TUNIS BETWEEN 1800 AND 1837.
The hostilities between the Regency of Tunis and the French Republic
only ceased in February 1802. The Bey, however, soon managed to pick
other quarrels with his European allies and tributaries. The Danish
Consul fell into disgrace for offering Hamouda some arms mounted in
copper gilt instead of gold, and thirty notable Spaniards were relegated
to the common prison because two gun-boats sent from Madrid contained
eighteen guns instead of twenty-four. It was only in 1804 that these
unfortunate persons were liberated, and then only on the Government of
His Most Catholic Majesty humbly tendering for the Bey’s acceptance a
large money present and two _chebecks_, each carrying twenty-six guns.
The Dutch fleet also arrived with an envoy charged “to fix the annual
payment to the Pacha and if possible to compound for it by giving the
Bey a lump sum in ready money.” Under these circumstances it is hardly
surprising that Hamouda Bey, proud of his diplomatic successes with
Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and the United States, embarked on a
deadly conflict with his neighbour the Dey of Algiers which lasted till
1809.
No sooner had a peace been signed with Algeria than a fresh complication
arose with Spain. The Bey informed the Spanish _junta_ that unless the
debts of the Consul were paid he should order his corsairs to attack all
the Spanish ships they met with, and even to ravage the coasts of Spain.
The difficulty was only settled by the payment of a large sum of money.
In 1810 the Bey sent Muhamed Djelouli to London to complain of the
capture of French vessels by English ships on the Tunisian coasts, and
the matter appears to have been satisfactorily arranged. During a revolt
which broke out towards the end of the following year nearly all the
Turkish troops formerly so powerful in the Regency were annihilated.
Peace was hardly restored when England undertook the task of negotiating
a treaty for Sicily in consideration of a present of 100,000 dollars.
The first mission failing to secure its objects, the whole Mediterranean
squadron under Admiral Freemantle arrived at Goletta. The scope of this
demonstration was not only to conclude the Sicilian treaty, but to
support an endeavour of Lady William Bentinck to purchase the release of
a number of Christian slaves. After much hesitation Hamouda Bey agreed
to a convention with Sicily which was to have effect as long as the
English occupation of that island continued, and nearly 500 slaves were
released. An attempt subsequently made under the auspices of France to
obtain the liberation of the Neapolitan captives was not equally
successful. The Bey refused to accept less than 400,000 dollars _for a
treaty_ and the slaves, and as the Neapolitan envoy could only offer
150,000, the negotiations fell through. Hamouda Pacha died suddenly on
the 15th September 1814. Native annalists are not agreed as to whether
his coffee cup or the snuffbox of his secretary contained the poison
which killed him.
Hamouda was succeeded by his brother Othman. Three months later this
unfortunate prince was massacred with his two sons at the instigation of
his cousin and successor Mahmoud. On the same day his wife gave birth to
a son. The offspring of Othman Bey remained a prisoner in the Bardo
Palace till 1855, when he was released by Muhamed Bey, his namesake.
Muhamed, son of Othman Bey, only died in 1868. The reign of Mahmoud Bey
was destined to see the end of the system of piracy, the remembrance of
which will be for ever associated with the very name of the Barbary
States. On the 12th April 1816, Lord Exmouth arrived at Goletta. A few
months before, the Tunisian captain Mustapha Raïs had attacked one of
the islets of the coast of Sardinia, and carried into captivity every
man, woman, and child inhabiting it. The Great Powers now decided that
armed force was to take the place of cajolery and bribes. In accordance
with this determination Lord Exmouth demanded the abolition of Christian
slavery. It happened that at this very time Caroline Princess of Wales
was enjoying the splendid hospitality of Mahmoud Bey in his city palace.
Neither party seemed inclined to yield, and matters assumed a very
threatening aspect. The mediation of the royal guest was invoked in
vain; Lord Exmouth was inexorable. The Princess sent the greater part of
her baggage to Goletta, the British merchants hastened to embark on
board the vessels of the squadron, the men-of-war were prepared for
action, and the Bey did his best to collect all available
reinforcements. The excitement in Tunis became intense, and a pacific
solution was considered almost impossible.
