_ (a mythological personage who was the subject of dramas by

Euripides and Carcinus). His reputation as a writer of satyric dramas is

attested in the well-known line

[Greek: ênika men basileus ên Choirilos en Saturois]

The Choerilean metre, mentioned by the Latin grammarians, is probably so

called because the above line is the oldest extant specimen. Choerilus

was also said to have introduced considerable improvements in theatrical

masks and costumes.

See A. Nauck, _Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_ (1889); F.G. Welcker,

_Die griechischen Tragödien_, pp. 18, 892.

(2) An epic poet of Samos, who flourished at the end of the 5th century

B.C. After the fall of Athens he settled at the court of Archelaus, king

of Macedonia, where he was the associate of Agathon, Melanippides, and

Plato the comic poet. The only work that can with certainty be

attributed to him is the [Greek: Persêis] or [Greek: Persika], a history

of the struggle of the Greeks against Persia, the central point of which

was the battle of Salamis. His importance consists in his having taken

for his theme national and contemporary events in place of the deeds of

old-time heroes. For this new departure he apologizes in the

introductory verses (preserved in the scholiast on Aristotle,

_Rhetoric_, iii. 14), where he says that, the subjects of epic poetry

being all exhausted, it was necessary to strike out a new path. The

story of his intimacy with Herodotus is probably due to the fact that he

imitated him and had recourse to his history for the incidents of his

poem. The _Perseis_ was at first highly successful and was said to have

been read, together with the Homeric poems, at the Panathenaea, but

later critics reversed this favourable judgment. Aristotle (_Topica_,

viii. 1) calls Choerilus's comparisons far-fetched and obscure, and the

Alexandrians displaced him by Antimachus in the canon of epic poets. The

fragments are artificial in tone.

G. Kinkel, _Epicorum Graecorum Frag._ i. (1877); for another view of

his relations with Herodotus see Müder in _Klio_ (1907), 29-44.

(3) An epic poet of Iasus in Caria, who lived in the 4th century B.C. He

accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns as court-poet. He is

well known from the passages in Horace (_Epistles_, ii. 1, 232; _Ars

Poëtica_, 357), according to which he received a piece of gold for every

good verse he wrote in celebration of the glorious deeds of his master.

The quality of his verses may be estimated from the remark attributed to

Alexander, that he would rather be the Thersites of Homer than the

Achilles of Choerilus. The epitaph on Sardanapalus, said to have been

translated from the Chaldean (quoted in Athenaeus, viii. p. 336), is

generally supposed to be by Choerilus.

See G. Kinkel, _Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_, i. (1877); A.F. Näke,

_De Choerili Samii Aetate Vita et Poësi aliisque Choerilis_ (1817),

where the above poets are carefully distinguished; and the articles in

Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencydopädie_, iii. 2 (1899).

CHOEROBOSCUS, GEORGIUS (c. A.D. 600), deacon and professor at the

oecumenical school at Constantinople. He is also called _chartophylax_

either as the holder of some ecclesiastical office or as superintendent

of the university library. It is not known whether "Choeroboscus" (Gr.

for "swineherd") is an allusion to his earlier occupation or an

inherited family name. During his tenure of office he delivered a course

of lectures on grammar, which has come down to us in the shape of notes

taken by his pupils. He drew from the best authorities--Apollonius

Dyscolus, Herodian, Orion, Theodosius of Alexandria. The lectures are

written in simple style, but suffer from diffuseness. They were much

used by Constantine Lascaris in his Greek grammar and by Urban of

Belluno (end of 15th cent.). The chief work of Choeroboscus, which we

have in its complete form, is the commentary on the canons of Theodosius

on Declension and Conjugation. Mention may also be made of a treatise on

orthography, of which a fragment (on Quantity) has been preserved; a

tract on prosody; commentaries on Hephaestion and Dionysius Thrax; and

grammatical notes on the Psalms.

See C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897);

A. Hilgard, _Grammatici Graeci_, iv. (1889-1894), containing the text

of the commentary on Theodosius, and a full account of the life and

writings of Choeroboscus; L. Kohn in Pauly-Wissowa's

_Realencydopädie_, iii. 2 (1889); Reitzenstein, _Etymologika_, 190, n.

4.

CHOIR (O. Fr. _cuer_ from Lat. _chorus_; pronounced _quire_, and until

the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to

agree with the Fr. _choeur_), the body of singers who perform the

musical portion of the service in a church, or the place set apart for

them. Any organized body of singers performing full part choral works or

oratorios is also called a choir.

