FOOTNOTE:_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Justinian II." to "Kells" Volume 15, Slice 6

[1] Kashi, the Hindu name for the sacred city of Benares, has no

ceramic significance.

KASHMIR, or CASHMERE, a native state of India, including much of the

Himalayan mountain system to the north of the Punjab. It has been fabled

in song for its beauty (e.g. in Moore's _Lalla Rookh_), and is the chief

health resort for Europeans in India, while politically it is important

as guarding one of the approaches to India on the north-west frontier.

The proper name of the state is Jammu and Kashmir, and it comprises in

all an estimated area of 80,900 sq. m., with a population (1901) of

2,905,578, showing an increase of 14.21% in the decade. It is bounded on

the north by some petty hills chiefships and by the Karakoram mountains;

on the east by Tibet; and on the south and west by the Punjab and

North-West Frontier provinces. The state is in direct political

subordination to the Government of India, which is represented by a

resident. Its territories comprise the provinces of Jammu (including the

jagir of Punch), Kashmir, Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit; the Shin states

of Yaghistan, of which the most important are Chilas, Darel and Tangir,

are nominally subordinate to it, and the two former pay a tribute of

gold dust. The following are the statistics for the main divisions of

the state:--

Area in sq. m. Pop. in 1901.

Jammu 5,223 1,521,307

Kashmir 7,922 1,157,394

Frontier Districts 443 226,877

The remainder of the state consists of uninhabited mountains, and its

only really important possessions are the districts of Jammu and

Kashmir.

_Physical Conformation._--The greater portion of the country is

mountainous, and with the exception of a strip of plain on the

south-west, which is continuous with the great level of the Punjab, may

be conveniently divided into the following regions:

(1) The outer hills and the central mountains of Jammu district.

(2) The valley of Kashmir.

(3) The far side of the great central range, including Ladakh,

Baltistan and Gilgit.

The hills in the outer region of Jammu, adjoining the Punjab plains,

begin with a height of 100 to 200 ft., followed by a tract of rugged

country, including various ridges running nearly parallel, with long

narrow valleys between. The average height of these ridges is from 3000

to 4000 ft. The central mountains are commonly 8000 to 10,000 ft.,

covered with pasture or else with forest. Then follow the more lofty

mountain ranges, including the region of perpetual snow. A great chain

of snowy mountains branching off south-east and north-west divides the

drainage of the Chenab and the Jhelum rivers from that of the higher

branches of the Indus. It is within spurs from this chain that the

valley of Kashmir is enclosed amid hills which rise from 14,000 to

15,000 ft., while the valley itself forms a cup-like basin at an

elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. All beyond that great range is a wide

tract of mountainous country, bordering the north-western part of Tibet

and embracing Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit.

The length of the Kashmir valley, including the inner slopes of its

surrounding hills, is about 120 m. from north-west to south-east with

a maximum width of about 75 m. The low and comparatively level floor

of the basin is 84 m. long and 20 to 24 m. broad.

The hills forming the northern half-circuit of the Kashmir valley, and

running beyond, include many lofty mountain masses and peaks, the most

conspicuous of which, a little outside the confines of Kashmir, is

Nanga Parbat, the fourth highest mountain in the world, 26,656 ft.

above the sea, with an extensive area of glacier on its eastern face.

The great ridge which is thrown off to the south-west by Nanga Parbat

rises, at a distance of 12 m., to another summit 20,740 ft. in height,

from which run south-west, and south-east the ridges which are the

northern watershed boundary of Kashmir. The former range, after

running 70 m. south-west, between the valleys of the Kishenganga and

the Kunhar or Nain-sukh, turns southward, closely pressing the river

Jhelum, after it has received the Kishenganga, with a break a few

miles farther south which admits the Kunhar. This range presents

several prominent summits, the highest two 16,487 and 15,544 ft. above

the sea. The range which runs south-east from the junction peak above

mentioned divides the valley of the Kishenganga from that of the Astor

and other tributaries of the Indus. The highest point on this range,

where it skirts Kashmir, is 17,202 ft. above the sea. For more than 50

m. from Nanga Parbat there are no glaciers on this range; thence

eastward they increase; one, near the Zoji-la pass, is only 10,850 ft.

above the sea. The mountains at the east end of the valley, running

nearly north and south, drain inwards to the Jhelum, and on the other

side to the Wardwan, a tributary of the Chenab. The highest part of

this eastern boundary is 14,700 ft. There no are glaciers. The highest

point on the Panjal range, which forms the south and south-west

boundary, is 15,523 ft. above the sea.

The river Jhelum (q.v.) or Behat (Sanskrit (_Vitasta_)--the Hydaspes

of Greek historians and geographers--flows north-westward through the

middle of the valley. After a slow and winding course it expands about

25 m. below Srinagar, over a slight depression in the plain, and forms

the Wular lake and marsh, which is about 12(1/2) m. by 5 m. in extent,

and surrounded by the lofty mountains which tower over the north and

north-east of the valley. Leaving the lake on the south-west side,

near the town of Sopur, the river pursues its sluggish course

south-westward, about 18 m. to the gorge at Baramulla. From this point

the stream is more rapid through the narrow valley which conducts it

westward 75 m. to Muzaffarabad, where it turns sharply south, joined

by the Kishenganga. At Islamabad, about 40 m. above Srinagar, the

river is 5400 ft. above sea-level, and at Srinagar 5235 ft. It has

thus a fall of about 4 ft. per mile in this part of its course. For

the next 24 m. to the Wular lake, and thence to Baramulla, its fall is

only about 2(1/4) ft. in the mile. On the 80 m. of the river in the

flat valley between Islamabad and Baramulla, there is much boat

traffic; but none below Baramulla, till the river comes out into the

plains.

On the north-east side of this low narrow plain of the Jhelum is a

broad hilly tract between which and the higher boundary range runs the

Kishenganga River. Near the east end of this interior hilly tract, and

connected with the higher range, is one summit 17,839 ft. Around this

peak and between the ridges which run from it are many small glaciers.

These heights look down on one side into the beautiful valley of the

Sind River, and on another into the valley of the Lidar, which join

the Jhelum. Among the hills north of Srinagar rises one conspicuous

mountain mass, 16,903 ft. in height, from which on its north side

descend tributaries of the Kishenganga, and on the south the Wangat

River, which flows into the Sind. By these rivers and their numerous

affluents the whole valley of Kashmir is watered abundantly.

Around the foot of many spurs of the hills which run down on the

Kashmir plain are pieces of low table-land, called karewa. These

terraces vary in height at different parts of the valley from 100 to

300 ft. above the alluvial plain. Those which are near each other are

mostly about the same level, and separated by deep ravines. The level

plain in the middle of the Kashmir valley consists of fine clay and

sand, with water-worn pebbles. The karewas consist of horizontal beds

of clay and sand, the lacustrine nature of which is shown by the

shells which they contain.

