THE DOMINATION OF THE DEYS (A.D. 1590-1705).
Of the thirty Deys, who ruled on an average a little more than three
years each during the seventeenth century, a majority were deposed,
while others suffered a violent and, in many cases, a horrible death at
the hands of their subjects. The history of this period of external
piracy and internal bloodshed has very little interest, if it were not
for the fact that, in spite of their constant challenges to Christendom
abroad and their ceaseless dissensions at home, the Tunisian corsairs
practically held all Europe at bay, and lived and throve on the
blackmail which they levied almost with impunity on every power having
commerce with the shores of the Mediterranean. The presents which took
the place of tribute have really only disappeared with the last
generation, and men still living can remember the time when consuls-
general and political agents were obliged to creep into the Beylical
presence under a wooden bar! I do not intend to attempt to sketch even
in the briefest manner the chronicles of the Deys of Tunis, but shall
only mention some few facts connected with their rule, which either
refer directly to England, or tend to throw some light on the more
recent history of the country. In 1605 M. de Brèves arrived in Tunis,
_accompanied by an ambassador of the Grand Signor_, in order to conclude
a fresh treaty with France. During his stay at Tunis Hammamet was taken
and lost by the Knights of St. John, and its keys hang to this day in
one of the chapels of the cathedral at Malta. In 1640 the fleet of the
Order, under the Prince Landgrave d’Osia, burned several Tunisian
vessels before Goletta, an exploit which forms the subject of one of the
frescoes in the palace of the Grand Masters at Valetta. Three years
later the Tunisian squadron was sent to assist the Turks at the siege of
Candia. Ten years after this the Capuchin Mission was established at
Tunis under the auspices and protection of France. Some years previously
the Deys had granted to England the burial-ground of St. George, then
just outside the Carthage gate, but now in the heart of the city. The
original deed of gift is lost, and our first known treaty with Tunis is
dated October 1662, in which it is not even mentioned. Some of the tombs
recently discovered in this cemetery have considerable interest (see
Appendix C). The treaty of 1662 (see Appendix D), which was granted to
England at a time when France was threatening to attack the Regency,
seems to have restrained very little the piratical depredations of our
new allies, for three years afterwards Admiral Black bombarded Porto-
Farina “and emptied the _bagnè_ of all the English and Dutch slaves.”
The French burned the Algerian fleet in the Goletta roads, and succeeded
in concluding a more favourable treaty with the Bey later in the year,
and a second convention in 1672. During the reign of Muhamed Tabak, in
1678, he was attacked by a pretender to the throne also named Muhamed.
The following literal extract, from one of the old registers of the
British Consulate General, conveys a correct idea of the dangers and
difficulties of Europeans in Tunis during the palmier days of Tunisian
Piracy.
The DECLARATION of FRANCIS BAKER, CONSUL, FRANCIS BARRINGTON and
BENJAMIN STEELE Merchants In this Citty and Kingdome of Tunis About an
Advance Imposed by Sidi Muhamet Bey upon the English Nation amounting to
Fifteen Thousand and eleven Dollars viz.:—
That on the 12th. Jany in the yeare of our Lord 1677 His Excellency Sidi
Mahamet Bey appeared with his Forces before this Citty of Tunis, to the
great terrour of the Inhabitants, and after three days assault (burning
downe the Citty gates) he rendered himself absolute Patrone thereof;
whereupon Taback Dey with such Turks and Moores as could promise
themselves no security from him retired into the Castle which they
maintained twenty five dayes, notwithstanding all Mines and other
Stratagems of Warre diligently prosecuted by Muhamet Bey to reduce them,
the whole Citty being now become his Prey, ourselves, the French Nation,
Jewes, Merchants etc suddainly experienced the bad effects of his then
unlimitted Power, which he improved for the supplying of his urgent
wants;—
On the 26th. Jany. he sent for our Nation and the French to attend him
at the Gibbelluchada where having taxed the latter with many frivolous
Pretences, and us that our Men of Warre had transported his Uncle, the