In English cathedrals the choir is composed of men (vicars-choral or lay

clerks) and boys (choristers). They are divided into two sets, sitting

on the north and south sides of the chancel respectively, called

_cantoris_ and _decani_, from being on the same side as the _cantor_

(precentor) or the _decanus_ (dean). This arrangement, together with the

custom of vesting choirmen and choristers in surplices (traditional only

in cathedrals and collegiate churches), has, since the middle of the

19th century, been adopted in a large number of parish and other

churches. Surpliced choirs of women have occasionally been introduced,

notably in America and the British colonies, but the practice has no

warrant of traditional usage. In the Roman Catholic Church the choir

plays a less conspicuous rôle than in the Church of England, its members

not being regarded as ministers of the church, and non-Catholics are

allowed to sing in it. The singers at Mass or other solemn services are

usually placed in a gallery or some other inconspicuous place. The word

"choir," indeed, formerly applied to all the clergy taking part in

services of the church, and the restriction of the term to the singing

men and boys, who were in their origin no more than the representatives

(vicars) of the clergy, is a comparatively late development. The

distinction between "choir services" (Mattins, Vespers, Compline,

&c.)--consisting of prayers, lections, the singing of the psalms,

&c.--and the service of the altar was sharply drawn in the middle ages,

as in the modern Roman Church. "Choir vestments" (surplice, &c.) are

those worn by the clergy at the former, as distinguished from those used

at the Mass (see VESTMENTS). In England at the Reformation the choir

services (Mattins, Evensong) replaced the Mass as the principal popular

services, and, in general, only the choir vestments were retained in

use. In the English cathedrals the members of the choir often retain

privileges reminiscent of an earlier definite ecclesiastical status. At

Wells, for instance, the vicars-choral form a corporation practically

independent of the dean and chapter; they have their own lodgings inside

the cathedral precincts (Vicars' Close) and they can only be dismissed

by a vote of their own body. (W. A. P.)

In an architectural sense a "choir" is strictly that part of a church

which is fitted up for the choir services, and is thus limited to the

space between the choir screen and the presbytery. Some confusion has

arisen owing to the term being employed by medieval writers to express

the entire space enclosed for the performance of the principal services

of the church, and therefore to include not only the choir proper, but

the presbytery. In the case of a cruciform church the choir is sometimes

situated under the central tower, or in the nave, and this is the case

in Westminster Abbey, where it occupies four bays to the west of the

transept. The choir is usually raised one step above the nave, and its

sides are fitted up with seats or stalls, of which in large buildings

there are usually two or three rows rising one behind the other.

In Romanesque churches there are eastern and western choirs, and in

former times the term was given to chantries and subsidiary chapels,

which were also called chancels. In the early Christian church the

ambones where the gospels and epistles were read were placed one on

either side of the choir and formed part of its enclosure, and this is

the case in S. Clemente, S. Lorenzo and S. Maria in Cosmedin in Rome. In

England the choir seems almost universally to have assembled at the

eastern part of the church to recite the breviary services, whereas on

the continent it was moved from one place to another according to

convenience. In Spanish churches it occupies the nave of the church, and

in the church of the Escorial in Spain was at the west end above the

entrance vestibule. (R. P. S.)

CHOISEUL, CÉSAR, DUC DE (1602-1675), French marshal and diplomatist,

generally known for the best part of his life as the marshal du

Plessis-Praslin, came of the old French family of Choiseul, which arose

in the valley of the Upper Marne in the 10th century and divided into

many branches, three of the names of which, Hostel, Praslin and du

Plessis, were borne, at one time or another, by the subject of this

article. Entering the army at the age of fourteen as proprietary colonel

of an infantry regiment, he shared in almost all the exploits of the

French arms during the reign of Louis XIII. He took part in the siege of

La Rochelle, assisted to defend the island of Ré against the attacks of

the English under the duke of Buckingham, and accompanied the French

forces to Italy in 1629. In 1630 he was appointed ambassador at the

court of the duke of Savoy, and was engaged in diplomatic and

administrative work in Italy until 1635, when war was declared between

France and Spain. In the war that followed Plessis-Praslin distinguished

himself in various battles and sieges in Italy, including the action

called the "Route de Quiers" and the celebrated four-cornered operations

round Turin. In 1640 he was made governor of Turin, and in 1642

lieutenant-general, and after further service in Italy he was made a

marshal of France (1645) and appointed second in command in Catalonia.