Two passes lead northward from the Kashmir valley, the Burzil (13,500

ft.) and the Kamri (14,050). The Burzil is the main pass between

Srinagar and Gilgit via Astor. It is usually practicable only between

the middle of July and the middle of September. The road from Srinagar

to Lehin Ladakh follows the Sind valley to the Zoji-la-pass (11,300

ft.) Only a short piece of the road, where snow accumulates, prevents

this pass being used all the year. At the south-east end of the valley

are three passes, the Margan (11,500 ft.), the Hoksar (13,315) and the

Marbal (11,500), leading to the valleys of the Chenab and the Ravi.

South of Islamabad, on the direct route to Jammu and Sialkot, is the

Banihal pass (9236 ft.). Further west on the Panjal range is the Pir

Panjal or Panchal pass (11,400 ft.), with a second pass, the Rattan

Pir (8200 ft.), across a second ridge about 15 m. south-west of it.

Between the two passes is the beautifully situated fort of Baramgali.

This place is in the domain of the raja of Punch, cousin and tributary

of the maharaja of Kashmir. At Rajaori, south of these passes, the

road divides: one line leads to Bhimber and Gujrat, the other to Jammu

and Sialkot by Aknur. South-west of Baramulla is the Haji Pir pass

(8500 ft.), which indicates the road to Punch. From Punch one road

leads down to the plains at the town of Jhelum, another eastward

through the hills to the Rattan Pir pass and Rajaori. Lastly, there is

the river pass of the Jhelum, which is the easy route from the valley

westward, having two ways down to the plains, one by Muzaffarabad and

the Hazara valley to Hasan Abdal, the other by the British hill

station of Murree to Rawalpindi.

_Geology._--The general strike of the beds, and of the folds which

have affected them, is from N.W. to S.E., parallel to the mountain

ranges. Along the south-western border lies the zone of Tertiary beds

which forms the Sub-Himalayas. Next to this is a great belt of

Palaeozoic rocks, through which rise the granite, gneiss and schist of

the Zanskar and Dhauladhar ranges and of the Pir Panjal. In the midst

of the Palaeozoic area lie the alluvium and Pleistocene deposits of

the Srinagar valley, and the Mesozoic and Carboniferous basin of the

upper part of the Sind valley. Beyond the great Palaeozoic belt is a

zone of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds which commences at Kargil and

extends south-eastward past the Kashmir boundary to Spiti and beyond.

Finally, in Baltistan and the Ladakh range there is a broad zone

composed chiefly of gneiss and schist of ancient date.

The oldest fossils found belong either to the Ordovician or Silurian

systems. But it is not until the Carboniferous is reached that fossils

become at all abundant (so far as is yet known). The Mesozoic deposits

belong chiefly to the Trias and Jura, but Cretaceous beds have been

found near the head of the Tsarap valley. The Tertiary system includes

representatives of all the principal divisions recognized in other

parts of the Himalayas.

_Climate._--The valley of Kashmir, sheltered from the south-west

monsoon by the Panjal range, has not the periodical rains of India.

Its rainfall is irregular, greatest in the spring months. Occasional

storms in the monsoon pass over the crests of the Panjal and give

heavy rain on the elevated plateaus on the Kashmir side. And again

clouds pass over the valley and are arrested by the higher hills on

the north-east side. Snow falls on the surrounding hills at intervals

from October to March. In the valley the first snow generally falls

about the end of December, but never to any great amount. The hottest

months are July, August and the greater part of September, during

which the noon shade temperature varies from 85 deg. to 90 deg. and

occasionally 95 deg. at Srinagar, probably the hottest place in the

valley. The coldest months are January and February, when for several

weeks the average minimum temperature is about 15 deg. below freezing.

As a health resort the province, excluding Srinagar, which is

insanitary and relaxing, has no rival anywhere in the neighbourhood of

India. Its climate is admirably adapted to the European constitution,

and in consequence of the varied range of temperature and the facility

of moving about the visitor is enabled with ease to select places at

elevations most congenial to him. Formerly only 200 passes a year were

issued by the government, but now no restriction is placed on

visitors, and their number increases annually. European sportsmen and

travellers, in addition to residents of India, resort there freely.

The railway to Rawalpindi, and a driving road thence to Srinagar make

the valley easy of access. When the temperature in Srinagar rises at

the beginning of June, there is a general exodus to Gulmarg, which has

become a fashionable hill-station. This great influx of visitors has

resulted in a corresponding diminution of game. Special game

preservation rules have been introduced, and _nullahs_ are let out for

stated periods with a restriction on the number of head to be shot.

The wild animals of the country include ibex, markhor, oorial, the

Kashmir stag, and black and brown bears. Many sportsmen now cross into

Ladakh and the Pamirs.

_People._--The great majority of the inhabitants of Kashmir are

professedly Mahommedans, but their conversion to the faith of Islam is

comparatively recent and they are still strongly influenced by their

ancient superstitions. At the census of 1901 out of a total population

in the whole state of 2,905,578, there were 2,154,695 Mahommedans,

689,073 Hindus, 35,047 Buddhists and 25,828 Sikhs. The Hindus are mostly

found in Jammu, and the Buddhists are confined to Ladakh. In Kashmir

proper the few Hindus (60,682) are almost all Brahmans, known as

Pundits. Superstition has made the Kashmiri timid; tyranny has made him

a liar; while physical disasters have made him selfish and pessimistic.

Up to recent times the cultivator lived under a system of _begar_, which

entitled an official to take either labour or commodities free of

payment from the villages. Having no security of property, the people

had no incentive to effort, and with no security for life they lost the

independence of free men. But the land settlement of 1889 swept all

these abuses away. Restrictive monopolies, under which bricks, lime,

paper and certain other manufactures were closed to private enterprise,

were abolished. The results of the settlement are thus enumerated by Sir

Walter Lawrence: "Little by little, confidence has sprung up. Land which

had no value in 1889 is now eagerly sought after by all classes.

Cultivation has extended and improved. Houses have been rebuilt and

repaired, fields fenced in, orchards planted, vegetable gardens well

stocked and new mills constructed. Women no longer are seen toiling in

the fields, for their husbands are now at home to do the work, and the

long journeys to Gilgit are a thing of the past. When the harvest is

ripe the peasant reaps it at his own good time, and not a soldier ever

enters the villages." In consequence of this improvement in their

conditions of life and of the influx of wealth into the country brought

by visitors, the Kashmiri grows every year in material prosperity and

independence of character. The Kashmir women have a reputation for

beauty which is not altogether deserved, but the children are always

pretty.

The language spoken in Kashmir is akin to that of the Punjab, though

marked by many peculiarities. It possesses an ancient literature, which

is written in a special character (see KASHMIRI).