On the 16th April Lord Exmouth, accompanied by Mr. Consul-General
Oglander and his staff, proceeded to the Bardo Palace. The flag-staff of
the British Agency was previously lowered to indicate a resolution to
resort to an appeal to arms in case of failure, and the Princess of
Wales expected every hour to be arrested as a hostage. The antecedents
of the Bey were not precisely calculated to assuage her alarm, but
Mahmoud sent one of his officers to assure her that come what may he
should never dream of violating the Moslem laws of hospitality. While
the messenger was still with her, Lord Exmouth entered the room and
announced the satisfactory termination of his mission. On the following
morning the Bey signed a treaty whereby in the name of the Regency he
abolished Christian slavery for ever throughout his dominions. Amongst
the reasons which induced the Bey to yield to the pressure used by Lord
Exmouth was the detention of the Sultan’s envoy bearing the imperial
firman and robe of investiture at Syracuse. The Neapolitan government
would not allow him to depart until the news of the successful result of
the British mission had arrived, and Mahmoud felt it impossible to
forego the official recognition of his suzerain.
The visit of the wife of George IV. to Tunis is hardly yet quite
forgotten. The Bey gave her a guard of honour composed of sixty
memelouks, and during her stay a coach and six was always kept in
readiness for her use. The most prominent member of her _suite_ was
Count Bergami di Brescia, who suggested a variety of amusements, which
comprised a fête champêtre amongst the orange groves of the Manouba, and
picnics on horseback to the ruins of Carthage, Utica, and Zaghouan. The
Princess was extremely displeased at Lord Exmouth’s inopportune arrival,
and was not even consoled by the salute of 101 guns fired on her
departure for Greece the day after the signature of the treaty.
The splendours of the reception, however, did not prevent the diplomatic
victory of Lord Exmouth being regarded as a national humiliation by the
Tunisians. On the 1st of May the troops rose in open revolt and seized
both Tunis and Goletta. The refusal of the Bey’s cousins to accept the
proffered crown alone prevented the deposition and possible death of
Mahmoud. As it was, the insurrection could only be quelled by numerous
executions. Ten days later the Sultan’s commissioner arrived, escorted
by an English brig. The investiture of the Bey and his son was attended
by more than ordinary ceremonial, but it nearly occasioned a serious
riot on account of Mr. Consul Oglander refusing unexpectedly to kiss the
hand of the Bey’s son and heir. This episode engendered interminable
correspondence. Mahmoud wrote angry letters to the Prince Regent and Sir
Thomas Maitland on the subject of what he styled “the irregular and
turbulent conduct of the said Consul Oglander.” The following is the
Bey’s complaint in his own words:—“Setting aside that it is improper to
offend against the usages and customs of any court great or small in
matters of etiquette Mr. Oglander has exposed himself from his mere
pride and caprice to receive a violent and public affront on the 20th
inst. without its being in my power to prevent it if it had not been for
the prudence and presence of mind of my son who stopped the general
irritation upon his having in the most marked manner together with his
Vice-Consul Alexis Tulin refused to kiss the hand of my son and heir
Hasan Bey, sitting on the throne and receiving then solemnly our sacred
ceremony, his investiture with the title of Bashaw from His Highness the
Grand Sultan, upon oath administered to all the Divan and grandees of
the Regency present at the ceremony, the Bashaw having been so saluted
as is always the custom from time immemorial by the French, Spanish and
Danish Consuls, who preceded Mr. Oglander, and also by the other Consuls
who followed him.” In the result Mr. Oglander’s conduct was disapproved
by his superiors.
The Bey on several occasions endeavoured the next two years to ignore
the principal provision of Lord Exmouth’s treaty. Early in 1817 the
Tunisian Admiral with some privateers actually appeared _in the English
Channel_ and there captured a Bremen ship. The crew were taken to Tunis
as prisoners, and on the Tunisians endeavouring to sell their prize in
England, their ships were detained. A most acrimonious correspondence
followed, and finally the Bey was compelled to surrender the Bremen
sailors, and to sign on the 19th October a declaration that his
privateers could “not enter the channels or narrow seas of England.” To
accomplish this result the visit of several ships-of-war to Goletta
became necessary.