During the first War of the Fronde, which broke out in 1649, he assisted

Condé in the brief siege of Paris; and in the second war, remaining

loyal to the queen regent and the court party, he won his greatest

triumph in defeating Turenne and the allied Spaniards and rebels at

Rethel (or Blanc-Champ) in 1650. He then held high office at the court

of Louis XIV., became minister of state in 1652, and in November 1665

was created duc de Choiseul. He was concerned in some of the

negotiations between Louis and Charles II. of England which led to the

treaty of Dover, and died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1675.

CHOISEUL, ÉTIENNE FRANÇOIS, Duc de (1719-1785), French statesman, was

the eldest son of François Joseph de Choiseul, marquis de Stainville

(1700-1770), and bore in early life the title of comte de Stainville.

Born on the 28th of June 1719, he entered the army, and during the War

of the Austrian Succession served in Bohemia in 1741 and in Italy, where

he distinguished himself at the battle of Coni, in 1744. From 1745 until

1748 he was with the army in the Low Countries, being present at the

sieges of Mons, Charleroi and Maestricht. He attained the rank of

lieutenant-general, and in 1750 married Louise Honorine, daughter of

Louis François Crozat, marquis du Châtel (d. 1750), who brought her

husband a large fortune and proved a most devoted wife.

Choiseul gained the favour of Madame de Pompadour by procuring for her

some letters which Louis XV. had written to his cousin Madame de

Choiseul, with whom the king had formerly had an intrigue; and after a

short time as _bailli_ of the Vosges he was given the appointment of

ambassador to Rome in 1753, where he was entrusted with the negotiations

concerning the disturbances called forth by the bull _Unigenitus_. He

acquitted himself skilfully in this task, and in 1757 his patroness

obtained his transfer to Vienna, where he was instructed to cement the

new alliance between France and Austria. His success at Vienna opened

the way to a larger career, when in 1758 he supplanted Antoine Louis

Rouillé (1689-1761) as minister for foreign affairs and so had the

direction of French foreign policy during the Seven Years' War. At this

time he was made a peer of France and created duc de Choiseul. Although

from 1761 until 1766 his cousin César, duc de Choiseul-Praslin

(1712-1785), was minister for foreign affairs, yet Choiseul continued to

control the policy of France until 1770, and during this period held

most of the other important offices of state. As the author of the

"Family Compact" he sought to retrieve by an alliance with the Bourbon

house of Spain the disastrous results of the alliance with Austria; but

his action came too late. His vigorous policy in other departments of

state was not, however, fruitless. Coming to power in the midst of the

demoralization consequent upon the defeats of Rossbach and Crefeld, by

boldness and energy he reformed and strengthened both army and navy, and

although too late to prevent the loss of Canada and India, he developed

French colonies in the Antilles and San Domingo, and added Corsica and

Lorraine to the crown of France. His management of home affairs in

general satisfied the _philosophes_. He allowed the _Encyclopédie_ to be

published, and brought about the banishment of the Jesuits and the

temporary abolition of the order by Pope Clement IV.

Choiseul's fall was caused by his action towards the Jesuits, and by his

support of their opponent La Chalotais, and of the provincial

parlements. After the death of Madame de Pompadour in 1764, his enemies,

led by Madame Du Barry and the chancellor Maupeou, were too strong for

him, and in 1770 he was ordered to retire to his estate at Chanteloupe.

The intrigues against him had, however, increased his popularity, which

was already great, and during his retirement, which lasted until 1774,

he lived in the greatest affluence and was visited by many eminent

personages. Greatly to his disappointment Louis XVI. did not restore him

to his former position, although the king recalled him to Paris in 1774,

when he died on the 8th of May 1785, leaving behind him a huge

accumulation of debt which was scrupulously discharged by his widow.

Choiseul possessed both ability and diligence, and though lacking in

tenacity he showed foresight and liberality in his direction of affairs.

In appearance he was a short, ill-featured man, with a ruddy countenance

and a sturdy frame. His _Mémoires_ were written during his exile from

Paris, and are merely detached notes upon different questions. Horace

Walpole, in his _Memoirs_, gives a very vivid description of the duke's

character, accuses him of exciting the war between Russia and Turkey in

1768 in order to be revenged upon the tsarina Catherine II., and says of

his foreign policy, "he would project and determine the ruin of a

country, but could not meditate a little mischief or a narrow benefit."