_Natural Calamities._--The effect of physical calamities partly

incidental to the climate of Kashmir, upon the character of its

inhabitants has been referred to. The list includes fires, floods,

earthquakes, famines and cholera. The ravages of fire are chiefly felt

in Srinagar, where the wood houses and their thatched roofs fall an

easy prey to the flames. The national habit of carrying a _kangar_, or

small brazier, underneath the clothes for the purpose of warming the

body, is a fruitful cause of fires. Srinagar is said to have been

burnt down eighteen times. Many disastrous floods are recorded, the

greatest being the terrible inundation which followed the slipping of

the Khadanyar mountain below Baramula in A.D. 879. The channel of the

Jhelum river was blocked and a large part of the valley submerged. In

1841 a serious flood caused great damage to life and property; there

was another in 1893, when six out of the seven bridges in Srinagar

were washed away, 25,426 acres under crops were submerged and 2225

houses were wrecked; another flood occurred in July 1903, when the

bund between the Dal Lake and the canal gave way, and the lake rose 10

ft. in half an hour. Between two and three thousand houses in and

around Srinagar collapsed, while over 40 miles of the tonga road were

submerged. Since the 15th century eleven great earthquakes have

occurred, all of long duration and accompanied by great loss of life.

During the 19th century there were four severe earthquakes, the last

two occurring in 1864 and 1885, when some 3500 people were killed.

Native historians record nineteen great famines, the last two

occurring in 1831 and 1877. In 1878 it was reported that only

two-fifths of the total population of the valley survived. During the

19th century also there were ten epidemics of cholera, all more or

less disastrous, while the worst (in 1892) was probably the last.

During that year 5781 persons died in Srinagar and 5931 in the

villages. The centre of infection is generally supposed to be the

squalid capital of Srinagar, and some efforts to improve its

sanitation have been made of recent years.

_Crops._--The staple crop of the valley is rice, which forms the chief

food of the people. Indian corn comes next; wheat, barley and oats are

also grown. Every kind of English vegetable thrives well, especially

asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarlet-runners, beetroot,

cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are met with all over the valley,

wild but bearing fruit, and the cultivated orchards yield pears,

apples, peaches, cherries, &c., equal to the best European produce.

The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple,

birch and walnut. There are state departments of viticulture, hops,

horticulture and sericulture. A complete list of the flora and fauna

of the valley will be found in Sir Walter Lawrence's book on Kashmir.

_Industries._--The chief industry of Srinagar was formerly the weaving

of the celebrated Kashmir shawl, which dates back to the days of the

emperor Baber. These shawls first became fashionable in Europe in the

reign of Napoleon, when they fetched from L10 to L100; but the

industry received a blow at the time of the Franco-German War, and the

famine of 1877 scattered the weavers. The place of the Kashmir shawl

has to some extent been taken by the Kashmir carpet, but the most

thriving industry now is that of silk-weaving. Srinagar is also

celebrated for its silver-work, papier mache and wood-carving. The

minerals and metals of the Jammu district are promising, and a company

has been formed to work them. Coal of fair quality has been found, but

the difficulties of transport interfere with its working.

_History._--The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, called

_Rajatarangini_, was pronounced by Professor H. H. Wilson to be the only

Sanskrit composition yet discovered to which the title of history can

with any propriety be applied. It first became known to the Mahommedans

when, on Akbar's invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to

the emperor. A translation into Persian was made by his order, and a

summary of its contents, from this Persian translation, is given by

Abu'l Fazl in the _A'in-i-Akbari_. The _Rajatarangini_, the first of a

series of four Sanskrit histories, was written about the middle of the

12th century by P. Kalhana. His work, in six books, makes use of earlier

writings now lost. Commencing with traditional history of very early

times, it comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, 1006; the second

work, by Jonaraja, takes up the history in continuation of Kalhana's,

and, entering the Mahommedan period, gives an account of the reigns down

to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412. P. Srivara carried on the record to

the accession of Fah Shah, 1486. And the fourth work, called

_Rajavalipataka_, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the history to the time

of the incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions of the Mogul emperor

Akbar, 1588.

In the _Rajatarangini_ it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was

formerly a lake, and that it was drained by the great _rishi_ or sage,

Kasyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills

at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained, he brought in

the Brahmans to occupy it. This is still the local tradition, and in the

existing physical condition of the country we may see some ground for

the story which has taken this form. The name of Kasyapa is by history

and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief

town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kasyapa-pur--a

name which has been plausibly identified with the [Greek: Kaspapyros] of

Hecataeus (Steph. Byz., _s.v._) and [Greek: Kaspatyros] of Herodotus

(iii. 102, iv. 44). Kashmir is the country meant also by Ptolemy's

[Greek: Kasperia]. The ancient name Kasyapa-pur was applied to the

kingdom of Kashmir when it comprehended great part of the Punjab and

extended beyond the Indus. In the 7th century Kashmir is said by the

Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang to have included Kabul and the Punjab, and

the hill region of Gandhara, the country of the Gandarae of classical

geography.

At an early date the Sanskrit name of the country became _KasmIr_. The

earliest inhabitants, according to the _Rajatarangini_, were the people

called Naga, a word which signifies "snake." The history shows the

prevalence in early times of tree and serpent worship, of which some

sculptured stones found in Kashmir still retain the memorials. The town

of Islamabad is called also by its ancient name Anant-nag ("eternal

snake"). The source of the Jhelum is at Vir-nag (the powerful snake),

&c. The other races mentioned as inhabiting this country and the

neighbouring hills are Gandhari, Khasa and Daradae. The Khasa people are

supposed to have given the name Kasmir. In the _Mahabharata_ the Kasmira

and Daradae are named together among the Kshattriya races of northern

India. The question whether, in the immigration of the Aryans into

India, Kashmir was taken on the way, or entered afterwards by that

people after they had reached the Punjab from the north-west, appears to

require an answer in favour of the latter view (see vol. ii. of Dr J.

Muir's _Sanskrit Texts_). The Aryan races of Kashmir and surrounding

hills, which have at the present time separate geographical

distribution, are given by Mr Drew as _Kashmiri_ (mostly Mahommedan), in

the Kashmir basin and a few scattered places outside; _Dard_ (mostly

Mahommedan) in Gilgit and hills north of Kashmir; _Dogra_ (Hindu) in

Jamma; _Dogra_ (Mahommedan, called _Chibali_) in Punch and hill country

west of Kashmir; _Pahari_ or mountaineers (Hindu) in Kishtwar, east of

Kashmir, and hills about the valley of the Chenab.

In the time of Asoka, about 245 B.C., one of the Indian Buddhist

missions was sent to Kashmir and Gandhara. After his death Brahmanism

revived. Then in the time of the three Kushan princes, Huvishka, Jushka

and Kanishka, who ruled over Kashmir about the beginning of the

Christian era, Buddhism was to a great extent restored, though for

several centuries the two religions existed together in Kashmir,

Hinduism predominating. Yet Kashmir, when Buddhism was gradually losing

its hold, continued to send Buddhist teachers to other lands. In this

Hindu-Buddhist period, and chiefly between the 5th and 10th centuries of

the Christian era, were erected the Hindu temples in Kashmir. In the 6th

and 7th centuries Kashmir was visited by some of the Chinese Buddhist

pilgrims to India. The country is called _Shie-mi_ in the narrative of

To Yeng and Sung Yun (578). One of the Chinese travellers of the next

century was for a time an elephant-tamer to the king of Kashmir. Hsuan

Tsang spent two years (631-633) in Kashmir (_Kia-chi-mi-lo_). He entered

by Baramula and left by the Pir Panjal pass. He describes the hill-girt

valley, and the abundance of flowers and fruits, and he mentions the

tradition about the lake. He found in Kashmir many Buddhists as well as

Hindus. In the following century the kings of Kashmir appear to have

paid homage and tribute to China, though this is not alluded to in the

Kashmir chronicle. Hindu kings continued to reign till about 1294, when

Udiana Deva was put to death by his Mahommedan vizier, Amir Shah, who

ascended the throne under the name of Shams-ud-din.