Hosse Bey (now Bashaw) from Tripoli to Avarin, by which meanes He and
his brother Sidi Alli Bey became Capable to contend with him for the
Government of this Kingdome, did without any reply forceable and
violently seize on Charles Gratiano Consul for the French together with
our selves, sending us Prisoners to his Camp about eight miles distance
from Tunis, swearing by the Soule of his deceased he would cutt us to
pieces that night, and seize on the whole English Estate in this
Country, whereupon not knowing what his Tyrannicall spiritt and
desperatenesse of Conditions might lead him to, obleiged us to have to
recourse to Soclasly . . . . with such other Friends as wee judged might
have an influence upon him to asswage his fury, Pleading the respect he
ought to have to the Articles of peace firm’d by his owne hand, and that
the Resentment of his majty in having his Consul and Merchants so
barbarously treated wd certainly provoke his Majty to vindicate his
subjects in such manner as perhaps his Excellcy might repent of this
Action, when it was too late, to all which they agreed, telling us we
spoke their opinions, and that they would imediately goe to the Bey to
make him understand so much, In all which their endeavours proved
fruitlesse at their returne plainly telling us, that neither our lives
nor the whole English Estate in the Country were in security unless we
complyed in the payment of a Sume of money, of which his occasions for
the payment of his Army were very pressing. The next day being sent for
we were with cruell threatnings and Guards appointed to attend us
returned to the Citty, Spahees ordered to seize on all our Debtors,
severall of which were putt in Chaines, and a Broker appointed to
dispose of the cloth in warehouse, by which meanes he received from us
in six days Dollars Five Thousand, but that not satisfieing wee were
again sent Prisoners to the Camp, with threatening to have our Leggs and
armes broke, and many other barbarous Menaces, where wee remained two
dayes and two nights with dreadfull apprehensions not knowing what the
result of so severe and unjust treatment would be: till by intercession
of our friends our liberty was once more procured, and wee ordered to
Compleate the sume of Dollars Twenty thousand, or prepare to be sent to
his Castle at Keff about three dayes journey from this Place, and to
have the whole English Estate in this country sequestered, before the
compleating of which (though continually dogged and persecuted by his
Souldiers) wee were a third time remanded to the Camp, where we ordered
our Drugerman to acquaint the Bey how much his Officers had received,
and that wee desired and expected he should give us noe further trouble
&c (when in manner as before) he fell into a most extravagant Passion,
ordering our Drugeman to be putt in Chaines, and then telling us his
Clemency in not cutting off our heads and seizing on all he could find
of the English Estates in Tunis, as was his first resolution when arrivd
this Citty Scornefully demanding, what can the King of England doe, take
the Goletta, lett him doe it, and Tunis too, choosing that any Prince
should be Possessor of this Country than his Brother, with this and such
like extravagant and dispairing discourses he then treated us, comanding
us to make noe reply, and then ordered us to be a third time carried
away Prisoners, but being on promises of complyance released in the
terme of four days, we compleated the sume of Dollars 15,011, When
suddaine newes of his Brother Allilis approach, obliged him to raise his
seige from the Castle and depart with the new King and such Turks and
Coglobys are were in the Citty to attend his Brothers motions in
Campagnia Leaving us to Blesse God wee were not at that time in his
Camp, when undoubtedly wee had (as many others were) been sent to Keff.
In three days time each Armies meett; Mahamat Bey receiving a totall
defeate, the new King (Dey) and most of his Turks slaine, himself hardly
escaping to his Castle of Keff so that this Kingdome and Citty is again
under the command of Taback Dey and Alli Bey. Now the Avance paid by our
Nation to Muhamet Bey and his People, with the new King and others
instrumentall to the accomodation in ready money cloath and Debts
received from the Taylors amounts unto Dollars 15,011, and was for the
security of the whole remaining English Estate. In Witnesse to the truth
of the foregoing lines wee do hereunto sett our hands in Tunis this the
26th day of April 1678.