"He dissipated the nation's wealth and his own; but did not repair the

latter by plunder of the former," says the same writer, who in reference

to Choiseul's private life asserts that "gallantry without delicacy was

his constant pursuit." Choiseul's widow, a woman "in whom industrious

malice could not find an imperfection," lived in retirement until her

death on the 3rd of December 1808.

See _Mémoires du duc de Choiseul_, edited by F. Calmettes (Paris,

1904); P. Boutaric, _L'Ambassade de Choiseul à Vienne en 1757-1758_

(Paris, 1872); Duc de Cars, _Mémoires_ (Paris, 1890); F.J. de P.,

Cardinal de Bernis, _Mémoires et lettres_ (Paris, 1878); Madame de

Pompadour, _Correspondance_ (Paris, 1878); _Revue historique_, tomes

82 and 87 (Paris, 1903-1905); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of

George III._, edited by G.F.R. Barker (London, 1894); G. Mangros, _Le

duc et la duchesse de Choiseul_ (Paris, 1903); and _La Disgrace du duc

et de la duchesse de Choiseul_ (Paris, 1903); E. Calmettes, _Choiseul

et Voltaire_ (Paris, 1902); A. Bourguet, _Études sur la politique

étrangère du duc de Choiseul_ (Paris, 1907); and _Le Duc de Choiseul

et l'alliance espagnole_ (Paris, 1906). See also the _Edinburgh

Review_ for July 1908.

CHOISEUL-STAINVILLE, CLAUDE ANTOINE GABRIEL, Duc de (1760-1838), French

soldier, was brought up at Chanteloup, under the care of his relative,

Étienne François, duc de Choiseul, who was childless. The outbreak of

the Revolution found him a colonel of dragoons, and throughout those

troublous times he was distinguished for his devotion to the royal

house. He took part in the attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from Paris on

the 20th of June 1791; was arrested with the king, and imprisoned.

Liberated in May 1792, he emigrated in October, and fought in the "army

of Condé" against the republic. Captured in 1795, he was confined at

Dunkirk; escaped, set sail for India, was wrecked on the French coast,

and condemned to death by the decree of the Directory. Nevertheless, he

was fortunate enough to escape once more. Napoleon allowed him to return

to France in 1801, but he remained in private life until the fall of the

Empire. At the Restoration he was called to the House of Peers by Louis

XVIII. At the revolution of 1830 he was nominated a member of the

provisional government; and he afterwards received from Louis Philippe

the post of aide-de-camp to the king and governor of the Louvre. He died

in Paris on the 1st of December 1838.

CHOISY, FRANÇOIS TIMOLÉON, Abbé de (1644-1724), French author, was born

in Paris on the 16th of August 1644, and died in Paris on the 2nd of

October 1724. His father was attached to the household of the duke of

Orleans, and his mother, who was on intimate terms with Anne of Austria,

was regularly called upon to amuse Louis XIV. By a whim of his mother,

the boy was dressed like a girl until he was eighteen, and, after

appearing for a short time in man's costume, he resumed woman's dress on

the advice--doubtless satirical--of Madame de La Fayette. He delighted

in the most extravagant toilettes until he was publicly rebuked by the

duc de Montausier, when he retired for some time to the provinces, using

his disguise to assist his numerous intrigues. He had been made an abbé

in his childhood, and poverty, induced by his extravagance, drove him to

live on his benefice at Sainte-Seine in Burgundy, where he found among

his neighbours a kindred spirit in Bussy-Rabutin. He visited Rome in the

suite of the cardinal de Bouillon in 1676, and shortly afterwards a

serious illness brought about a sudden and rather frivolous conversion

to religion. In 1685 he accompanied the chevalier de Chaumont on a

mission to Siam. He was ordained priest, and received various

ecclesiastical preferments. He was admitted to the Academy in 1687, and

wrote a number of historical and religious works, of which the most

notable are the following:--_Quatre dialogues sur l'immortalitè de

l'âme_ ... (1684), written with the Abbé Dangeau and explaining his

conversion; _Traduction de l'Imitation de Jésus-Christ_ (1692);

_Histoire de France sous les règnes de Saint Louis ... de Charles V et

Charles VI_ (5 vols., 1688-1695); and _Histoire de l'Église_ (11 vols.,

1703-1723) He is remembered, however, by his gossiping _Mémoires_

(1737), which contain striking and accurate pictures of his time and

remarkably exact portraits of his contemporaries, although he has

otherwise small pretensions to historical accuracy.

