[1] See further IDEALISM; METAPHYSICS; LOGIC, &c., where Kant's
relation to subsequent thought is discussed.
KANURI, or BERIBERI, an African tribe of mixed origin, the dominant race
of Bornu. They are large-boned and coarse-featured, but contain
nevertheless a distinct strain of Fula blood. Beriberi (or Berberi) is
the name given them by the Hausa (see BORNU).
KAOLIN, a pure white clay, know also as china-clay, since it is an
essential ingredient in the manufacture of china, or porcelain. The word
kaolin, formerly written by some authors caulin, is said to be a
corruption of the Chinese _Kau-ling_, meaning "High Ridge," the name of
a hill east of King-te-chen, whence the earliest samples of the clay
sent to Europe were obtained by the Pere d'Entrecolles, a French Jesuit
missionary in China in the early part of the 18th century. His
specimens, examined in Paris by R. A. Reaumur, showed that true
porcelain, the composition of which had not previously been known in
Europe, contained two essential ingredients, which came to be
known--though it now appears incorrectly--as kaolin and petuntse,
corresponding respectively to our china-clay and china-stone. The kaolin
confers plasticity on the paste and secures retention of form for the
ware when exposed to the heat of the kiln, whilst the petuntse gives the
translucency so characteristic of porcelain. Some of the earliest
discoveries of kaolin in Europe were at Aue, near Schneeberg in Saxony,
and at St Yrieix, near Limoges in France. In England it was discovered
in Cornwall about the year 1750 by William Cookworthy, of Plymouth; and
in 1768 he took out his patent for making porcelain from moorstone or
growan (china-stone) and growan clay (kaolin), the latter imparting
"whiteness and infusibility" to the china. These raw materials were
found first at Tregonning Hill, near Breage, and afterwards at St
Stephen's in Brannel, near St Austell; and their discovery led to the
manufacture of hard paste, or true porcelain, at Plymouth and
subsequently at Bristol.
Kaolin is a hydrous aluminium silicate, having the formula H4Al2Si2O9,
or Al2Si2O7.2H2O, but in common clay this silicate is largely mixed with
impurities. Certain clays contain pearly white hexagonal scales, usually
microscopic, referable to the monoclinic system, and having the chemical
composition of kaolin. This crystalline substance was termed kaolinite
by S. W. Johnson and J. M. Blake in 1867, and it is now regarded as the
basis of pure clay. The kaolinite of Amlwch in Anglesey has been studied
by Allan Dick. The origin of kaolin may be traced to the alteration of
certain aluminous silicates like feldspar, scapolite, beryl and topaz;
but all large deposits of china-clay are due to the decomposition of
feldspar, generally in granite, but sometimes in gneiss, pitchstone, &c.
The turbidity of many feldspars is the result of partial
"kaolinization," or alteration to kaolin. The china-clay rocks of
Cornwall and Devon are granites in which the orthoclase has become
kaolinized. These rocks are sometimes known as carclazite, a name
proposed by J. H. Collins from a typical locality, the Carclaze mine,
near St Austell. It has often been supposed that the alteration of the
granite has been effected mainly by meteoric agencies, the carbonic acid
having decomposed the alkaline silicate of the feldspar, whilst the
aluminous silicate assumes a hydrated condition and forms kaolin. In
many cases, however, it seems likely that the change has been effected
by subterranean agencies, probably by heated vapours carrying fluorine
and boron, since minerals containing these elements, like tourmaline,
often occur in association with the china-clay. According to F. H.
Butler the kaolinization of the west of England granite may have been
effected by a solution of carbonic acid at a high temperature, acting
from below.
The china-stone, or petuntse, is a granitic rock which still retains
much of the unaltered feldspar, on which its fusibility depends. In
order to prepare kaolin for the market, the china-clay rock is broken
up, and the clay washed out by means of water. The liquid containing
the clay in mechanical suspension is run into channels called "drags"
where the coarser impurities subside, and whence it passes to another
set of channels known as "micas," where the finer materials settle down.
Thus purified, the clay-water is led into a series of pits or tanks, in
which the finely divided clay is slowly deposited; and, after acquiring
sufficient consistency, it is transferred to the drying-house, or "dry,"
heated by flues, where the moisture is expelled, and the kaolin obtained
as a soft white earthy substance. The clay has extensive application in
the arts, being used not only in ceramic manufacture but in
paper-making, bleaching and various chemical industries.