FRANCIS BAKER _Consul_
FRANCIS BARRINGTON
BENJM STEELE.
Charles II. must have written to Muhamed Tabak Dey and Ali Bey on the
subject of this protest, for I find that A.H. 1093 (A.D. 1682) they
forwarded to England two almost identical answers. The following is Ali
Bey’s letter:—
To Charles the Second by the Grace of God (King of) Great Brittain and
others his Majtie’s Dominions the greatest and most Powerfull amongst
the Kingdomes and Nations of the Messias the most worthy and most noble
Protector of the Believers in Jesus Christ Allj Beyh the Generall of the
Camp & Kingdome of Tunis his faithfull and kynde friend sends hearty
wishes of health Prosperity etc Some months agoe I recd from yr Majtie a
most acceptable letter wherein you were pleased to bring a fresh to my
memory the injuries my Brother Mahamat Beyh offered unto Fransis Baker
ye Consul and the rest of yr subjects here; and to take pticular notice
of the mony he had violently forced out of their hands In answer whereto
I entreat yr majtie not to wonder at those unworthy Proceedings of my
said brother, for he tooke an opportunity whilst I was abroad, with all
the land forces of this Govmt (doing such service as was then judged
necessary for its preservation and welfare) and came hither with a great
number of outlaws assaulted the unarmed Citty, for a little time made
himself master thereof and did most cruelly abuse and plunder every
Xtian nation forcing great sūmes of money from them besides impudently
attaquing our Royall Castle, but when his attempts proved vaine and he
knew I had notice of his being here, he and his followrs fled away . . .
. . . But I am ready to pform all the dutys of a true frnd to yr majtie
and have found a way to render to ye said Consul and Merchants due
satisfatton for the losses they have sufferd as I believe yr majtie will
have been informed before this letter kisses yr Royall hands. I do
heartily wish and hope that your Majtie will lett me be honored for the
future with a more frequent intercourse of our letters, because nothing
can be more gratfull to me than either the good news of yr Majtie’s well
being or an imploymt in yr services in these parts. I am now to
acknowledge the Receipt of many favors from yr Majtie by ye hand of yr
aforementioned subjects residing here, and entreat the addition of one
more. Wee are in great want of Gunpowdr and Saile canvas and doo
therefore desire yr Majtie to pmitt Francis Baker yr Consul to send us
out such a supply of each as we have told him our necessitys require,
this I shall esteeme a singular kindnesse and it will be as a tye on our
part to maintain the ancient peace and ffriendship amongst us, which I
never had and thoughts of violating. Dated in Tunis 25 Jumad (Elaoul)
1093
yr majtie’s
most affectionat true friend
ALLY BEYH Genrall of ye Camps
and Kingdome of Tunis
A few weeks later Ali Bey quarrelled with Muhamed Tabak Dey, and the
latter was strangled at the gate of the Bardo. At this time the
authority of the Deys was fast fading before the increased powers of the
Beys, and the next Dey, Ahmed Chelebi, was actually appointed by Ali
Bey, the murderer of his predecessor. The British Agent and Consul-
General Baker remaining in England, Thomas Goodwyn was appointed to
succeed him, and Charles II. wrote the following letter to Ahmed
Chelebi:—
Charles the Second by the Grace of God King of England, Scotland, France
and Ireland, Defender of the Faith etc To the Excellent the Bashaw, the
Dey and the People of the Citty and Kingdom of Tunis, our well beloved
friends and allyes Greeting. Having been pleased to give leave to our
Trusty and Wellbeloved Francis Baker Esqr our late Agent and Consul
Generall residing with you to returne back into this our Kingdome to
attend his private concernes here. We have made choice of our Trusty and
Wellbeloved Subject Thomas Goodwyn Esqre (as a person of whose integrity
and fittnesse to supply that place we are fully satisfyed) to succeed
him, and have accordingly by our commission, under our Royall Signet and
Signe manuall constituted the said Thomas Goodwyn our Agent and Consul
Generall with your Government. We have therefore thought fitt to
acquaint you by these our Letters herewith, and to Recommend Our sayd
Agent and Consul unto you, desiring you upon all occasions of our
service, and the affayres of our merchants to give him free accesse and
audience and to credit him in such things as he shall represent unto you
in discharge of his duty according to our said Commission. And so we
commit you to the Protection of the Almighty. Given under our Royall
Signet and Signe Manuall at our Castle of Windsor the 27th day of August
1683 in the Five and Thirtieth yeare of our Reigne
your Loving Friend
CHARLES R.
