CHAPTER I._Public School Domestic Science

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PUBLIC SCHOOL

DOMESTIC SCIENCE

MRS. J. HOODLESS,

President School Of Domestic Science, Hamilton.

This Book may be used as a Text-Book in any High or Public School, if

so ordered by a resolution of the Trustees.

TORONTO:

THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED,

1898.

Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one

thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY,

LIMITED, Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of

Agriculture.

[Illustration: A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER.]

"I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which

embitters the latter half of life is due to avoidable errors in diet,

and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired

vigour, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man in England and

throughout Central Europe from erroneous habits of eating than from

the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil

to be."--_Sir Henry Thompson._

* * * * *

"Knowledge which subserves self-preservation by preventing loss of

health is of primary importance. We do not contend that possession of

such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. But we do

contend that the right knowledge impressed in the right way would

effect much; and we further contend that as the laws of health must be

recognized before they can be fully conformed to, the imparting of

such knowledge must precede a more rational living."--_Herbert

Spencer._

* * * * *

"Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of Calypso and

Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the

knowledge of all fruits, and herbs, and balms, and spices, and of all

that is healing and sweet in fields and groves, and savory in meats;

it means carefulness, and inventiveness, and watchfulness, and

willingness, and readiness of appliance; it means much tasting and no

wasting; it means English thoroughness, and French art, and Arabian

hospitality; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfect and always

'ladies'--'loaf-givers.'"--_Ruskin._

PREFACE.

An eminent authority[1] says: "Up to the age of sixteen even a lucid

statement of principles is received by all but a few pupils as dogma.

They do not and cannot in any adequate sense realize the reasoning

process by which scientific conclusions are reached. They are taught

not only facts but classifications and laws, and causes in relation to

their effect. These are not, in the majority of cases, elaborated by

the pupil. The teaching of them accordingly degenerates into a

statement of facts, and the learning of them into an act of memory."

To obviate this condition, or to at least neutralize its effects

somewhat, is one of the principal reasons for introducing Domestic

Science into the Public School curriculum; a science which relates so

closely to the daily life that it cannot be left to an act of memory;

where cause and effect are so palpable that the pupil may readily

arrive at an individual conclusion.

The aim of this text-book is to assist the pupil in acquiring a

knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living, to

co-ordinate the regular school studies so as to make a practical use

of knowledge already acquired. Arithmetic plays an important part in

the arranging of weights and measures, in the study of the analysis

and relative value of various kinds of food, in estimating the cost of

manufactured products in proportion to their market value, in the

purchase of food material, etc. History and geography are closely

allied to the study of the diet and customs of the different

countries, with their variety of climate and products. Physiology and

temperance principles permeate the whole course of study. In addition

to these are the direct lessons, provided by the practice work, in

neatness, promptness and cleanliness. It will therefore be necessary

to have a wide general knowledge before entering upon a course in

Domestic Science.

Owing to the limited time allowed for this course in the Public

Schools, it will be impossible to teach more than a few of the first

principles governing each department of the work, viz., a knowledge of

the constituent parts of the human body; the classification of food

and the relation of each class to the sustenance and repair of the

body; simple recipes illustrating the most wholesome and economical

methods of preparing the various kinds of food; the science of

nutrition, economy and hygiene; general hints on household management,

laundry work, and care of the sick.

To enter more fully into the chemistry of food, bacteriology, etc.,

would tend to cause confusion in the mind of the average school girl,

and possibly create a distaste for knowledge containing so much

abstract matter.

This book is not a teacher's manual, nor is it intended to take the

place of the teacher in any way. The normal training prescribed for

teachers will enable them to supplement the information contained

herein, by a much more general and comprehensive treatment of the

various questions, than would be possible or judicious in a primary

text-book. It has been found difficult for pupils to copy the recipes

given with each lesson, or to write out the instructions carefully

without infringing upon the time which should be devoted to practice

work.[2] In order to meet this difficulty, also to enable the pupil to

work at home under the same rules which govern the class work, simple

recipes are given, beginning with a class requiring a knowledge of

heat and its effect, going on to those requiring hand dexterity,

before attempting the more difficult subjects. After the pupils have

acquired a knowledge of the "why and wherefore" of the different

processes required in cooking, they will have little difficulty in

following the more elaborate recipes given in the numberless

cook-books provided for household use. Once the art--and it is a fine

art--of cookery is mastered, it becomes not only a pleasant occupation

but provides excellent mental exercise, thereby preventing the

reaction which frequently follows school life.