Under the species "kaolinite" may be included several minerals which
have received distinctive names, such as the Saxon mineral called from
its pearly lustre nacrite, a name originally given by A. Brongniart to a
nacreous mica; pholerite found chiefly in cracks of ironstone and named
by J. Guillemin from the Greek [Greek: pholis], a scale; and lithomarge,
the old German _Steinmark_, a compact clay-like body of white, yellow or
red colour. Dr C. Hintze has pointed out that the word pholerite should
properly be written pholidite ([Greek: pholis, pholidos]). Closely
related to kaolinite is the mineral called halloysite, a name given to
it by P. Berthier after his uncle Omalius d'Halloy, the Belgian
geologist. (F. W. R.*)
KAPUNDA, a municipal town of Light county, South Australia, 48 m. by
rail N.N.E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1805. It is the centre of a large
wheat-growing district. The celebrated copper mines discovered in 1843
were closed in 1879. There are quarries near the town, in which is found
fine marble of every colour from dark blue to white. This marble was
largely used in the Houses of Parliament at Adelaide.
KAPURTHALA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. Area, 652 sq.
m.; pop. (1901), 314,341, showing an increase of 5% in the decade;
estimated gross revenue, L178,000; tribute, L8700. The Kapurthala family
is descended from Jassa Singh, a contemporary of Nadir Shah and Ahmad
Shah, who by his intelligence and bravery made himself the leading Sikh
of his day. At one time it held possessions on both sides of the Sutlej,
and also in the Bari Doab. The cis-Sutlej estates and scattered tracts
in the Bari Doab were forfeited owing to the hostility of the chief in
the first Sikh war; but the latter were afterwards restored in
recognition of the loyalty of Raja Randhir Singh during the mutiny of
1857, when he led a contingent to Oudh which did good service. He also
received a grant of land in Oudh, 700 sq. m. in extent, yielding a gross
rental of L89,000. In Oudh, however, he exercises no sovereign powers,
occupying only the status of a large landholder, with the title of
Raja-i-Rajagan. Raja Sir Jagatjit Singh, K.C.S.I., was born in 1872,
succeeded his father in 1877, and attained his majority in 1890. During
the Tirah expedition of 1897-98 the Kapurthala imperial service infantry
took a prominent part. The territory is crossed by the railway from
Jullundur to Amritsar. The state has a large export trade in wheat,
sugar, tobacco and cotton. The hand-painted cloths and metal-work of
Phagwara are well known. The town of Kapurthala is 11 miles from
Jullundur; pop. (1901), 18,519.
KARACHI, or KURRACHEE, a seaport and district of British India, in the
Sind province of Bombay. The city is situated at the extreme western end
of the Indus delta, 500 m. by sea from Bombay and 820 m. by rail from
Lahore, being the maritime terminus of the North-Western railway, and
the main gateway for the trade of the Punjab and part of central Asia.
It is also the capital of the province of Sind. Pop. (1881), 73,500;
(1891), 105,199; (1901), 115,407. Before 1725 no town appears to have
existed here; but about that time some little trade began to centre upon
the convenient harbour, and the silting up of Shahbandar, the ancient
port of Sind, shortly afterwards drove much of its former trade and
population to the rising village. Under the Kalhora princes, the khan of
Kalat obtained a grant of the town, but in 1795 it was captured by the
Talpur Mirs, who built the fort at Manora, at the entrance to the
harbour. They also made considerable efforts to increase the trade of
the port and at the time of the British acquisition of the province the
town and suburbs contained a population of 14,000. This was in 1843,
from which time the importance of the place practically dates.
The harbour of Karachi has an extreme length and breadth of about 5 m.
It is protected by the promontory of Manora Head; and the entrance is
partially closed by rocks and by the peninsula (formerly an island) of
Kiamari. On Manora Head, which is fortified, are the buildings of the
port establishment, a cantonment, &c. Kiamari is the landing-place for
passengers and goods, and has three piers and railway connexions. The
harbour improvements were begun in 1854 with the building of the Napier
Mole or causeway connecting Kiamari with the mainland. The entrance has
a minimum depth of 25 ft.; and a large number of improvements and
extensions have been carried out by the harbour board, which was created
in 1880, and transformed in 1886 into the port trust.