L Jenkins L.S
In 1685 the French fleet appeared off Goletta, and the Dey consented to
indemnify them for their losses by his corsairs, and to grant his
authorisation for the opening a place of business at Cape Négre. Next
year James II. wrote an autograph letter to Muhamed Baktache. This
communication was as follows:—
James the Second by the Grace of God King of England, Scotland France
and Ireland Defender of the Faith etc To the most Illustrious Lords the
Bashaw, Divan, Dei, Bei and the rest of the Souldiers in the Kingdome of
Tunis, Our well-beloved friends Greeting Having in pursuance of what we
formerly signifyed to you directed Sr William Soame Baront whome We had
appointed our Ambassador to the Grande Signor to call at your City, in
order to confirme the peace subsisting between Us and to renew to you
the Assurances of Our friendship. And whereas we have lately received an
account that Our said Ambassador was seized with a violent sicknesse
which obliged him to stop his voyage and that he is since deceased We
have thought fit hereby to signify to you that We have fully empowered
our Trusty and well-beloved Thomas Goodwyn Esqr. Our Agent and Consul
Generall with you to confirme the peace with you, And therefore we
desire you will give him full Credence in what he has to say to you on
Our part, in order to Confirming the peace. And we do promise that We
shall in Our name agree unto, We will Confirme and ratify, in pursuance
of Our intentions to Live with you in perfect ffriendshipe and a good
Correspondence to the mutuall benefit of Our People and Subjects
respectively. And so committing you to the Protection of Almighty God,
We bid you farewell.
Given at Our Court at Windsor the 12th day of July
1686 in ye seconde year of Our Reigne
Yr loving friend
JAMES R.
Sunderland P
Mr. Consul Goodwyn lost no time in carrying out the king’s orders, and
signed a treaty with Tunis on the 2d October 1686.[23] The following
copy of Sir William Soame’s instructions was sent him for his guidance:—
EXTRACT of Sir WILLIAM SOAME’S Instructions. WINDSOR, _September_ 21st
1685.
Having thought it requisite that in your Passage to Constantinople you
should call at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, you are accordingly upon
your arrivall in the Road before any of the said Places to send for our
Consull, and by him give notice thereof to the Government, Letting them
know, that in pursuance of what Wee signifyed to them by Our Letters of
the 12th of February last, We have directed you to passe that way to
your Embassy, That you might confirme to them Our Resolutions to
maintaine the peace and good Correspondence established with them by the
Late King Our most Dear Brother of Blessed memory deceased, Which Peace
though We look upon as substituting and being in full force, Wee are
willing however as an Argument of the Sincerity of Our Intentions to
renew in Our own name, which may be done by short Instrument referring
to the respective Treaties made viz with Algiers the 10th day of Aprill
1682 by Arthur Herbert Esqr Late Admirall of the Mediterranean Seas,
With Tunis by Sir John Lawson October 5th 1682 and confirmed and renewed
the 4th of February 168⅘ With Tripoli May 1st 1676 by Sir John
Narborough late Admirall in the said Seas.
It being usuall upon such occasions to send Presents to the Chief
Persons of those Governments, We have accordingly ordered Presents to be
prepared and put on board the Man of Warr which is to carry you, but
though you may intimate to them that you have such Presents, We do not
think fit you should cause them to be delivered till you have finished
your Business and that all things shall be concluded.