The tables given are to be used for reference, and _not to be

memorized_ by the pupil.

The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Atwater for his kindly

interest and assistance in providing much valuable information, which

in some instances is given verbatim; also to Dr. Gilman Thompson for

permission to give extracts from his valuable book, "Practical

Dietetics"; to Prof. Kinne, Columbia University (Domestic Science

Dept.), for review and suggestions; to Miss Watson, Principal Hamilton

School of Domestic Science, for practical hints and schedule for

school work. The Boston Cook Book (with Normal Instruction), by Mrs.

M.J. Lincoln; and the Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, by Ellen H.

Richards (Prof. of Sanitary Science, Boston Institute of Technology),

and Miss Talbot, are recommended to students who desire further

information on practical household matters. The publications of the

U.S. Experiment Stations, by Prof. Atwater and other eminent chemists,

contain much valuable information.

To the school-girls, and future housekeepers of Ontario, this book is

respectfully dedicated.

ADELAIDE HOODLESS.

"EASTCOURT,"

Hamilton, June, 1898.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] S.S. Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Prof. of the Institutes and History of

Education, Edinburgh University.

[2] Where time is allowed, much benefit may be derived from writing

notes, as a study in composition, spelling, etc.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER.

Owing to the limitations of a text-book, it will be necessary for the

teacher to enter very carefully into all the details of the various

questions; to explain the underlying principles so thoroughly that

"the why and the wherefore" of every action in the preparation of food

will be clearly understood. She should endeavor to impress upon the

pupils the value of thoroughly understanding the relation of food to

the body. In practice lessons frequent _reference_ should be made to

the analysis of the various foods, as given in the tables and charts.

The first practice lesson should be given on the making and care of a

fire, regulating dampers, cleaning stove, etc. The pupils should then

be taught the name and place of all the utensils. Special attention

should be given to the explanation of weights and measures; the table

of abbreviations should be memorized. Arrange the class work so that

each pupil may in alternation share the duties of both kitchen work

and cooking.

Personal cleanliness must be insisted upon. Special attention should

be given to the hands and nails. The hair should be carefully pinned

back or confined in some way, and covered by a cap. A large clean

apron and a holder should be worn while at work. Never allow the

pupils to use a handkerchief or their aprons in place of a holder.

Untidy habits must not be allowed in the class-room. Set an example of

perfect order and neatness, and insist upon pupils following that

example. Teach the pupils that cooking may be done without soiling

either hands or clothes. The pupils should do all the work of the

class-room, except scrubbing the floor. Everything must be left in

perfect order at the close of each lesson.

Frequent _reviews_ are absolutely necessary. Urge the pupils to think

for themselves, and not to rely upon the text-book. Where pupils are

backward, or have not had previous practice in kitchen work, give

special attention to their manner of holding a knife or spoon in

preparing articles for use, and in beating or stirring mixtures.

Encourage deftness and light handling of kitchen ware. Insist upon

promptness and keeping within the time limit, both in preparing the

food and in the cooking.

Owing to the variety of climate and markets, it would be impossible to

arrange the lessons in the text-book in regular order. A few sample

menus are given at the back of the book, but each teacher must be

governed by circumstances in arranging the lessons for her class. For

instance, recipes without eggs should be given in mid-winter, when

eggs are dear. Fruits and vegetables must be given in season.

The recipes given in the text-book are suitable for class work; in

some cases it may be necessary to divide them, as the quantities given

are intended for home practice. The teacher should consider herself at

liberty to substitute any recipe which she may consider valuable. The

digestibility of food, the effect of stimulants--especially of tea and

coffee, the value of fresh air, etc., should be carefully impressed

upon the pupil.

The teacher must keep the object of this instruction constantly before

her: (1) to co-ordinate other school studies, such as arithmetic,

history, geography, physiology and temperance; (2) to develop the

mental in conjunction with the manual powers of the children; (3) to

enable pupils to understand the reason for doing certain things in a

certain way; in other words, to work with an intelligent conception

of the value, both physically and hygienically, of knowing how the

daily duties should be performed.