The great extension of the canal colonies in the Punjab, entirely
devoted to the cultivation of wheat, has immensely increased the export
trade of Karachi. It now ranks as the third port of India, being
surpassed only by Calcutta and Bombay. The principal articles of export,
besides wheat, are oil-seeds, cotton, wool, hides and bones. The annual
value of exports, including specie, amounts to about nine millions
sterling. There are iron works and manufactures of cotton cloth, silk
scarves and carpets. The fisheries and oyster beds are important.
Among the principal public buildings are government house, the Frere
municipal hall, and the Napier barracks. The military cantonments,
stretching north-east of the city, form the headquarters of a brigade in
the 4th division of the southern army. An excellent water supply is
provided by an underground aqueduct 18 m. in length. The chief
educational institutions are the Dayaram Jethmal Arts College, with a
law class; five high schools, of which two are for Europeans and one for
Mahommedans; a convent school for girls; and an engineering class. The
average rainfall for the year is about 5 in. The rainy months are July
and August, but one or two heavy showers usually fall about Christmas.
The end of May, beginning of June, and first fortnight in October are
hot. November, December, January, February and March are delightfully
cool and dry; the remaining months are damp with a constant cool sea
breeze.
The DISTRICT OF KARACHI has an area of 11,970 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
607,439, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. It consists of an
immense tract of land stretching from the mouth of the Indus to the
Baluch boundary. It differs in general appearance from the rest of Sind,
having a rugged, mountainous region along its western border. The
country gradually slopes away to the south-east, till in the extreme
south the Indus delta presents a broad expanse of low, flat and
unpicturesque alluvium. Besides the Indus and its mouths, the only river
in the district is the Hab, forming the boundary between Sind and
Baluchistan. The Manchhar lake in Sehwan sub-division forms the only
considerable sheet of water in Sind. The hot springs at Pir Mangho are 6
m. N. of Karachi town. The principal crops are rice, millets, oil-seeds
and wheat. In addition to Karachi, there are seaports at Sirgonda and
Keti Bandar, which conduct a considerable coasting trade. Tatta was the
old capital of Sind. Kotri is an important railway station on the Indus.
The main line of the North-Western railway runs through the district.
From Kotri downwards the line has been doubled to Karachi, and at Kotri
a bridge has been constructed across the Indus opposite Hyderabad, to
connect with the Rajputana railway system.
See A. F. Baillie, _Kurrachee: Past, Present and Future_ (1890).
KARAGEORGE (in Servian, _Karadyordye_) (c. 1766-1817), the leader of the
Servians during their first revolution against the Turks (1804-13), and
founder of the Servian dynasty Karageorgevich. His Christian name was
George (Dyordye), but being not only of dark complexion but of gloomy,
taciturn and easily excitable temper, he was nicknamed by the Servians
"Tsrni Dyordye" and by the Turks "Karageorge," both meaning "Black
George," the Turkish name becoming soon the generally adopted one. He
was born in 1766 (according to some in 1768), the son of an extremely
poor Servian peasant, Petroniye Petrovich. When quite a young man, he
entered the service of a renowned Turkish brigand, Fazli-Bey by name,
and accompanied his master on his adventurous expeditions. When twenty
he married and started a small farm. But having killed a Turk, he left
Servia for Syrmia, in Croatia-Slavonia, where the monks of the monastery
Krushedol engaged him as one of their forest guards. He remained in the
service of the monks nearly two years, then enlisted into an Austrian
regiment, and as sergeant took part in the Austrian war against Turkey
(1788-91). He deserted his regiment, returned to Servia, and settled in
the village of Topola, living sometimes as a peaceful farmer and
sometimes again as the leader of a small band of "hayduks"--men who
attacked, robbed and in most cases killed the travelling Turks in
revenge for the oppression of their country.
The circumstances in which the Servians rose against the janissaries of
the pashalik of Belgrade are related in the article on SERVIA. The
leaders of the insurgents' bands and other men of influence met about
the middle of February 1804 at the village of Orashatz, and there
elected Karageorge as the supreme leader (Vrhovni Vozd) of the nation.