Of the Mahommedan rulers mentioned in the Sanskrit chronicles, one, who

reigned about the close of the 14th century, has made his name prominent

by his active opposition to the Hindu religion, and his destruction of

temples. This was Sikandar, known as _But-shikan_, or the

"idol-breaker." It was in his time that India was invaded by Timur, to

whom Sikandar made submission and paid tribute. The country fell into

the hands of the Moguls in 1588. In the time of Alamgir it passed to

Ahmad Shah Durani, on his third invasion of India (1756); and from that

time it remained in the hands of Afghans till it was wrested from them

by Ranjit Singh, the Sikh monarch of the Punjab, in 1819. Eight Hindu

and Sikh governors under Ranjit Singh and his successors were followed

by two Mahommedans similarly appointed, the second of whom, Shekh

Imam-ud-din, was in charge when the battles of the first Sikh war 1846

brought about new relations between the British Government and the

Sikhs.

Gulab Singh, a Dogra Rajput, had from a humble position been raised to

high office by Ranjit Singh, who conferred on him the small principality

of Jammu. On the final defeat of the Sikhs at Sobraon (February 1846),

Gulab Singh was called to take a leading part in arranging conditions of

peace. The treaty of Lahore (March 9, 1846) sets forth that, the British

Government having demanded, in addition to a certain assignment of

territory, a payment of a crore and a half of rupees (1(1/2) millions

sterling), and the Sikh government being unable to pay the whole, the

maharaja (Dhulip Singh) cedes, as equivalent for one crore, the hill

country belonging to the Punjab between the Beas and the Indus,

including Kashmir and Hazara. The governor-general, Sir Henry Hardinge,

considered it expedient to make over Kashmir to the Jammu chief,

securing his friendship while the British government was administering

the Punjab on behalf of the young maharaja. Gulab Singh was well

prepared to make up the payment in default of which Kashmir was ceded to

the British; and so, in consideration of his services in restoring

peace, his independent sovereignty of the country made over to him was

recognized, and he was admitted to a separate treaty. Gulab Singh had

already, after several extensions of territory east and west of Jammu,

conquered Ladakh (a Buddhist country, and till then subject to Lhasa),

and had then annexed Skardo, which was under independent Mahommedan

rulers. He had thus by degrees half encircled Kashmir, and by this last

addition his possessions attained nearly their present form and extent.

Gulab Singh died in 1857, and was succeeded by his son, Ranbir Singh,

who died in 1885. The next ruler, Maharaja Partab Singh, G.C.S.I. (b.

1850), immediately on his accession inaugurated the settlement reforms

already described. His rule was remarkable for the reassertion of the

Kashmir sovereignty over Gilgit (q.v.). Kashmir imperial service troops

participated in the Black Mountain expedition of 1891, the Hunza Nagar

operations of 1891, and the Tirah campaign of 1897-1898. The total

revenue of the state is about L666,000.

See Drew, _Jammu and Kashmir_ (1875); M. A. Stein, _Kalhana's

Rajatarangini_ (1900); W. R. Lawrence, _The Valley of Kashmir_ (1895);

Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a Frontier_ (1899); R. Lydekker,

"The Geology of the Kashmir and Chamba Territories," _Records of the

Geological Survey of India_, vol. xxii. (1883); J. Duke, _Kashmir

Handbook_ (1903). (T. H. H.*)

KASHMIRI (properly _Kasmiri_), the name of the vernacular language

spoken in the valley of Kashmir (properly _Kasmir_) and in the hills

adjoining. In the Indian census of 1901 the number of speakers was

returned at 1,007,957. By origin it is the most southern member of the

Dard group of the Pisaca languages (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). The other

members of the group are Shina, spoken to its north in the country round

Gilgit, and Kohistani, spoken in the hill country on both sides of the

river Indus before it debouches on to the plains of India. The Pisaca

languages also include Khowar, the vernacular of Chitral, and the Kafir

group of speeches, of which the most important is the Bashgali of

Kafiristan. Of all these forms of speech Kashmiri is the only one which

possesses a literature, or indeed an alphabet. It is also the only one

which has been dealt with in the census of India, and it is therefore

impossible to give even approximate figures for the numbers of speakers

of the others. The whole family occupies the three-sided tract of

country between the Hindu-Kush and the north-western frontier of British

India.

As explained in INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES, the Pisaca languages are Aryan,

but are neither Iranian nor Indo-Aryan. They represent the speech of an

independent Aryan migration over the Hindu-Kush directly into their

present inhospitable seats, where they have developed a phonetic system

of their own, while they have retained unchanged forms of extreme

antiquity which have long passed out of current use both in Persia and

in India. Their speakers appear to have left the main Aryan body after

the great fission which resulted in the Indo-Aryan migration, but before

all the typical peculiarities of Iranian speech had fully developed.

They are thus representatives of a stage of linguistic progress later

than that of Sanskrit, and earlier than that which we find recorded in

the Iranian Avesta.

The immigrants into Kashmir must have been Shins, speaking a language

closely allied to the ancestor of the modern Shina. They appear to have

dispossessed and absorbed an older non-Aryan people, whom local

tradition now classes as Nagas, or Snake-gods, and, at an early period,

to have come themselves under the influence of Indo-Aryan immigrants

from the south, who entered the valley along the course of the river

Jhelam. The language has therefore lost most of its original Pisaca

character, and is now a mixed one. Sanskrit has been actively studied

for many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its grammar,

are now largely Indian. So much is this the case that, for convenience'

sake, it is now frequently classed (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES) as

belonging to the north-western group of languages, instead of as

belonging to the Pisaca family as its origin demands. It cannot be said

that either classification is wrong.

Kashmiri has few dialects. In the valley there are slight changes of

idiom from place to place, but the only important variety is Kishtwari,

spoken in the hills south-west of Kashmir. Smaller dialects, such as

Pogul and Rambani of the hills south of the Banihal pass, may also be

mentioned. The language itself is an old one. Pure Kashmiri words are

preserved in the Sanskrit _Rajatarangini_ written by Kalhana in the 12th

century A.D., and, judging from these specimens, the language does not

appear to have changed materially since his time.