In order that material may not be needlessly destroyed, each class of

food should be introduced by an experimental lesson. For instance,

before giving a lesson in the preparation of starches, each pupil

should be given an opportunity to learn how to mix and stir the

mixture over the fire, so as to prevent it from burning or becoming

lumpy; this may be done by using water and common laundry starch, or

flour. The same test applies to sauces, etc. A few cheap apples and

potatoes may be used in learning to pare these articles. The effect of

cold and hot water on albumen and tissues may be illustrated by the

cheaper pieces of meat.

Although the more scientific studies are grouped together, it does not

follow that they are to be studied in the order given. The teacher

must arrange her lessons--from the beginning--so as to include a

certain amount of the theory with the practice work. Frequent

reference should be made during practice lessons to the various

chapters bearing more directly upon the science of cooking, so as to

interest the pupil in the theoretical study of the food question.

The teacher should insist upon the pupils taking careful notes while

she is demonstrating a lesson, so that they may not be entirely

dependent upon the text-book, which from its limitations must simply

serve as the key-note for further study.

Special attention must be given to the chapter on "Digestion," page

58, in the Public School Physiology. This chapter should be

studied--especially pages 71-75--in conjunction with "Food

Classifications" (Chap. 2); also in dealing with the digestibility of

starches, etc.

COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS--(_Atwater_)

_Nutritive Ingredients, Refuse, and Food Value._

Nutrients:

P--Protein.

F--Fats.

C--Carbohydrates.

M--Mineral Matters.

Non-nutrients:

W--Water.

R--Refuse.

Fuel Value:

X--Calories.

_Protein_ Compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd)

of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.

_Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, \

\ serve as fuel to yield

/ heat and muscular power.

_Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar, /

Nutrients, etc., p.c | 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

---------------------+-------------------------------------------------|

Fuel value of 1 lb. | 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000

| | | | | | | | | | |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Beef, round |XXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Beef, round[A] |XXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Beef, sirloin |XXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Beef, sirloin[A] |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Beef, rib |XXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Beef, rib[A] |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Mutton, leg |XXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Pork, spare rib |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

|PP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWW|RRR|

Pork, salt |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Ham, smoked |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Codfish, fresh |XXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Codfish, salt |XXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

|PP|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|

Oysters |XXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

|P|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|

Milk |XXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

|P|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|M|WWWW|

Butter |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Cheese |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Eggs |XXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Wheat bread |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Wheat flour |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Cornmeal |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

|PPPPPP|FFF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WW|

Oatmeal |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Beans, dried |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

|PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW|

Rice |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

Potatoes |XXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|

Sugar |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|

[A] Without bone.

PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD--(_Atwater_).

_Amounts of actually Nutritive Ingredients obtained in different Food

Materials for 10 cents._

P--Protein.

F--Fats.

C--Carbohydrates.

X--Fuel Value.

_Protein_ compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd)

of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.

_Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter and oil, \

\ serve as fuel to yield

/ heat and muscular power.

_Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar, /

--------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------|

| Price | Ten | |

| per | cents| Pounds of Nutrients and Calories of |

| pound.| will | Fuel Value in 10 cents worth. |

| | buy--| |

--------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------|

| Cents.| Lbs. | 1 Lb. 2 Lbs. 3 Lbs. 4 Lbs. |

| | | 2000 Cal. 4000 Cal. 6000 Cal. 8000 Cal.|

| | | | | | | |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |PP|F| |

Beef, round | 12 | .83 |XXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |P|F| |

Beef, sirloin | 18 | .55 |XXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |P|F| |

Beef, rib | 16 | .63 |XXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |PP|F| |

Mutton, leg | 12 | .83 |XXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

Pork, | | |PP|FF| |

spare rib | 12 | .83 |XXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

salt, fat | 14 | .71 |XXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |P|FFF| |

Ham, smoked | 16 | .63 |XXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

Codfish, | | |PP| |

fresh | 8 | 1.25 |XX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

Codfish, | | |PPP| |

salt | 6 | 1.67 |XXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

Oysters, 40 | | |P| |

cents quart | 20 | .50 |X| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

Milk, 6 cents | | |P|F|C| |

quart | 3 | 3.33 |XXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

Butter | 24 | .42 |XXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |PP|FF| |

Cheese | 16 | .63 |XXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

Eggs, 25 | | |P|F| |

cents dozen | 16-3/4| .60 |XXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCC| |

Wheat bread | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |PPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| |

Wheat flour | 2-1/2| 4.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |PPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| |

Cornmeal | 2 | 5.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |PP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| |

Oatmeal | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

dried | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

| | |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC| |

Rice | 5 | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

cents bushel| 1 |10.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

Sugar | 5 | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| |

--------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Preface v

Suggestions to Teachers ix

Composition of Food Materials (_Atwater_) xii

Pecuniary Economy of Food (_Atwater_) xiii

CHAPTER I.