Under his command the Servians speedily cleared their country not only
of the janissaries disloyal to the Sultan, but of all other Turks, who
withdrew from the open country to the fortified places. Karageorge and
his armed Servians demanded from the Sultan the privileges of
self-government. The Porte, confronted by the chances of a war with
Russia, decided in the autumn of 1806 to grant to the Servians a fairly
large measure of autonomy. Unfortunately Karageorge was comparatively
poor in political gifts and diplomatic tact. While the _hattisherif_
granting the rights demanded by the Servians was on the way to Servia,
Karageorge attacked the Turks in Belgrade and Shabats, captured the
towns first and then also the citadels, and allowed the Turkish
population of Belgrade to be massacred. At the same time the Russian
headquarters in Bucharest informed Karageorge that Russia was at war
with Turkey and that the Tsar counted on the co-operation of the
Servians. Karageorge and his Servians then definitely rejected all the
concessions which the Porte had granted them, and joined Russia, hoping
thereby to secure the complete independence of Servia. The co-operation
of the Servians with the Russians was of no great importance, and
probably disappointing to both parties. But as the principal theatre of
war was far away from Servia on the lower Danube, Karageorge was able to
give more attention to the internal organization of Servia. The national
assembly proclaimed Karageorge the hereditary chief and _gospodar_ of
the Servians (Dec. 26, 1808), he on his part promising under oath to
govern the country "through and by the national council" (senate).
Karageorge's hasty and uncompromising temper and imperious habits, as
well as his want of political tact, soon made him many enemies amongst
the more prominent Servians (voyvodes and senators). His difficulties
were considerably increased by the intrigues of the Russian political
agent to Servia, Rodophinikin. A crisis came during the summer months of
the year 1813. The treaty of peace, concluded by the Russians somewhat
hurriedly in Bucharest in 1812, did not secure efficiently the safety of
the Servians. The Turks demanded from Karageorge, as a preliminary
condition for peace, that the Servians should lay down their arms, and
Karageorge refused to comply. Thereupon the entire Turkish army which
fought against the Russians on the Danube, being disengaged, invaded
Servia. After a few inefficient attempts to stem the invasion,
Karageorge gave up the struggle, and with most of the voyvodes and
chiefs of the nation left the country, and crossed to Hungary as a
refugee (Sept. 20, 1813). From Hungary he went to Russia and settled in
Khotin (Bessarabia), enjoying a pension from the Tsar's government. But
in the summer of 1817 he suddenly and secretly left Russia and
reappeared quite alone in Servia in the neighbourhood of Semendria
(Smederevo) on the Danube. The motives and the object of his return are
not clear. Some believe that he was sent by the Hetaerists to raise up
Servia to a new war with Turkey and thereby facilitate the rising of the
Greek people. It is generally assumed, however, that, having heard that
Servia, under the guidance of Milosh Obrenovich, had obtained a certain
measure of self-government, he desired to put himself again at the head
of the nation. This impression seems to have been that of Milosh
himself, who at once reported to the Pasha of Belgrade the arrival of
Karageorge. The pasha demanded that Karageorge, alive or dead, should be
delivered to him immediately, and made Milosh personally responsible for
the execution of that order. Karageorge's removal could not
unfortunately be separated from the personal interest of Milosh; already
acknowledged as chief of the nation, Milosh did not like to be displaced
by his old chief, who in a critical moment had left the country.
Karageorge was killed (July 27, O.S., 1817) while he was asleep, and his
head was sent to the pasha for transmission to Constantinople. It is
impossible to exonerate Milosh Obrenovich from responsibility for the
murder, which became the starting-point for a series of tragedies in the
modern history of Servia.
Karageorge was one of the most remarkable Servians of the 19th century.
No other man could have led the bands of undisciplined and badly-armed
Servian peasants to such decisive victories against the Turks. Although
he never assumed the title of prince, he practically was the first chief
and master (_gospodar_) of the people of Servia. He succeeded, however,
not because he was liked but because he was feared. His gloomy silence,
his easily aroused anger, his habit of punishing without hesitation the
slightest transgressions by death, spread terror among the people. He is
believed to have killed his own father in a fit of anger when the old
man refused to follow him in his flight to Hungary at the beginning of
his career. In another fit of rage at the report that his brother
Marinko had assaulted a girl, he ordered his men to seize his brother
and to hang him there and then in his presence, and he forbade his
mother to go into mourning for him. Even by his admirers he is admitted
to have killed by his own hand no fewer than 125 men who provoked his
anger. But in battles he is acknowledged to have been always admirable,
displaying marvellous energy and valour, and giving proofs of a real
military genius. The Servians consider him one of their greatest men. In
grateful remembrance of his services to the national cause they elected
his younger son, Alexander, in 1842, to be the reigning prince of
Servia, and again in 1903 they chose his grandson, Peter Karageorgevich
(son of Alexander) to be the king of Servia.