_General Character of the Language._--Kashmiri is a language of great

philological interest. The two principal features which at once strike

the student are the numerous epenthetic changes of vowels and consonants

and the employment of pronominal suffixes. In both cases the phenomena

are perfectly plain, cause and effect being alike presented to the eye

in the somewhat complicated systems of declension and conjugation. The

Indo-Aryan languages proper have long ago passed through this stage, and

many of the phenomena now presented by them are due to its influence,

although all record of it has disappeared. In this way a study of

Kashmiri explains a number of difficulties found by the student of

Indo-Aryan vernaculars.[1]

In the following account the reader is presumed to be in possession of

the facts recorded in the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT,

and the following contractions will be employed: Ksh. = Kashmiri; Skr.

= Sanskrit; P. = Pisaca; Sh. = Shina.

A. _Vocabulary._ The vocabulary of Kashmiri is, as has been explained,

mixed. At its basis it has a large number of words which are also

found in the neighbouring Shina, and these are such as connote the

most familiar ideas and such as are in most frequent use. Thus, the

personal pronouns, the earlier numerals, the words for "father,"

"mother," "fire," "the sun," are all closely connected with

corresponding Shina words. There is also a large Indian element,

consisting partly of words derived from Sanskrit vocables introduced

in ancient times, and partly of words borrowed in later days from the

vernaculars of the Punjab. Finally, there is a considerable Persian

(including Arabic) element due to the long Mussulman domination of the

Happy Valley. Many of these have been considerably altered in

accordance with Kashmiri phonetic rules, so that they sometimes appear

in strange forms. Thus the Persian _lagam_, a bridle, has become

_lakam_, and the Arabic _babat_, concerning, appears as _bapat_. The

population speaking Kashmiri is mainly Mussulman, there being, roughly

speaking, nine Mahommedan Kashmiris to less than one Hindu. This

difference of religion has strongly influenced the vocabulary. The

Mussulmans use Persian and Arabic words with great freedom, while the

Hindus, or "Pandits" as they are called, confine their borrowings

almost entirely to words derived from Sanskrit. As the literary class

is mostly Hindu, it follows that Kashmiri literature, taken as a

whole, while affording most interesting and profitable study, hardly

represents the actual language spoken by the mass of the people. There

are, however, a few good Kashmiri works written by Mussulmans in their

own dialect.

B. _Written Characters._ Mussulmans and Christian missionaries employ

an adaptation of the Persian character for their writings. This

alphabet is quite unsuited for representing the very complex Kashmiri

vowel system. Hindus employ the Sarada alphabet, of Indian origin and

akin to the well-known Nagari. Kashmiri vowel sounds can be recorded

very successfully in this character, but there is, unfortunately, no

fixed system of spelling. The Nagari alphabet is also coming into use

in printed books, no Sarada types being yet in existence.

C. _Phonetics._ Comparing the Kashmiri with the Sanskrit alphabet (see

SANSKRIT), we must first note a considerable extension of the vowel

system. Not only does Ksh. possess the vowels _a_, _a_, _i_, _i_, _u_,

_u_, _r_, _e_, _ai_, _o_, _au_, and the _anunasika_ or nasal symbol ~,

but it has also a flat _a_ (like the _a_ in "hat") a flat _e_ (like

the _e_ in "met"), a short _o_ (like the _o_ in "hot") and a broad _a_

(like the _a_ in "all"). It also has a series of what natives call

"_matra_-vowels," which are represented in the Roman character by

small letters above the line, viz. _^a_, _^i_, _^u_, _^u_. Of these,

_^a_ is simply a very short indeterminate sound something like that of

the Hebrew _sh^awa mobile_, except that it may sometimes be the only

vowel in a word, as in _ts^ah_, thou. The _^i_ is a hardly audible

_i_, while _^u_ and _^u_ are quite inaudible at the end of a syllable.

When ^i or ^u is followed by a consonant in the same syllable _^i_

generally and _^u_ always becomes a full _i_ or _u_ respectively and

is so pronounced. On the other hand, in similar circumstances, _^u_

remains unchanged in writing, but is pronounced like a short German

_u_. It should be observed that this _^u_ always represents an older

_i_, and is still considered to be a palatal, not, like _^u_, a labial

vowel. Although these matra-vowels are so slightly heard, they

exercise a great influence on the sound of a preceding syllable. We

may compare the sound of _a_ in the English word "mar." If we add _e_

to the end of this word we get "mare," in which the sound of the _a_

is altogether changed, although the _e_ is not itself pronounced in

its proper place. The back-action of these matra-vowels is technically

known as _umlaut_ or "epenthesis," and is the most striking feature of

the Kashmiri language, the structure of which is unintelligible

without a thorough knowledge of the system. In the following pages

when a vowel is epenthetically affected by a matra-vowel the fact will

be denoted by a dot placed under it, thus _kar^u_. This is not the

native system, according to which the change is indicated sometimes by

a diacritical mark and sometimes by writing a different letter. The

changes of pronunciation effected by each matra-vowel are shown in the

following table. If natives employ a different letter to indicate the

change the fact is mentioned. In other cases they content themselves

with diacritical marks. When no entry is made, it should be understood

that the sound of the vowel remains unaltered:--

+------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+

|Pre- | _Pronunciation when followed by_ |

|ceding+----------------+----------------+-----------------+----------------+

+------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+----------------+

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| i. | -- | -- | yu (liv^u, pr. | yu (liv^u, pr. |

| | | | | |

| /i. | -- | -- | -- | yu (nil^u, pr. |

| | | | | |

| u. | -- | u^i (gur^i, pr.| -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| /u. | -- | u^i (gur^i, pr.| -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

| | | | | |

+------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+----------------+

The letters _u_ and _i_, even when not _u_-matra or _i_-matra, often

change a preceding long _a_ to _a_, which is usually written _o_, and

_a_ respectively. Thus _rawukh_, they have lost, is pronounced

_rawukh_, and, in the native character, is written _rowukh_.

Similarly _malis_ becomes _malis_ (_molis_). The diphthong _ai_ is

pronounced _o_ when it commences a word; thus, _aith_, eight, is

pronounced _oth_. When _i_ and _u_ commence a word they are pronounced

_yi_ and _wu_ respectively. With one important exception, common to

all Pisaca languages, Kashmiri employs every consonant found in the

Sanskrit alphabet. The exception is the series of aspirated

consonants, _gh_, _jh_, _dh_, _dh_ and _bh_, which are wanting in

Ksh., the corresponding unaspirated consonants being substituted for

them. Thus, Skr. _ghotakas_, but Ksh. _gur^u_, a horse; Skr.

_bhavati_, Ksh. _bovi_, he will be. There is a tendency to use dental

letters where Hindi employs cerebrals, as in Hindi _uth_, Ksh. _woth_,

arise. Cerebral letters are, however, owing to Sanskrit influence, on

the whole better preserved in Ksh. than in the other Pisaca languages.

The cerebral _s_ has almost disappeared, _s_ being employed instead.

The only common word in which it is found is the numeral _sah_, six,

which is merely a learned spelling for _sah_, due to the influence of

the Skr. _sat_. From the palatals _c_, _ch_, _j_, a new series of

consonants has been formed, viz. _ts_, _tsh_ (aspirate of _ts_--i.e.