The Relation of Food to the Body 1

CHAPTER II.

Food Classification 6

CHAPTER III.

Nutrition 10

CHAPTER IV.

Food and Economy 12

CHAPTER V.

Foods containing Protein or Nitrogenous Matter 22

CHAPTER VI.

Fats and Oils 34

CHAPTER VII.

Carbohydrate Foods 37

CHAPTER VIII.

Fruits 50

CHAPTER IX.

Preparing Food 54

RECIPES:

Batters, Biscuits and Bread 60

Bread 65

Sauces and Milk Soups 66

Eggs 69

Fruit 72

Vegetables 74

Salads 80

Macaroni 85

Cheese 86

Beverages 87

Soups 89

Fish 94

Meat 96

Poultry 104

Hot Puddings 109

Plain Sauces 115

Pastry 121

Miscellaneous 122

General Hints 126

Suggestions for Young Housekeepers 128

Caring for Invalids 142

General Hints for School Children 150

Suggestions for School Children's Diet 153

Infants' Diet 156

Planning and Serving Meals 170

Consideration of Menus 173

Suggestive Questions 188

Schedule of Lessons for Public School Classes 191

Appendix 193

PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE

CHAPTER I.

The Relation of Food to the Body.

In order to understand the relation of food to the sustenance and

repairing of the body, it will be necessary to learn, first, of what

the body is composed, and the corresponding elements contained in the

food required to build and keep the body in a healthy condition. The

following table gives the approximate analysis of a man weighing 148

pounds:--

Oxygen 92.1 pounds.

Hydrogen 14.6 "

Carbon 31.6 "

Nitrogen 4.6 "

Phosphorus 1.4 "

Calcium 2.8 "

Sulphur 0.24 "

Chlorine 0.12 "

Sodium 0.12 "

Iron 0.02 "

Potassium 0.34 "

Magnesium 0.04 "

Silica ? "

Fluorine 0.02 "

------

Total 148.00 pounds.

As food contains all these elements, and as there is constant wearing

and repair going on in the body, it will be readily seen how necessary

some knowledge of the relation of food to the body is, in order to

preserve health.

Hydrogen and oxygen combined form water, hence we find from the above

calculation that about three-fifths of the body is composed of water.

Carbon is a solid: diamonds are nearly pure carbon; "lead" of lead

pencils, anthracite coal and coke are impure forms of carbon. Carbon

combined with other elements in the body makes about one-fifth of the

whole weight. Carbon with oxygen will burn. In this way the carbon

taken into the body as food, when combined with the oxygen of the

inhaled air, yields heat to keep the body warm, and force--muscular

strength--for work. The carbonic acid (or carbon dioxide) is given out

through the lungs and skin. In the further study of carbonaceous

foods, their relation to the body as fuel will be more clearly

understood, as carbon is the most important fuel element. Phosphorus

is a solid. According to the table, about one pound six ounces would

be found in a body weighing 148 pounds. United with oxygen, phosphorus

forms what is known as phosphoric acid; this, with lime, makes

phosphate of lime, in which form it is found in the bones and teeth;

it is found also in the brain and nerves, flesh and blood. Hydrogen is

a gas, and like carbon unites with the oxygen of the inhaled air in

the body, thus serving as fuel. The water produced is given off in the

respiration through the lungs and as perspiration through the skin.[3]

Calcium is a metal. The table given allows three pounds of calcium;

united with oxygen, calcium forms lime. This with phosphoric acid

makes phosphate of lime, the basis of the bones and teeth, in which

nearly all the calcium of the body is found.

The elements which bear no direct relation to the force production of

the body, but which enter into tissue formation, are chlorine,

sulphur, iron, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium.