See SERVIA; also Ranke, _Die serbische Revolution_; Stoyan Novakovich,
_Vaskzhs srpske drzhave_ (Belgrade, 1904); M. G. Milityevich,
_Karadyordye_ (Belgrade, 1904). (C. Mi.)
KARA-HISSAR ("Black Castle"). (1) AFIUM KARA-HISSAR (q.v.). (2) ICHJE,
or ISCHA KARA-HISSAR (anc. _Docimium_), a small village about 14 m. N.E.
of No. 1. Docimium was a Macedonian colony established on an older site.
It was a self-governing municipality, striking its own coins, and stood
on the Apamea-Synnada-Pessinus road, by which the celebrated marble
called Synnadic, Docimian and Phrygian was conveyed to the coast. The
quarries are 2(1/2) m. from the village, and the marble was carried
thence direct to Synnada (Chifut Kassaba). Some of the marble has the
rich purple veins in which poets saw the blood of Atys.
See W. M. Ramsay, _Hist. Geog. of Asia Minor_ (London, 1890); Murray,
_Hbk. to Asia Minor_ (1893).
KARA-HISSAR SHARKI [i.e. "eastern Kara-Hissar"], also called Shabin
Kara-Hissar from the alum mines in its vicinity, the chief town of a
sanjak of the same name in the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor. Pop. about
12,000, two-thirds Mussulman. It is the Roman _Colonia_, which gradually
superseded Pompey's foundation, _Nicopolis_, whose ruins lie at Purkh,
about 12 m. W. (hence Kara-Hissar is called Nikopoli by the Armenians).
In later Byzantine times it was an important frontier station, and did
not pass into Ottoman hands till twelve years after the capture of
Constantinople. The town, altitude 4860 ft., is built round the foot of
a lofty rock, upon which stand the ruins of the Byzantine castle,
_Maurocastron_, the Kara Hissar Daula of early Moslem chroniclers. It is
connected with its port, Kerasund, and with Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum,
by carriage roads.
KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES (1782-1827), leader in the War of Greek
Independence, was born at Agrapha in 1782. During the earlier stages of
the war he served in the Morea, and had a somewhat discreditable share
in the intrigues which divided the Greek leaders. But he showed a sense
of the necessity for providing the country with a government, and was a
steady supporter of Capo d'Istria. His most honourable services were
performed in the middle and later stages of the war. He helped to raise
the first siege of Missolonghi in 1823, and did his best to save the
town in the second siege in 1826. In that year he commanded the patriot
forces in Rumelia, and though he failed to co-operate effectually with
other chiefs, or with the foreign sympathizers fighting for the Greeks,
he gained some successes against the Turks which were very welcome amid
the disasters of the time. He took a share in the unsuccessful attempts
to raise the siege of Athens in 1827, and made an effort to prevent the
disastrous massacre of the Turkish garrison of fort S Spiridion. He was
shot in action on the 4th of May 1827. Finlay speaks of him as a capable
partisan leader who had great influence over his men, and describes him
as of "middle size, thin, dark-complexioned, with a bright expressive
animal eye which indicated gipsy blood."
See G. Finlay, _History of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1861).
KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH (1787-1864), the father of modern Servian
literature, was born on the 6th of November 1787 in the Servian village
of Trshich, on the border between Bosnia and Servia. Having learnt to
read and write in the old monastery Tronosha (near his native village),
he was engaged as writer and reader of letters to the commander of the
insurgents of his district at the beginning of the first Servian rising
against the Turks in 1804. Mostly in the position of a scribe to
different voyvodes, sometimes as school-teacher, he served his country
during the first revolution (1804-1813), at the collapse of which he
left Servia, but instead of following Karageorge and other voyvodes to
Russia he went to Vienna. There he was introduced to the great Slavonic
scholar Yerney Kopitar, who, having heard him recite some Servian
national ballads, encouraged him to collect the poems and popular songs,
write a grammar of the Servian language, and, if possible, a dictionary.
This programme of literary work was adhered to by Karajich, who all his
life acknowledged gratefully what he owed to his learned teacher.
In the second half of the 18th and in the beginning of the 19th century
all Servian literary efforts were written in a language which was not
the Servian vernacular, but an artificial language, of which the
foundation was the Old Slavonic in use in the churches, but somewhat
Russianized, and mixed with Servian words forced into Russian forms.