The treaties you shall so renew you shall leave with our respective
Consuls to be forthwith sent by some safe Conveyance to us for our
Ratification.
Mr. Secretary Pepys appears to have written to Mr. Goodwyn to express
his satisfaction at the speedy conclusion of the treaty:—
MR. SAMUEL PEPYS TO MR. GOODWYN AT TUNIS.
Sr
This serves to acknowledge and thank you for yr of the 9th October,
1686, which calls for noe other answer from mee than my telling you,
that I did not faile to comunicate the contents thereof to his May who
was very well pleasd with your proceedings on Occasion of the
Confirmation of the Peace with that Governmt, wh is hopd by yr prudence
in ye ministry of yr office, will bee of long continuance wh for ye sake
of ye King’s service as well as the Publick Interest and your particular
is desired and wished for by
Your very humble servt
S. PEPYS.
_Admty_ 21st _Feby_
168⁶⁄₇
In 1686 the Sultan conferred upon Muhamed the title of Bey, as well as
that of Dey. He died in the following year, having received a short time
before his death an important letter from James II.
TO THE BASHAW OF TUNIS.
James the Second etc etc
Greeting. Our subjects trading into your Kingdome have by their humble
Petition represented unto us that there are considerable debts due unto
them by you for moneys and commoditys by them furnished, which the whole
Government owned to be so just and reasonable that as an addition to the
former articles of the late Peace, the Bashaw, Day and Duvan under their
respective hands promised to make full satisfaction for them within
twelve months then next ensuing with this further clause, that if within
six months the French Customs which were abated upon your last Treaty
with France from ten to three per Cent were not reduced to the former
usance, Our subjects should be dealt with in the same manner, so as in
point of Trade to be on equall termes with the French. And We not
doubting of yr readinesse to comply with what you have in so solemne a
manner agreed unto, We have thought fit to direct Our Trusty and Well
beloved Sr William Turnbull Our Ambassador to the grand Signor in his
passage to Constantinople to call at your Port, as well to assure you of
Our desire to continue a Peace and friendship with you, as to demand and
see the performance and execution of your said Agreement, which we must
expect according to right and justice. Given etc etc the 12th day of May
1687
Your loving friend
JAMES R.
Sunderland P.
Muhamed Baktache was succeeded by Ali Raïs, a corsair, who for nearly
half a century had been the terror of the Mediterranean. Yet this pirate
captain lived to see his alliance courted by Great Britain, and to
receive the following curious letter from his “loving friend,” King
William III., the object of which is fully explained in Lord
Shrewsbury’s despatch which accompanied it.
William by the Grace of God of England, Scotland, France and Ireland,
King, etc etc Defender of the Faith. To the most Illustrious Lords the
Bashaw, Dey, Aga, Divan & Governors of the City and Kingdom of Tunis Our
Well-Beloved friends Greeting. It hath pleased Almighty God (by whom
Kings Reigne) to call Us and our most serene and dearest Consort to the
Imperiall Throne of England, Scotland and Ireland and We have accepted
of the Royal Crowne and Dignity at the humble request of the Lords &
Commons of the Realm now assembled in Parliament, and We have been
solemnly crowned King and Queen on the 11th day of Aprill last in the
presence of our said Lords and Commons. We think it requisite to
acquaint you therewith as we have done all Kings, Princes and States in
Peace and friendship wth Us, and at the same time to assure you, that We
on Our part do intend strictly to keep and observe the Peace that was
lately made and hath been since confirmed and doth now subsist between
our Kingdomes and your Government not doubting but that you will also on
your part do and cause to be done by your Subjects what belongs to you
for the maintaining and preserving of the said Peace inviolably. We do
also intend very speedily to send a noumber of our men of warr wth some
person fully authorized by Us, to renew and confirm the said Peace with
your Government and in the meane time our Consul residing there will
inform you of the change made in the Passeports which our Ships now use.