Bone tissue contains about 50 per cent. of lime phosphate, hence the

need of this substance in the food of a growing infant, in order that

the bones may become firm and strong. Lack of iron salts in the food

impoverishes the coloring matter of the red blood corpuscles on which

they depend for their power of carrying oxygen to the tissues; anæmia

and other disorders of deficient oxidation result. The lack of

sufficient potash salts is a factor in producing scurvy, a condition

aggravated by the use of common salt. A diet of salt meat and starches

may cause it, with absence of fresh fruit and vegetables. Such

illustrations show the need of a well-balanced diet.

In order to understand the value of the various classes of food and

their relation to the body as force producers, tissue builders, etc.,

the following table may prove helpful:--

| | C.H.

| | Combustibles

| Nitrogen. | Calculated as

| | Carbon.

---------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------

Beef, uncooked | 3.00 | 11.00

Roast beef | 3.53 | 17.76

Calf's liver | 3.09 | 15.68

Foie-gras | 2.12 | 65.58

Sheep's kidneys | 2.66 | 12.13

Skate | 3.83 | 12.25

Cod, salted | 5.02 | 16.00

Herring, salted | 3.11 | 23.00

Herring, fresh | 1.83 | 21.00

Whiting | 2.41 | 9.00

Mackerel | 3.74 | 19.26

Sole | 1.91 | 12.25

Salmon | 2.09 | 16.00

Carp | 3.49 | 12.10

Oysters | 2.13 | 7.18

Lobster, uncooked | 2.93 | 10.96

Eggs | 1.90 | 13.50

Milk (cows') | 0.66 | 8.00

Cheese (Brie) | 2.93 | 35.00

Cheese (Gruyere) | 5.00 | 38.00

Cheese (Roquefort) | 4.21 | 44.44

Chocolate | 1.52 | 58.00

Wheat (hard Southern, variable average) | 3.00 | 41.00

Wheat (soft Southern, variable average) | 1.81 | 39.00

Flour, white (Paris) | 1.64 | 38.50

Rye flour | 1.75 | 41.00

Winter barley | 1.90 | 40.00

Maize | 1.70 | 44.00

Buckwheat | 2.20 | 42.50

Rice | 1.80 | 41.00

Oatmeal | 1.95 | 44.00

Bread, white (Paris, 30 per cent. water) | 1.08 | 29.50

Bread, brown (soldiers' rations formerly) | 1.07 | 28.00

Bread, brown (soldiers' rations at present) | 1.20 | 30.00

Bread, from flour of hard wheat | 2.20 | 31.00

Potatoes | 0.33 | 11.00

Beans | 4.50 | 42.00

Lentils, dry | 3.87 | 43.00

Peas, dry | 3.66 | 44.00

Carrots | 0.31 | 5.50

Mushrooms | 0.60 | 4.52

Figs, fresh | 0.41 | 15.50

Figs, dry | 0.92 | 34.00

Coffee (infusion of 100 grams) | 1.10 | 9.00

Tea (infusion of 100 grams) | 1.00 | 10.50

Bacon | 1.29 | 71.14

Butter | 0.64 | 83.00

Olive oil | Trace | 98.00

Beer, strong | 0.05 | 4.50

Wine | 0.15 | 4.00

---------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------

"The hydrogen existing in the compound in excess of what is required

to form water with the oxygen present is calculated as carbon. It is

only necessary to multiply the nitrogen by 6.5 to obtain the amount

of dry proteids in 100 grams of the fresh food substance."

(Dujardin-Beauretz.) The following simple rules are given by

Parks:--"1st. To obtain the amount of nitrogen in proteid of foods,

divide the quantity of food by 6.30. 2nd. To obtain the carbon in fat

multiply by 0.79. 3rd. To obtain the carbon in carbohydrate food

multiply by 0.444. 4. To obtain the carbon in proteid food multiply by

0.535."

Finding that our food and our bodies contain essentially the same

elements, we must also bear in mind that the body cannot create

anything for itself, neither material nor energy; all must be supplied

by the food we eat, which is transformed into repair material for the

body. Therefore, the object of a course of study dealing with the

science of this question, as it relates to the daily life, should be

to learn something of how food builds the body, repairs the waste,

yields heat and energy, and to teach the principles of food economy in

its relation to health and income. This, with the development of

executive ability, is all that can be attempted in a primary course.

FOOTNOTE:

[3] An illustration of vapor rising may be given by breathing upon a

mirror.