_ts_ + _h_, not _t_ + _sh_), and _z_ (as in English, not _dz_). Thus,

Skr. _coras_, Ksh. _tsur_, a thief; Skr. _chalayati_, Ksh. _tshali_,

he will deceive; Skr. _jalam_, Ksh. _zal_, water. The sibilant _s_,

and occasionally _s_, are frequently represented by _h_. Thus, Skr.

_dasa_, Ksh. _dah_, ten; Skr. _siras_, Ksh. _hir_, a head. We may

compare with this the Persian word _Hind_, India (compare the Greek

[Greek: Indos], an Indian), derived from the Skr. _Sindhus_, the river

Indus. When such an _h_ is followed by a palatal letter the _s_

returns; thus, from the base _his-_, like this, we have the nominative

masculine _hih^u_, but the feminine _his^u_, and the abstract noun

_hisyar_, because _^u_ and _y_ are palatal letters.

The palatal letters _i_, _e_, _u-matra_ and _y_ often change a

preceding consonant. The modifications will be seen from the following

examples: _rat-_, night; nom. plur. _rats^u_; _woth_, arise;

_wotsh^u_, she arose: _lad_, build; _laz^u_, she was built: _ran_,

cook; _ran^u_, she was cooked; _pat^u_, a tablet; Ag. sing. _paci_:

_kath-_, a stalk; nom. plur. _kache: bad-_, great; nom. plur. fem.

_baje_: _batuk^u_, a duck; fem. _bat^ac^u_: _hokh^u_, dry; fem.

_hoch^u; srog^u_, cheap; _srojyar_, cheapness: _wal^u_, a ring; fem.

_waj^u_, a small ring; _los_, be weary; _los^u_ or _lots^u_, she was

weary. These changes are each subject to certain rules. Cerebral

letters (_t_, _th_, _d_) change only before _i_, _e_ or _y_, and not

before _u-matra_. The others, on the contrary, do not change _i_, but

do change before _e_, _y_ or _u-matra_.

No word can end in an unaspirated surd consonant. If such a consonant

falls at the end of a word it is aspirated. Thus, _ak_, one, becomes

_akh_ (but acc. _akis_); _kat_, a ram, becomes _kath_; and hat, a

hundred, _hath_.

D. _Declension_. If the above phonetic rules are borne in mind,

declension in Kashmiri is a fairly simple process. If attention is not

paid to them, the whole system at once becomes a field of inextricable

confusion. In the following pages it will be assumed that the reader

is familiar with them.

Nouns substantive and adjective have two genders, a masculine and a

feminine. Words referring to males are masculine, and to females are

feminine. Inanimate things are sometimes masculine and sometimes

feminine. Pronouns have three genders, arranged on a different

principle. One gender refers to male living beings, another to female

living beings, and a third (or neuter) to all inanimate things whether

they are grammatically masculine or feminine. Nouns ending in _^u_ are

masculine, and most, but not all, of those ending in _^i_, _^u_, _e_

or _n_ are feminine. Of nouns ending in consonants, some are

masculine, and some are feminine. No rule can be formulated regarding

these, except that all abstract nouns ending in _ar_ (a very numerous

class) are masculine. There are four declensions. The first consists

of masculine nouns ending in a consonant, in _a_, _e_ or _^u_ (very

few of these last two). The second consists of the important class of

masculine nouns in _^u_; the third of feminine nouns in _^i_, _^u_, or

_n_ (being the feminines corresponding to the masculine nouns of the

second declension); and the fourth of feminine nouns ending in _^a_,

_e_ or a consonant.

The noun possesses two numbers, a singular and a plural, and in each

number there are, besides the nominative, three organic cases, the

accusative, the case of the agent (see below, under "verbs"), and the

ablative. The accusative, when not definite, may also be the same in

form as the nominative. The following are the forms which a noun takes

in each declension, the words chosen as examples being: First

declension, _tsur_, a thief; second declension, _mal^u_, a father;

third declension, _maj^u_, a mother; fourth declension, (a) _mal_, a

garland, (b) _rat-_, night.

+------+------------+----------------+------------+-------------------------+

+------+------------+----------------+------------+-------+-----------------+

| Ag. | | | | | |

| and | | | | | |

+------+------------+----------------+------------+-------+-----------------+

The declension 4_b_ is confined to certain nouns in _t_, _th_, _d_,

_n_, _h_ and _l_, in which the final consonant is liable to change

owing to a following _u-matra_.

Other cases are formed (as in true Indo-Aryan languages) by the

addition of postpositions, some of which are added to the accusative,

while others are added to the ablative case. To the former are added

_manz_, in; _kit^u_, to or for; _sutin_, with, and others. To the

ablative are added _sutin_, when it signifies "by means of"; _putshy_,

for; _peth^a_, from, and others. For the genitive, masculine nouns in

the singular, signifying animate beings, take _sand^u_, and if they

signify things without life, take _k^u_. All masculine plural nouns

and all feminine nouns whether singular or plural take _hand^u_.

_Sand^u_ and _hand^u_ are added to the accusative, which drops a final

_s_, while _k^u_ is added to the ablative. Thus, _tsura sand^u_, of

the thief; _mal^i sand^u_, of the father; _sonak^u_ (usually written

_sonuk^u_), of gold (_son_, abl. sing. _sona_); _tsuran nand^u_, of

thieves; _karen hand^u_, of bracelets (second declension); _maje

hand^u_, of the mother; _majen hand^u_, of the mothers. Masculine

proper names, however, take _n^u_ in the singular, as in

_Radhakrsnan^u_ of Radhakrishna. These genitive terminations, and also

the dative termination _kit^u_, are adjectives, and agree with the

governing noun in gender, number and case. Thus, _tsura sand^u

neciv^u_, the son of the thief; _tsura sand^i neciv^i_, by the son of

the thief; _tsura sanz^u kor^u_, the daughter of the thief; _kulik^u

lang_, a bough of the tree; _kulic^u land^u_, a twig of the tree.

_Sand^u_, has fem. sing. _sanz^u_, masc. plur. _sand^i_, fem. plur.

_sanza_. Similarly _hand^u_. _K^u_ has fem. sing. _c^u_, masc. plur.

_k^i_, fem. plur. _ce_; _n^u_, fem. sing. _n_, masc. plur. _n^i_, fem.

plur. _ne_. Similarly for the dative we have the following forms:

_malis kit^u pan^u_, water (masc.) for the father; _malis kits^u gav_,

a cow for the father; _malis kit^i rav_, blankets (masc. plur.) for

the father; _malis kitsa pothe_, books (fem. plur.) for the father.

All these postpositions of the genitive and _kit^u_ of the dative are

declined regularly as substantives, the masculine ones belonging to

the second declension and the feminine ones to the third. Note that

the feminine plural of _sand^u_ is _sanza_, not _sanze_, as we might

expect; so also feminine nouns in _ts^u_, _tsh^u_, _z^u_ and _s^u_.

