Food and Economy.
It has been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters of a pound of
moderately lean beef, and five ounces of wheat flour contain about the
same amount of nutritive material;" but we pay different prices for
them, and they have different values for nutriment. The milk comes
nearest to being a perfect food. It contains all the different kinds
of nutritive materials that the body requires. Bread made from wheat
flour will support life. It contains all the necessary ingredients for
nourishment, but not in the proportion best adapted for ordinary use.
A man might live on beef alone, but it would be a very one-sided and
imperfect diet. Meat and bread together make the essentials of a
healthful diet. In order to give a general idea of food economy, it
will be necessary to deal briefly with the functions of the various
food principles. As our bodies contain a great deal of muscle, the
waste of which is repaired by protein found in such food as lean meat,
eggs, cheese, beans, peas, oatmeal, fish, etc., a supply of these
articles must be considered in purchasing the daily supply. Fatty
tissue (not muscle) serves as fuel, therefore the value of such foods
as butter, cream, oils, etc., is apparent. Carbohydrates form fat and
serve as fuel and force producers; these come in the form of starches,
sugars,--vegetables and grains being the most important. In being
themselves burned to yield energy, the nutrients protect each other
from being consumed. The protein and fats of body tissue are used like
those of foods. An important use of the carbohydrates and fats is to
protect protein (muscle, etc.) from consumption. "The most healthful
food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user: the
cheapest food is that which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment
at the least cost: the best food is that which is both healthful and
cheap." By referring to the various charts a fair estimate of food
values may be obtained.
As will be noticed, the animal foods contain the most protein and
fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. A pound of
cheese may have 0.28 pound of protein, as much as a man at ordinary
work needs for a day's sustenance, while a pound of milk would have
only 0.04, and a pound of potatoes 0.02 pound of protein. The
materials which have the most fats and carbohydrates have the highest
fuel value. The fuel value of a pound of fat pork may reach 2.995
calories, while that of a pound of salt codfish would be only .315
calories. On the other hand, the nutritive material of the codfish
would consist almost entirely of protein, while the pork contains very
little. Among the vegetable foods, peas and beans have a high
proportion of protein. Oatmeal contains a large proportion also.
Potatoes are low in fuel value as well as in protein, because they are
three-fourths water. For the same reason milk, which is seven-eights
water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value, hence the
reason why it is not so valuable as food for an adult as many of the
other food materials.
These few illustrations will help to show the need of an intelligent
idea of food values before attempting to purchase the supplies for
family use. As one-half a laboring man's income goes towards
providing food, it must follow that such knowledge will help the
housewife very materially in securing the best results from the amount
expended.
The _average daily diet_ of an adult should contain (Church):--
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NUTRIENTS. | IN 100 PARTS. | EACH 24 HOURS.
--------------------------------|-----------------|--------------------
| | lb. oz. gr.
Water | 81.5 | 5 8 .320
Albuminoids | 3.9 | 0 4 .178
Fat | 3.0 | 0 3 .337
Common salt | 3.7 | 0 0 .325
Phosphates, potash, salts, etc. | 0.3 | 0 0 0.170
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Quantity of Food Required.
The quantity of food required to maintain the body in a vigorous
condition depends upon the following conditions:--(1) Climate and
season, (2) clothing, (3) occupation, (4) age and sex. In civilized
countries more food is eaten, as a rule, than is necessary to maintain
health and strength. Climate and seasons influence the quantity of
food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the appetite, tempts
one to exercise, while a hot climate has the contrary effect; hence
the need for more or less food. Abundant clothing in cold weather
conserves the body heat; less food is therefore required to maintain
life. Exercise and muscular work cause greater oxidation in the
tissues and greater waste of the muscles; this must be replaced by
proper food. Outdoor work requires more food than indoor, and physical
labor more than mental. It has been estimated "that a child of ten
years requires half as much food as a grown woman, and one of fourteen
an equal amount. The rapidly growing active boy often eats as much as
a man, and the middle-aged man requires more than the aged. A man of
seventy years may preserve health on a quantity which would soon
starve his grandson."
Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain
and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which have not
yet been solved. Brain and nerve contain the elements nitrogen and
phosphorus, which are found in protein compounds but not in the true
fats, sugars, and starches, which contain only carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. We naturally infer that the protein compounds must be
especially concerned in building up brain and nerve, and keeping them
in repair. Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question
which has not yet been decided. In general it appears that a man or a
woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is without
vigorous exercise and does but little hard muscular work, needs much
less than the man at hard manual labor, and that the brain worker
needs comparatively little of carbohydrates or fats. Many physicians,
physiologists and students of hygiene have become convinced that
well-to-do people, whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too
much; that the diet of people of this class as a whole is one-sided as
well as excessive, and that the principal evil is the use of too much
fat, starch and sugar. It is well to remember that it is the quantity
of food digested which builds the body, and more injury is likely to
result from over-eating than from a restricted diet, hence the value
of having food cooked so as to aid digestion. The following dietary
standards may be interesting to the more advanced pupils, housewives,
etc.:--
STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIET OF LABORING MAN AT MODERATE MUSCULAR
WORK.
========================+==========+=======+============================
| | | Nutrients in Daily Food.
Author. | Protein. | Fats. |---------------+------------
| | | Carbohydrates.| Fuel Value.
------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------
| lb. | lb. | lb. | Calories.
Playfair, England | .26 | .11 | 1.17 | 3.140
Moleschotte, Italy | .29 | .09 | 1.21 | 3.160
Wolff, Germany | .28 | .08 | 1.19 | 3.030
Voit, Germany | .26 | .12 | 1.10 | 3.055
Atwater, United States | .28 | 17.33 | 88.1.21 | 3.500
------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------
Quality of Food.
It is a great mistake to think that the best is the cheapest in regard
to the food question, that the higher priced meats, fish, butter,
etc., contain special virtues lacking in the cheaper articles. _Poor
cooking is the chief cause of this error in judgment._ No doubt a well
broiled steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some of
the cheaper cuts, but in proportion to the cost is not equal in
nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious flavoring render the
cheaper pieces of beef equally palatable. That expensive food is not
necessary to maintain life has been clearly demonstrated by the
traditional diet of the Scotch people with their oatmeal and herring;
the Irish, potatoes and buttermilk; New England, codfish and potatoes,
and pork and beans; the Chinese, rice, etc. Monotony of diet, however,
is not recommended, for reasons given in a previous chapter, and in
the countries where a special diet prevails owing to the climate,
nature of soil and markets, the results have not warranted us in
believing that it is as good as a mixed diet. From this necessarily
brief outline of the food question we have learned (1) that a
knowledge of the requirements of the body are absolutely necessary in
regulating a proper diet; (2) to furnish the food principles in a
cheap rather than a dear form; (3) to understand the art of cookery so
as to secure the full nutritive value and at the same time stimulate
the appetite; (4) the value of economy in regard to food principles.
When the housekeeper has acquired this knowledge she will have covered
the field of food economy. Prof. Atwater says: "When we know what are
the kinds and amount of nutritive substances our bodies need and our
food materials contain, then and not till then shall we be able to
adjust our diet to the demands of health and purse."
Cooking of Food.
It is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food? As many opportunities
will occur during this course of instruction for a comparison of the
customs and diet of the various countries, and the advance of
civilization in this direction, we will confine ourselves to the
definition of the term as it concerns ourselves.
Mr. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right application of heat for
the conversion of food material."
As much of our food requires cooking, how we shall cook it so as to
render it more palatable, more digestible, and with the greatest
economy of time, fuel and money, is an object deserving the most
careful attention. The art of cooking lies in the power to develop
certain flavors which are agreeable to the palate, or in other words,
which "make the mouth water," without interfering with the nutritive
qualities of the food prepared, to understand by what method certain
foods may be rendered more digestible, and to provide variety.
Monotony of diet and of flavor lessens the appetite and fails to
stimulate the digestive organs.
The chemical changes, produced by cooking food properly, aid
digestion, beside destroying any germs which may be contained in the
food. Nearly all foods--except fruit--require cooking. The
digestibility of starch depends almost entirely upon the manner in
which it is cooked, especially the cereal class. Gastric troubles are
sure to follow the use of improperly cooked grains or starches. (See
Chap. VII.)