That language, called by its writers "the Slavonic-Servian," was neither
Slavonic nor Servian. It was written in Old Cyrillic letters, many of
which had no meaning in the Servian language, while there were several
sounds in that language which had no corresponding signs or letters in
the Old Slavonic alphabet. The Servian philosopher Dositey Obradovich
(who at the end of the 18th century spent some time in London teaching
Greek) was the first Servian author to proclaim the principle that the
books for the Servian people ought to be written in the language of the
people. But the great majority of his contemporaries were of opinion
that the language of Servian literature ought to be evolved out of the
dead Old Slavonic of the church books. The church naturally decidedly
supported this view. Karajich was the great reformer who changed all
this. Encouraged by Kopitar, he published in 1814 (2nd ed., 1815) in
Vienna his first book, _Mala Prostonarodna Slaveno-Serbska Pyesmaritsa_
("A small collection of Slavonic-Servian songs of the common people"),
containing a hundred lyric songs, sung by the peasant women of Servia,
and six poems about heroes, or as the Servians call them _Yunachke
pesme_, which are generally recited by the blind bards or by peasants.
From that time Karajich's literary activity moved on two parallel lines:
to give scientific justification and foundation to the adoption of the
vernacular Servian as the literary language; and, by collecting and
publishing national songs, folk-lore, proverbs, &c., to show the
richness of the Servian people's poetical and intellectual gifts, and
the wealth and beauty of the Servian language. By his reform of the
Servian alphabet and orthography, his Servian grammar and his Servian
dictionary, he established the fact that the Servian language contains
thirty distinct sounds, for six of which the Old Slavonic alphabet had
no special letters. He introduced new letters for those special sounds,
at the same time throwing out of the Old Slavonic alphabet eighteen
letters for which the Servian language had no use. This reform was
strenuously opposed by the church and many conservative authors, who
went so far as to induce the Servian government to prohibit the printing
of books in new letters, a prohibition removed in 1859. Karajich's
alphabet facilitated his reform of orthography, his principle being:
_write as you speak, and read as it is written_! Hardly any other
language in the civilized world has such a simple, logical, scientific
spelling system and orthography as the Servian has in Karajich's system.
His first grammatical essay was published in Vienna in 1814, _Pismenitsa
Serbskoga yezika po govoru prostoga naroda_ ("The grammar of the Servian
language as spoken by the common people"). An improved edition appeared
in Vienna in 1818, together with his great work _Srpski Ryechnik_
(Lexicon Serbico-Germanico-Latinum). This dictionary--containing 26,270
words--was full of important contributions to folk-lore, as Karajich
never missed an opportunity to add to the meaning of the word the
description of the national customs or popular beliefs connected with
it. A new edition of his dictionary, containing 46,270 words, was
published at Vienna in 1852. Meanwhile he gave himself earnestly to the
work of collecting the "creations of the mind of the Servian common
people." He travelled through Servian countries (Servia, Bosnia,
Herzegovina, Montenegro, Dalmatia, Syrmia, Croatia), and the result was
shown in a largely augmented edition of his _Srpske Narodne Pyesme_, of
which the first three volumes appeared at Leipzig in 1823 and 1824, the
fourth volume appearing at Vienna in 1833. _Popular Stories and Enigmas_
was published in 1821, and _Servian National Proverbs_ in 1836. From
1826 to 1834 he was the editor of an annual, called _Danitsa_ (The
Morning Star), which he filled with important contributions concerning
the ethnography and modern history of the Servian people. In 1828 he
published a historical monograph, _Milosh Obrenovich, Prince of Servia_;
in 1837, in German, _Montenegro and Montenegrins_; in 1867, _The Servian
Governing Council of State_. He supplied Leopold Ranke with the
materials for his _History of the Servian Revolution_. He also
translated the New Testament into Servian, for the British and Foreign
Bible Society (Vienna, 1847). Karajich died in Vienna on the 6th of
February 1864; and his remains were transferred to Belgrade in 1897 with
great solemnity and at the expense of the government of Servia.
(C. Mi.)
KARA-KALPAKS ("Black Caps"), a Mongolo-Tatar people, originally dominant
along the east coast of the Aral Sea, where they still number some
thousands. They thus form geographically the transition between the
northern Kirghiz and the southern Turkomans. Once a powerful nation,
they are scattered for the most part in Astrakhan, Perm, Orenburg, in
the Caucasian province of Kuban, and in Tobolsk, Siberia, numbering in
all about 50,000. These emigrants have crossed much with the alien
populations among whom they have settled; but the pure type on the Aral
Sea are a tall powerful people, with broad flat faces, large eyes, short
noses and heavy chins. Their women are the most beautiful in Turkestan.