We have received your letter and are sorry that the men money and goods
which were laden on board the English Ship called the Swan have been
seized and taken by a French corsair. We should have readily used Our
endeavours to procure you satisfaction for the same according to Justice
and the amity between Us & your Government were We in Peace and
friendshyp with the french King against whom we have thought itt
necessary on the 7th of May last to declare Open Warr by Sea and Land
for those Many injuries done by him to Our Subjects and those of our
Friends and Allyes And so we Commend you to God’s Protection. Given att
our Court at Whitehall the 3rd day of June 1689 in the first yearr of
Our Reigne
Your loving friend
WILLIAM R.
LORD SHREWSBURY TO MR CONSUL GOODWIN.
WHITEHALL _June_ 3rd 1689
Sr
I send you herewith his Majesty’s letter to that Government (with a
Coppy thereof for yourself) which You are forthwith to deliver and to
accompany with such expressions of his Majesty’s Friendship for them as
You shall Judge most proper and acceptable giving them an account of the
late revolution here and of the last King’s withdrawing himself into
France, and of their present Majesties accession to the Crowns of
England and Scotland letting them also know that His Majesty hath
declared Warr against the French King upon the unanimous Addresse and
desire of the Lords and Commons in Parliament and how that (by God’s
assistance) he intends to Carry it on Vigorously both by Sea and Land
against the said French King Joyntly with the States Generall whose
fleet is expected every day to Joyne Our’s in the Channell. A coppy of
the Declaration of Warr you have here inclosed which you must get
translated for the better Information of those People using all your
skill and diligence to Dispose that Government to breake with the French
King in this conjuncture which may prove so advantageous to them and
seems to offer them a fair opportunity of having some repairation for
those Injurys and Losses which the subjects of that Government (as well
as those of most other nations) have suffered by the fraud and injustice
of the French. Let Me have an account from time to time by every
Conveniency that offers of what occours in those parts and may be for
his Majesty’s Service in the present Conjuncture.
The forme of Passes goes also inclosed which will be hereafter signed by
at least three of the Commissioners of the Admiralty which you must
carefully explaine to those there to prevent all mistakes when their
shippes meet ours at sea.
Sr
Your very Loving Friend to Serve you
SHREWSBURY.
In the year 1690 William III. wrote two other letters to Dey Ali Raïs.
His successor, Tatar Dey, had the rare distinction of being eaten by his
subjects. This event only occurred five years before the author of the
“État des Royaumes de Barbarie” visited Tunis, and he says it was
described in his presence by eye-witnesses. He writes thus:—“Mehemet Bei
accepted his surrender, but the people, who were excited to madness, no
sooner saw him, than, in spite of the efforts of the Bey, they fell upon
him, tore him to pieces, and by an excess of cruelty only belonging to
these Barbarians, eat his flesh.” He adds that the widow of Tatar, who
regarded Mehemet as the cause of her husband’s death, took a piece of
his flesh in her hand, and rushed into the Bey’s presence. Upbraiding
him with Tatar’s death, she prayed God that she might live to see him
devoured as her husband had been, and, to emphasise her words, actually
ate the morsel she carried.
The eighteenth century opened with a war between the Regencies of Tunis
and Algiers, which was only put an end to by the Porte sending written
orders to the belligerents to cease hostilities. The position of Dey had
now fallen so low that the occupant of the post in 1701 had been
formerly a coffee-house keeper. In the following May the Bey Mourad with
his sons were massacred at the instigation of one of his officers while
travelling to Beja. By a strange coincidence this tragedy occurred at
Oued Zergua, destined nearly two centuries later to become the scene of
the horrors of the 30th September 1881. In 1705 the last of the Deys was
deposed by the Turkish soldiers, and they elected in his stead their
most popular captain, Heussein Ben Ali, who assumed the title of Bey,
and founded the dynasty which has ever since remained in possession of
the Tunisian throne.