Methods.
The following are the usual methods observed in cooking, viz.: (1)
boiling, (2) stewing, (3) roasting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6)
braising, (7) baking, (8) steaming.
BOILING.
Water boils at a temperature of 212° F. Simmering should be at a
temperature of from 175° F. to 180° F. When water has reached the
boiling point, its temperature cannot be raised, but will be converted
into steam; hence the folly of adding fuel to the fire when water has
already reached the boiling point.
STEWING.
Stewing allows the juices of the meat to become dissolved in water
heated to the simmering point. The juices thus dissolved are eaten
with the meat. If not injured by the addition of rich sauces or fats,
this is usually a very digestible method of preparing certain kinds of
meat.
BROILING.
Broiling is cooking directly over the hot coals. A coating of
coagulated albumen is formed upon the outer surface. This coating
prevents the evaporation of the juices, which with the extractive
materials are retained and improve the flavor. Meat cooked in this way
has a decided advantage, in both flavor and nutritive value, over that
which has been boiled or stewed. There are, however, only certain
kinds of meat that are suitable for broiling.
FRYING.
Frying is cooking in hot fat. The boiling point of fat is far above
that of water. Fat should not be heated above 400° F., as it will then
turn dark and emit a disagreeable odor. Fried food, unless very
carefully prepared, is considered unwholesome. The only proper method
for frying is to immerse the food completely in a bath of hot fat.
BRAISING.
Braising is cooking meat in a covered vessel surrounded by a solution
of vegetable and animal juices in a strong but not boiling
temperature. Tough meat may be rendered very palatable and nutritious
by cooking in this way. The cover of the pan or kettle must fit
closely enough to prevent evaporation. It requires long, steady
cooking. The flavor is improved by browning the meat in either hot
fat or in a very hot oven before braising.
BAKING.
Baking is cooking in confined heat. Meat properly cooked in an oven is
considered by many authorities as quite equal in delicacy of flavor to
that roasted before a fire, and is equally digestible.
STEAMING.
Steaming is cooking food over condensed steam, and is an excellent
method for preparing food which requires long, slow cooking. Puddings,
cereals, and other glutinous mixtures are often cooked in this way. It
is an economical method, and has the advantage of developing flavor
without loss of substance.
Food Preservation.
Food is preserved by the following processes: (1) drying, (2) smoking,
(3) salting, (4) freezing, (5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7)
addition of antiseptic and preservative substances.
DRYING.
Drying in the sun and before a fire is the usual method employed by
housekeepers. Fruits and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved by
drying, the latter with the addition of salt.
SMOKING.
Smoking is chiefly applied to beef, tongue, bacon, ham, and fish,
which are hung in a confined chamber, saturated with wood smoke for a
long time until they absorb a certain percentage of antiseptic
material, which prevents the fat from becoming rancid, and the albumen
from putrefying. Well smoked bacon cut thin and properly cooked is a
digestible form of fatty food, especially for tubercular patients.
Smoking improves the digestibility of ham.
SALTING.
Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. The addition
of a little saltpetre helps to preserve the color of the meat. Brine
is frequently used to temporarily preserve meat and other substances.
Corned beef is a popular form of salt preservation. All salted meats
require long, slow cooking. They should always be placed in cold water
and heated gradually in order to extract the salt. Salt meats are less
digestible and not quite so nutritious as fresh meats.
FREEZING.
Food may be kept in a frozen condition almost indefinitely, but will
decompose very quickly when thawed, hence the necessity for cooking
immediately. Frozen meat loses 10 per cent. of its nutritive value in
cooking.
REFRIGERATING.
This process does not involve actual freezing, but implies
preservation in chambers at a temperature maintained a few degrees
above freezing point. This method does not affect the flavor or
nutritive value of food so much as freezing.
SEALING.
Sealing is accomplished not only in the process of canning but by
covering with substances which are impermeable. Beef has been
preserved for considerable time by immersing in hot fat in which it
was allowed to remain after cooling.
CHEMICALS.
Chemicals are sometimes used in the preservation of food, but the
other methods are safer.