The name of "Black Caps" is given them in allusion to their high
sheepskin hats. They are a peaceful agricultural folk, who have suffered
much from their fierce nomad neighbours.
KARAKORUM (Turkish, "black stone debris"), the name of two cities in
Mongolia. One of these, according to G. Potanin, was the capital of the
Uighur kingdom in the 8th century, and the other was in the 13th century
a capital of the steppe monarchy of Mongolia. The same name seems also
to have been applied to the Khangai range at the headwaters of the
Orkhon. (1) The Uighur KARAKORUM, also named Mubalik ("bad town"), was
situated on the left bank of the Orkhon, in the Talal-khain-dala steppe,
to the south-east of Ughei-nor. It was deserted after the fall of the
Uighur kingdom, and in the 10th century Abaki, the founder of the Khitan
kingdom, planted on its ruins a stone bearing a description of his
victories. (2) The Mongolian KARAKORUM was founded at the birth of the
Mongolian monarchy established by Jenghiz Khan. A palace for the khan
was built in it by Chinese architects in 1234, and its walls were
erected in 1235. Plano Carpini visited it in 1246, Rubruquis in 1253,
and Marco Polo in 1275. Later, the fourth Mongolian king, Kublai, left
Karakorum, in order to reside at Kai-pin-fu, near Peking. When the khan
Arik-bog declared himself and Karakorum independent of Kublai-Khan, the
latter besieged Karakorum, took it by famine, and probably laid it waste
so thoroughly that the town was afterwards forgotten.
The exact sites of the two Mongolian capitals were only established in
1889-1891. Sir H. Yule (_The Book of Marco Polo_, 1871) was the first to
distinguish two cities of this name. The Russian traveller Paderin in
1871 visited the Uighur capital (see TURKS), named now by the Mongols
Kara Balghasun ("black city") or Khara-kherem ("black wall"), of which
only the wall and a tower are in existence, while the streets and ruins
outside the wall are seen at a distance of 1(3/4) m. Paderin's belief
that this was the old Mongol capital has been shown to be incorrect. As
to the Mongolian Karakorum, it is identified by several authorities with
a site on which towards the close of the 16th century the Buddhist
monastery of Erdeni Tsu was built. This monastery lies about 25 m. south
by east of the Uighur capital. North and north-east of the monastery are
ruins of ancient buildings. Professor D. Pozdneev, who visited Erdeni
Tsu for a second time in 1892, stated that the earthen wall surrounding
the monastery might well be part of the wall of the old city. The proper
position of the two Karakorums was determined by the expedition of N.
Yadrintsev in 1889, and the two expeditions of the Helsingfors
Ugro-Finnish society (1890) and the Russian academy of science, under Dr
W. Radlov (1891), which were sent out to study Yadrintsev's discovery.
See _Works (Trudy) of the Orkhon Expedition_ (St Petersburg, 1892);
Yule's _Marco Polo_, edition revised by Henri Cordier (of Paris), vol.
i. ch. xlvi. (London, 1903). Cordier confines the use of Karakorum to
the Mongol capital; Pozdneev, _Mongolia and the Mongols_, vol. i. (St
Petersburg, 1896); C. W. Campbell, "Journeys in Mongolia," _Geog.
Journ._ vol. xx. (1903), with map. Campbell's report was printed as a
parliamentary paper (_China No. 1, 1904_).
KARA-KUL, the name of two lakes ("Great" and "Little ") of Russian
Turkestan, in the province of Ferghana, and on the Pamir plateau. Great
Kara-kul, 12 m. long and 10 m. wide (formerly much larger), is under 39
deg. N., to the south of the Trans-Alai range, and lies at an altitude
of 13,200 ft.; it is surrounded by high mountains, and is reached from
the north over the Kyzyl-art pass (14,015 ft.). A peninsula projecting
from the south shore and an island off the north shore divide it into
two basins, a smaller eastern one which is shallow, 42 to 63 ft., and a
larger western one, which has depths of 726 to 756 ft. It has no
drainage outlet. Little Kara-kul lies in the north-east Pamir, or
Sarikol, north-west of the Mustagh-ata peak (25,850 ft.), at an altitude
of 12,700 ft. It varies in depth from 79 ft. in the south to 50 to 70
ft. in the middle, and 1000 ft. or more in the north. It is a moraine
lake; and a stream of the same name flows through it, but is named Ghez
in its farther course towards Kashgar in East Turkestan.