Two years later the appearance of a Dutch fleet emphasised the
resolution arrived at by the King of Holland to submit no longer to the
degradation of paying blackmail under the name of tribute to his ally
the Bey of Tunis. Three months afterwards Admirals Jurien and Freemantle
communicated to Mahmoud Pacha the irrevocable decision of the Powers at
Aix-la-Chapelle, “to enforce the cessation of a system of piracy, which
is not only contrary to the best interests of all States, but is also
fatal to the prosperity of those which practise it.” The Bey’s answer
was eminently conciliatory, but he prudently opened the entrance of the
Porto-Farina lake in order to place his fleet of corsairs out of gunshot
in a case of emergency. In 1820, an envoy of the Sultan once more
imposed a peace between Tunis and Algiers, which he termed humorously
“_une paix véritablement définitive cette fois_.” Pursuant to
instructions received from Constantinople, Mahmoud greatly increased his
fleet, and on the holy war against Greece being proclaimed, a Tunisian
division under the corsair Mustapha Raïs joined the squadron of the
Captain Pacha in the Archipelago.
The year 1823 is known as “the year of the hats.” Acting on some
mysterious inspiration, the Bey declared that any Jew detected wearing
the ordinary European headdress should be severely punished. This order
led to the arrest of an Israelite merchant from Gibraltar, whose protest
was strongly supported by the British Consul-General. The Bey at first
was inexorable and announced his intention of expelling all Jews from
the country who would not wear a black coif. A rupture with England was
only averted by the Bey’s consenting to intermeddle no further with the
costume of Jews enjoying the protection of Great Britain. Two Tuscan
Jews presumed on this concession, and appearing in beaver hats were
seized and soundly bastinadoed. This untoward event hastened the
conclusion of a convention between the Bey of Tunis and the Grand Duke
of Tuscany.
A few months after this dispute had been amicably adjusted, a much more
serious difference arose. It was discovered that some passengers on
board an English ship were really Greek slaves. The British Consul
demurred to their disembarkation; and the Bey seized them by force. In
consequence of this outrage to the flag an English squadron arrived off
Goletta on Christmas Day 1823, but we obtained nothing more than profuse
promises as to the future. On the 28th March following Sidi Mahmoud
died.
His successor Hossein Bey sent an embassy to Paris to congratulate
Charles X., and offer several costly presents to the French King. Like
his predecessor Hossein, he did not fail to furnish several ships to the
Turkish fleet. In 1827 the war between France and Algeria broke out.
Although the Bey maintained a strict neutrality, he did not neglect to
keep his army in a state of efficiency. Under these circumstances the
_tribute_ offered by Sweden in 1827 proved very acceptable. It consisted
of a cargo of wood and no less than 125 cannons. The attitude of Hossein
in the matter of Algiers can be easily understood. In the first place,
he was not sorry to see the humiliation of an inveterate and almost
hereditary enemy; and secondly, he hoped that a successor to the Bey of
Algiers would be selected from amongst the descendants of Hossein Ben
Ali,—an idea which the French Consul-General lost no opportunity of
encouraging. It was under these circumstances that the treaty with
France of the 8th August 1830 was executed. A clause, for some time kept
secret, ceded to France a conspicuous spot on the site of the
Carthaginian Byrsa or citadel for the erection of a memorial chapel in
honour of Louis IX.[31] The fifth article of the convention restored to
France the coral fishery as far as Cape Négre; but the Bey protested
against it, and some particulars of the conditions agreed on were never
carried into effect.
Here all published annals of the Regency cease, but the voluminous
records of the British Consulate-General afford an easy means of
continuing them. The period I am about to speak of is undoubtedly one of
the most interesting epochs in its history, and I regret I am able only
to refer briefly to the most important events. The situation between
1830 and 1880 can be summed up in a few words. France had already begun
to cast a longing eye on the Regency. The Beys of Tunis knew it, and in
the recesses of their heart hated France and Frenchmen accordingly. At
the same time they dreaded complete absorption in the Ottoman Empire,
but clung with childish affection to the quasi-independence of their
vassalship. England, perfectly aware of the maritime and strategic
importance of the country, constantly held the balance between the Porte
and France, and time after time prevented by prompt diplomatic action
the much-dreaded extinction of the Tunisian Regency. At last a time came
when Prince Bismarck said to M. Waddington at Berlin, “Why do you not go
to Carthage?” France was not long in taking the hint; and as the old
veto of England was wanting, Carthage was taken and Tunis absorbed in
Algeria. The tale of this taking is the immediate subject of this book;
the diplomacy which postponed that taking for fifty years is the
essential feature of Tunisian history during the past half-century. As a
study of political tactics, I have found it so interesting, that I
regret being able to devote only a few pages to it.