The _Mémoires_ passed through many editions, and were edited in 1888

by M. de Lescure. Some admirable letters of Choisy are included in the

correspondence of Bussy-Rabutin. Choisy is said to have burnt some of

his indiscreet revelations, but left a considerable quantity of

unpublished MS. Part of this material, giving an account of his

adventures as a woman, was surreptitiously used in an anonymous

_Histoire de madame la comtesse de Barres_ (Antwerp, 1735), and again

with much editing in the _Vie de M. l'abbé de Choisy_ (Lausanne and

Geneva, 1742), ascribed by Paul Lacroix to Lenglet Dufresnoy; the text

was finally edited (1870) by Lacroix as _Aventures de l'abbé de

Choisy_. See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. iii.

CHOLERA (from the Gr. [Greek: cholê], bile, and [Greek: rheein], to

flow), the name given to two distinct forms of disease, simple cholera

and malignant cholera. Although essentially different both as to their

causation and their pathological relationships, these two diseases may

in individual cases present many symptoms of mutual resemblance.

SIMPLE CHOLERA (synonyms, _Cholera Europaea_, _British Cholera_,

_Summer_ or _Autumnal Cholera_) is the cholera of ancient medical

writers, as is apparent from the accurate description of the disease

given by Hippocrates, Celsus and Aretaeus. Its occurrence in an epidemic

form was noticed by various physicians in the 16th century, and an

admirable account of the disease was subsequently given by Thomas

Sydenham in 1669-1672. This disease is sometimes called _Cholera

Nostras_, the word _nostras_, which is good Latin and used by Cicero,

meaning "belonging to our country." The relations between it and Asiatic

cholera (see below) are obscure. Clinically they may exactly resemble

each other, and bacteriology has not been able to draw an absolute line

between them. The real difference is epidemiological, cholera nostras

having no epidemic significance.

The chief symptoms in well-marked cases are vomiting and purging

occurring either together or alternately. The seizure is usually sudden

and violent. The contents of the stomach are first ejected, and this is

followed by severe retching and vomiting of thin fluid of bilious

appearance and bitter taste. The diarrhoea which accompanies or succeeds

the vomiting, and is likewise of bilious character, is attended with

severe griping abdominal pain, while cramps affecting the legs or arms

greatly intensify the suffering. The effect upon the system is rapid and

alarming, a few hours of such an attack sufficing to reduce the

strongest person to a state of extreme prostration. The surface of the

body becomes cold, the pulse weak, the voice husky, and the whole

symptoms may resemble in a striking manner those of malignant cholera,

to be subsequently described. In unfavourable cases, particularly where

the disorder is epidemic, death may result within forty-eight hours.

Generally, however, the attack is arrested and recovery soon follows,

although there may remain for a considerable time a degree of

irritability of the alimentary canal, rendering necessary the utmost

care in regard to diet.

Attacks of this kind are of frequent occurrence in summer and autumn in

almost all countries. They appear specially liable to occur when cold

and damp alternate with heat. Occasionally the disorder prevails so

extensively as to constitute an epidemic. The exciting causes of an

attack are in many cases errors in diet, particularly the use of unripe

fruit and new vegetables, and the excessive drinking of cold liquids

during perspiration. Outbreaks of this disorder in a household or

community can sometimes be traced to the use of impure water, or to

noxious emanations from the sewers.

In the treatment, vomiting should be encouraged so long as it shows the

presence of undigested food, after which opiates ought to be

administered. Small opium pills, or Dover's powder, or the aromatic

powder of chalk with opium, are likely to be retained in the stomach,

and will generally succeed in allaying the pain and diarrhoea, while ice

and effervescing drinks serve to quench the thirst and subdue the

sickness. In aggravated cases where medicines are rejected, enemata of

starch and laudanum, or the hypodermic injection of morphia, ought to be

resorted to. Counter-irritation by mustard or turpentine over the

abdomen is always of use, as is also friction with the hands where

cramps are present. When sinking threatens, brandy and ammonia will be

called for. During convalescence the food should be in the form of milk

and farinaceous diet, or light soups, and all indigestible articles must

be carefully avoided.