Adjectives ending in _^u_ (second declension) form the feminine in

_^u_, with the usual changes of the preceding consonant. Thus _tat^u_,

hot, fem. _tats^u_ (pronounced _tuts_). Other adjectives do not change

for gender. All adjectives agree with the qualified noun in gender,

number and case, the postposition, if any, being added to the latter

word of the two. Take, for example, _chat^u_, white, and _gur^u_, a

horse. From these we have _chat^u gur^u_, a white horse; acc. sing.

_chatis guris_; nom. plur. _chat^i gur^i_; and _chatyau guryau sutin_,

by means of white horses.

The first two personal pronouns are _boh_, I; _me_, me, by me; _as^i_,

we; _ase_, us, by us; and _ts^ah_, thou; _tse_, thee, by thee;

_toh^i_, ye; _tohe_ you, by you. Possessive pronouns are employed

instead of the genitive. Thus, _myan^u_, my; _san^u_, our; _cyan^u_,

thy; _tuhand^u_, your. For the third person, we have sing. masc.

_suh_, fem. _soh_, neut. _tih_; acc. sing. (masc. or fem.) _tamis_ or

_tas_, neut. _tath_; agent sing. masc. neut. _tam^i_, fem. _tami_. The

plural is of common gender throughout. Nom. _tim_; acc. _timan_; ag.

_timau_. The possessive pronoun is _tasand^u_, of him, of her;

_tamyuk^n_, of it; _tihand^u_, of them. The neuter gender is used for

all things without life.

Other pronouns are:--This: _yih_ (com. gen.); acc. masc. fem. _yimis_,

or _nomis_, neut, _yith_, _noth_; ag. masc. neut., _yim^i_, _nom^i_,

fem. _yimi_, _nomi_; nom. plur. _yim_, fem. _yima_, and so on.

That (within sight): masc. neut. _huh_, fem. _hoh_; acc. masc. fem.

_humis_ or _amis_, neut. _huth_, and so on; nom. plur. masc _hum_.

Who, masc. _yus_, fem. _yossa_, neut. _yih_; acc. masc. fem. _yemis_,

_yes_, neut. _yeth_; ag. masc. neut. _yem^i_, fem. _yemi_; nom. plur.

masc. _yim_, and so on.

Who? masc. _kus_, fem. _kossa_, neut. _kyah_; acc. masc. fem. _kamis_,

_kas_, neut. _kath_; ag. masc. neut. _kam^i_, fem. _kami_; nom. plur.

masc. _kam_.

Self, _pana_. Anyone, someone, _kah_, _kuh_, or _katshah_, neut.

_ketshah_.

Kashmiri makes very free use of pronominal suffixes, which are added

to verbs to supply the place of personal terminations. These represent

almost any case, and are as follows:--

+--------+---------------+----------------+---------------+

| +---------------+----------------+---------------+

| Nom. | _s_ | _kh_, _h_ | none |

| Acc. | _m_ | _th_, _y_ | _s_ |

| Dat. | _m_ | _y_ | _s_ |

| Ag. | _m_ | _th_, _y_ | _n_ |

| Nom. | none | _wa_ | none |

| cases | none | _wa_ | _kh_, _h_ |

+--------+---------------+----------------+---------------+

Before these the verbal terminations are often slightly changed for

the sake of euphony, and, when necessary for the pronunciation, the

vowel _a_ is inserted as a junction vowel.

In this connexion we may mention another set of suffixes also commonly

added to verbs, with an adverbial force. Of these _na_ negatives the

verb, as in _chuh_, he is; _chuna_, he is not; _a_ asks a question,

as in _chwa_, is he? _ti_ adds emphasis, as in _chuti_, he is indeed;

and _tya_ asks a question with emphasis, as in _chutya_, is he indeed?

Two or three suffixes may be employed together, as in _kar^u_, was

made, _karu-m_, was made by me, _kar^u-m-akh_, thou wast made by me;

_kar^u-m-akh-a_, wast thou made by me? The two _kh_ suffixes become

_h_ when they are followed by a pronominal suffix commencing with a

vowel, as in _kar^u-h-as_ (for _kar^u-kh-as_), I was made by them.

E. _Conjugation._ As in the case of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars,

the conjugation of the verb is mainly participial. Three only of the

old tenses, the present, the future and the imperative have survived,

the first having become a future, and the second a past conditional.

These three we may call radical tenses. The rest, viz. the Kashmiri

present, imperfect, past, aorist, perfect and other past tenses are

all participial.

The verb substantive, which is also used as an auxiliary verb, has two

tenses, a present and a past. The former is made by adding the

pronominal suffixes of the nominative to a base _chu(h)_, and the

latter by adding the same to a base _as^u_. Thus:--

+---+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+

| | _Singular_ | _Plural_ |

| +------------------+-------------------+------------------+-----------------+

+---+------------------+-------------------+------------------+-----------------+

+---+------------------+-------------------+------------------+-----------------+

+---+------------------+-------------------+------------------+-----------------+

As for the finite verb, the modern future (old present), and the past

conditional (old future) do not change for gender, and do not employ

suffixes, but retain relics of the old personal terminations of the

tenses from which they are derived. They are thus conjugated, taking

the verbal root _kar_, as the typical verb.

+---+--------------------------+--------------------------------------|

| | Future, I shall make, &c.|Past Conditional, (if) I had made, &c.|

| +------------+-------------+-----------------+--------------------+

+---+------------+-------------+-----------------+--------------------+

+---+------------+-------------+-----------------+--------------------+

For the imperative we have 2nd person singular, _kar_, plur. _kariv_;

third person singular and plural _karin_.

Many of the above forms will be intelligible from a consideration of

the closely allied Sanskrit, although they are not derived from that

language; but some (e.g. those of the second person singular) can only

be explained by the analogy of the Iranian and of the Pisaca

languages.

The present participle is formed by adding _an_ to the root; thus,

_karan_, making. It does not change for gender. From this we get a

present and an imperfect, formed by adding respectively the present

and past tenses of the auxiliary verb. Thus, _karan chus_, I

(masculine) am making, I make; _karan ches_, I (feminine) am making, I

make; _karan asus_, I (masculine) was making; and so on.