In 1831 the Chargé d’Affaires, M. Lesseps, in the name of France,
offered to intrust to the Bey’s brothers the Beylical governments of
Constantine and Oran. His proposition was gladly accepted, and a large
tribute agreed to. Tunisian troops had been already despatched to Oran
when the news arrived that the French Government had repudiated the
arrangement. A temporary arrangement was afterwards suggested, but the
Bey rejected it and claimed a large sum he alleged having given to M.
Lesseps to “bind the bargain.” Two years later, Sir Thomas Reade
(British Consul-General from 1824) supported a complaint of his
Sardinian colleague that the Bey had caused sixty of his Italian
servants to receive each 150 strokes of the bastinado for “delaying the
preparation of his supper.”
French squadrons and frigates are now reported as frequently arriving at
Goletta, but their visits were generally followed by the appearance of
ships from Malta. At times our influence was eclipsed, but it generally
became predominant again when our vessels anchored in the Gulf. The
intricacies of this political rivalry were not, however, to perplex much
longer Hossein Bey, who, in spite of the complaint of his European
attendants, seems to have been a just and kindly man. In reporting his
death on the 20th May 1835, Sir T. Reade wrote: “The poor Bey sent for
me yesterday to offer his last adieu; but when I arrived, although he
recognised me instantly, he was unable to speak. I was the only Consul
he sent for. Upon several occasions latterly when I called upon him, he
never omitted expressing his most anxious wishes for the continuation of
that good harmony which has latterly so happily subsisted between his
Government and England.”
Hossein Bey was succeeded by his brother, Sidi Mustapha, who at once
addressed a friendly letter to William IV., and expressed an earnest
desire to maintain the most cordial relations with England. A mission
was sent forthwith to demand the caftan at Constantinople, and at the
same time to counteract if possible an idea which was supposed to be
entertained of incorporating the island of Jerba in the Pachalik of
Tripoli. “The envoy takes with him,” writes Sir Thomas Reade, “presents
to a very large amount, nearly two millions of Tunisian piastres,
consisting of Spanish dollars, the conveyance of which alone from the
Bardo to the Goletta required forty-two mules; a vessel loaded with
thirty very fine horses with rich caparisons, and another with negro
slaves, 200,000 red Tunisian caps, a great supply of otto of roses and
jessamine, a quantity of jewellery, many swords, guns, and pistols,
besides an enormous quantity of Tunisian butter in jars, which is much
esteemed at Constantinople, and a letter of introduction to Lord
Ponsonby.” Either the butter or Lord Ponsonby touched the Caliph’s
heart: Sidi Mustapha got his caftan as a pacha of three tails, and the
status of the Regency remained unaltered. In May 1836 a new French
Consul-General named Schewbel arrived. He persistently refused, by order
of the French Government, to kiss Sidi Mustapha’s hand on presenting his
credentials. As the Bey had “held out his hand to be kissed in open
Divan,” the conduct of M. Schewbel was considered a gross affront. After
long and anxious deliberation, the Bey resolved to terminate the _vexata
quæstio_ by abolishing altogether the ceremonial of _baisemain_ as far
as the European Consuls were concerned. A French squadron soon after
arrived, and the Bey was invited in a mysterious manner to invoke its
assistance against some undefined project of the Porte. Sidi Mustapha
declined, and as usual hastened to inform Lord Palmerston of his
dilemma. The French continued their efforts to wean the Bey from his
Turkish allegiance, but the defeat of the first French expedition
against Constantine prevented his taking any decided step. In December
1836 a riot occurred amongst the Maltese, and the Bey (whose sympathies
were less English than those of his brother) decreed the banishment of
the whole colony _en masse_, and was with great difficulty prevented
from carrying his order into execution. Sidi Mustapha continued to
weakly waver between the French and the Porte, and the French and the
English, till October 1839, when he died.