In the treatment of this disease as it affects young children (_Cholera

Infantum_), most reliance is to be placed on the administration of chalk

and the use of starch enemata. In their case opium in any form cannot be

safely employed.

MALIGNANT CHOLERA (synonyms, _Asiatic Cholera, Indian Cholera, Epidemic

Cholera, Algide Cholera_) is one of the most severe and fatal diseases.

In describing the symptoms it is customary to divide them into three

stages, but it must be noted that these do not always present themselves

in so distinct a form as to be capable of separate recognition. The

first or premonitory stage consists in the occurrence of diarrhoea.

Frequently of mild and painless character, and coming on after some

error in diet, this symptom is apt to be disregarded. The discharges

from the bowels are similar to those of ordinary summer cholera, which

the attack closely resembles. There is, however, at first the absence of

vomiting. This diarrhoea generally lasts for two or three days, and then

if it does not gradually subside either may pass into the more severe

phenomena characteristic of the second stage of cholera, or on the other

hand may itself prove fatal.

The second stage is termed the stage of collapse or the algide or

asphyxial stage. As above mentioned, this is often preceded by the

premonitory diarrhoea, but not infrequently the phenomena attendant upon

this stage are the first to manifest themselves. They come on often

suddenly in the night with diarrhoea of the most violent character, the

matters discharged being of whey-like appearance, and commonly termed

the "rice-water" evacuations. They contain large quantities of

disintegrated epithelium from the mucous membrane of the intestines. The

discharge, which is at first unattended with pain, is soon succeeded by

copious vomiting of matters similar to those passed from the bowels,

accompanied with severe pain at the pit of the stomach, and with intense

thirst. The symptoms now advance with rapidity. Cramps of the legs,

feet, and muscles of the abdomen come on and occasion great agony, while

the signs of collapse make their appearance. The surface of the body

becomes cold and assumes a blue or purple hue, the skin is dry, sodden

and wrinkled, indicating the intense draining away of the fluids of the

body, the features are pinched and the eyes deeply sunken, the pulse at

the wrist is imperceptible, and the voice is reduced to a hoarse whisper

(the _vox cholerica_). There is complete suppression of the urine.

In this condition death often takes place in less than one day, but in

epidemics cases are frequently observed where the collapse is so sudden

and complete as to prove fatal in one or two hours even without any

great amount of previous purging or vomiting. In most instances the

mental faculties are comparatively unaffected, although in the later

stages there is in general more or less apathy.

Reaction, however, may take place, and this constitutes the third stage.

It consists in the arrest of the alarming symptoms characterizing the

second stage, and the gradual but evident improvement in the patient's

condition. The pulse returns, the surface assumes a natural hue, and the

bodily heat is restored. Before long the vomiting ceases, and although

diarrhoea may continue for a time, it is not of a very severe character

and soon subsides, as do also the cramps. The urine may remain

suppressed for some time, and on returning is often found to be

albuminous. Even in this stage, however, the danger is not past, for

relapses sometimes occur which speedily prove fatal, while again the

reaction may be of imperfect character, and there may succeed an

exhausting fever (the so-called typhoid stage of cholera) which may

greatly retard recovery, and under which the patient may sink at a

period even as late as two or three weeks from the commencement of the

illness.

Many other complications are apt to arise during the progress of

convalescence from cholera, such as diphtheritic and local inflammatory

affections, all of which are attended with grave danger.

When the attack of cholera is of milder character in all its stages than

that above described, it has been named _Cholerine_, but the term is an

arbitrary one and the disease is essentially cholera.

The bodies of persons dying of cholera are found to remain long warm,

and the temperature may even rise after death. Peculiar muscular

contractions have been observed to take place after death, so that the

position of the limbs may become altered. The soft textures of the body

are found to be dry and hard, and the muscles of a dark brown

appearance. The blood is of dark colour and tarry consistence. The upper

portion of the small intestines is generally found distended with the

rice-water discharges, the mucous membrane is swollen, and there is a

remarkable loss of its natural epithelium. The kidneys are usually in a

state of acute congestion. This form of cholera belongs originally to

Asia, more particularly to India, where, as well as in the Indian

archipelago, epidemics are known to have occurred at various times for

several centuries.

Much light has been thrown upon Asiatic cholera by Western experience;

and the study of the disease by modern methods has resulted in important

additions to our previous knowledge of its nature, causation, mode of

dissemination and prevention.