There are several past participles, all of which are liable to change

for gender, and are utilized in conjugation. We have:--

+-------------------------+--------------------------+------------------------+

| | _Singular_ | _Plural_ |

| +------------+-------------+------------+-----------+

+-------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-----------+

+-------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-----------+

In the strong past participle and the pluperfect participle, the final

_v_ and _y_ (like the final _h_ of _chuh_ quoted above) are not parts

of the original words, but are only added for the sake of euphony. The

true words are _karyo_, _karye_, _karya_ and _karyeye_. There are

three conjugations. The first includes all transitive verbs. These

have both the weak and the strong past participles. The second

conjugation consists of sixty-six common intransitive verbs, which

also have both of these participles. The third conjugation consists of

the remaining intransitive verbs. These have only the strong past

participle. The weak past participle in the first two conjugations

refers to something which has lately happened, and is used to form an

immediate past tense. The strong past participle is more indefinite,

and is employed to form a tense corresponding to the Greek aorist. The

pluperfect participle refers to something which happened a long time

ago, and is used to form the past tense of narration. As the third

conjugation has no weak past participle, the strong past participle is

employed to make the immediate past, and the pluperfect participle is

employed to make the aorist past, while the new pluperfect participle

is formed to make the tense of narration. Thus, from the root _wuph_,

fly (third conjugation) we have _wuphyov_, he flew just now, while

_karyov_ (first conjugation) means "he was made at some indefinite

time"; _wuphyav_, he flew at some indefinite time, but _karyav_, he

was made a long time ago; finally, the new participle of the third

conjugation, _wuphiyav_, he flew a long time ago.

The corresponding tenses are formed by adding pronominal suffixes to

the weak, the strong, or the pluperfect participle. In the last two

the final _v_ and _y_, being no longer required by euphony, are

dropped. In the case of transitive verbs the participles are passive

by derivation and in signification, and hence the suffix indicating

the subject must be in the agent case. Thus _kar^u_ means "made." For

"I made" we must say "made by me," _karu-m_; for "thou madest,"

_karu-th_, made by thee, and so on. If the thing made is feminine the

participle must be feminine, and similarly if it is plural it must be

plural. Thus, _karu-m_, I made him; _kar^u-m_, I made her; _kari-m_, I

made them (masculine); and _kare-m_, I made them (feminine). Similarly

from the other two participles we have _karyo-m_, I made him;

_karyeya-m_, I made her; _karya-m_, I made him (a long time ago). The

past participles of intransitive verbs are not passive, and hence the

suffix indicating the subject must be in the nominative form. Thus

_tsal^u_, escaped (second conjugation); _tsalu-s_, escaped-I, I

(masculine) escaped; _tsaj^u-s_, I (feminine) escaped, and so on.

Similarly for the third conjugation, _wuphyov_, flew; _wuphyo-s_, I

(masculine) flew; _wuphyeya-s_, I (feminine) flew, &c.

As explained above, these suffixes may be piled one on another. As a

further example we may give _kar^u_, made; _karu-n_, made by him, he

made; _karu-n-as_, made by him I, he made me, or (as -_s_ also means

"for him") he made for him; _karu-n-as-a_, did he make me? or, did he

make for him? and so on.

Tenses corresponding to the English perfect and pluperfect are formed

by conjugating the auxiliary verb, adding the appropriate suffixes,

with the compound past participle. Thus _kar^umat^u chu-n-as_, made

am-by-him-I, he has made me; _tsal^umat^u chu-kh_, escaped art thou,

thou hast escaped; _wuphyomat^u chu-s_, flown am-I, I have flown.

Similarly for the pluperfect, _kar^umat^u asu-n-as_, made

was-by-him-I, he had made me, and so on.

Many verbs have irregular past participles. Thus _mar_, die, has

_mud^u_; _di_, give, has _dit^u_; _khi_, eat, has _khyauv_ for its

weak, and _kheyov_ for its strong participle, while _ni_, take, has

_nyuv_ and _niyov_, respectively. Others must be learnt from the

regular grammars.

The infinitive is formed by adding -_un_ to the root; thus _kar-un_,

to make. It is declined like a somewhat irregular noun of the first

declension, its accusative being _karanas_. There are three forms of

the noun of agency, of which typical examples are _kar-awun^u_,

_kar-an-wal^u_, and _kar-an-grakh_, a maker.

The passive is formed by conjugating the verb _yi_, come, with the

ablative of the infinitive. Thus, _karana yiwan chuh_, it is coming by

making, or into making, i.e. it is being made. A root is made active

or causal by adding -_anaw_, -_aw_, or -_^araw_. Thus, _kar-anaw_,

cause to make; _kumal_, be tender, _kumal-aw_, make tender; _kal_, be

dumb, _kal-^araw_, make dumb. Some verbs take one form and some

another, and there are numerous irregularities, especially in the case

of the last.

F. _Indeclinables._ Indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions

and interjections) must be learnt from the dictionary. The number of

interjections is very large, and they are distinguished by minute

rules depending on the gender of the person addressed and the exact

amount of respect due to him.

_Literature._--Kashmiri possesses a somewhat extensive literature, which

has been very little studied. The missionary William Carey published in

1821 a version of the New Testament (in the Sarada character), which was

the first book published in the language. In 1885 the Rev. J. Hinton

Knowles published at Bombay a collection of Kashmiri proverbs and

sayings, and K. F. Burkhard in 1895 published an edition of Mahmud

Gami's poem on Yusuf and Zulaikha. This, with the exception of later

translations of the Scriptures in the Persian character and a few minor

works, is all the literature that has been printed or about which

anything has been written. Mahmud Gami's poem is valuable as an example

of the Kashmiri used by Mussulmans. For Hindu literature, we may quote a

history of Krishna by Dinanatha. The very popular _Lalla-vakya_, a poem

on Saiva philosophy by a woman named _Lalladevi_, is said to be the

oldest work in the language which has survived. Another esteemed work is

the _Siva Parinaya_ of Krsna Rajanaka, a living author. These and other

books which have been studied by the present writer have little

independent value, being imitations of Sanskrit literature. Nothing is

known about the dates of most of the authors.

AUTHORITIES.--The scientific study of Kashmiri is of very recent date.

The only printed lexicographical work is a short vocabulary by W. J.

Elmslie (London, 1872). K. F. Burkhard brought out a grammar of the

Mussulman dialect in the _Proceedings of the Royal Bavarian Academy of

Science_ for 1887-1889, of which a translation by G. A. Grierson

appeared in the _Indian Antiquary_ of 1895 and the following years

(reprinted as a separate publication, Bombay, 1897). T. R. Wade's

Grammar (London, 1888) is the merest sketch, and the only attempt at a

complete work of the kind in English is G. A. Grierson's _Essays on

Kacmiri Grammar_ (London and Calcutta, 1899). A valuable native

grammar in Sanskrit, the _Kasmirasabdamrta_ of Isvara Kaula, has been

edited by the same writer (Calcutta, 1888). For an examination of the

origin of Kashmiri grammatical forms and the Pisaca question

generally, see G. A. Grierson's "On Certain Suffixes in the Modern

Indo-Aryan Vernaculars" in the _Zeitschrift fur Vergleichende

Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der Indogermanischen Sprachen_ for

1903 and _The Pisaca Languages of North-Western India_ (London, 1906).

The only important text which has been published is Burkhard's

edition, with a partial translation, of Mahmud Gami's "Yusuf and

Zulaikha" in the _Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen

Gesellschaft_ for 1895 and 1899. The text of the _Siva Parinaya_,

edited by G. A. Grierson, is in course of publication by the Asiatic

Society of Bengal. (G. A. Gr.)

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Justinian II." to "Kells" Volume 15, Slice 6 · 第 26 / 29 题