KARA-KUM ("Black Sands"), a flat desert in Russian Central Asia. It
extends to nearly 110,000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the
Ust-urt plateau, between the Sea of Aral and the Caspian Sea, on the
N.E. by the Amu-darya, on the S. by the Turkoman oases, and on the W. it
nearly reaches the Caspian Sea. Only part of this surface is covered
with sand. There are broad expanses (_takyrs_) of clay soil upon which
water accumulates in the spring; in the summer these are muddy, but
later quite dry, and merely a few Solanaceae and bushes grow on them.
There is also _shor_, similar to the above but encrusted with salt and
gypsum, and relieved only by Solanaceae along their borders. The
remainder is occupied with sand, which, according to V. Mainov, assumes
five different forms. (1) _Barkhans_, chiefly in the east, which are
mounds of loose sand, 15 to 35 ft. high, hoof-shaped, having their
gently sloping convex sides turned towards the prevailing winds, and a
concave side, 30 deg. to 40 deg. steep, on the opposite slope. They are
disposed in groups or chains, and the winds drive them at an average
rate of 20 ft. annually towards the south and south-east. Some grass
(_Stipa pennata_) and bushes of _saksaul_ (_Haloxylon ammodendron_) and
other steppe bushes (e.g. _Calligonium_, _Halimodendron_ and
_Atraphaxis_) grow on them. (2) Mounds of sand, of about the same size,
but irregular in shape and of a slightly firmer consistence, mostly
bearing the same bushes, and also _Artemisia_ and _Tamarix_; they are
chiefly met with in the east and south. (3) A sandy desert, slightly
undulating, and covered in spring with grass and flowers (e.g. tulips,
_Rheum_, various Umbelliferae), which are soon burned by the sun; they
cover very large spaces in the south-east. (4) Sands disposed in waves
from 50 to 70 ft., and occasionally up to 100 ft. high, at a distance of
from 200 to 400 ft. from each other; they cover the central portion, and
their vegetation is practically the same as in the preceding division.
(5) Dunes on the shores of the Caspian, composed of moving sands, 35 to
80 ft. high and devoid of vegetation.
A typical feature of the Kara-kum is the number of "old river beds,"
which may have been either channels of tributaries of the Amu and other
rivers or depressions which contained elongated salt lakes. Water is
only found in wells, 10 to 20 m. apart--sometimes as much as 100
m.--which are dug in the takyrs and give saline water, occasionally
unfit to drink, and in pools of rain-water retained in the lower parts
of the takyrs. The population of the Kara-kum, consisting of nomad
Kirghiz and Turkomans, is very small. The region in the north of the
province of Syr-darya, between Lake Aral and Lake Chalkarteniz, is also
called Kara-kum. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KARAMAN (anc. _Laranda_, a name still used by the Christian
inhabitants), a town in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated in the
plain north of Mount Taurus. Pop. 8000. It has few industries and little
trade, but the medieval walls, well preserved castle and mosques are
interesting, and the old Seljuk _medresse_, or college, is a beautiful
building. Karaman is connected with Konia by railway, having a station
on the first section of the Bagdad railway. Little is known of its
ancient history except that it was destroyed by Perdiccas about 322
B.C., and afterwards became a seat of Isaurian pirates. It was occupied
by Frederick Barbarossa in 1190; in 1466 it was captured by Mahommed
II., and in 1486 by Bayezid II.
KARAMANIA, formerly an independent inland province in the south of Asia
Minor, named after Karaman, the son of an Armenian convert to Islam, who
married a daughter of Ala ed-Din Kaikobad, the Seljuk sultan of Rum, and
was granted Laranda in fief, and made governor of Selefke, 1223-1245.
The name Karaman is, however, Turkoman and that of a powerful tribe,
settled apparently near Laranda. The Armenian convert must have been
adopted into this. On the collapse of the Seljuk empire, Karaman's
grandson, Mahmud, 1279-1319, founded a state, which included Pamphylia,
Lycaonia and large parts of Cilicia, Cappadocia and Phrygia. Its
capital, Laranda, superseded Konia. This state was frequently at war
with the kings of Lesser Armenia, the Lusignan princes of Cyprus and the
knights of Rhodes. It was also engaged in a long struggle for supremacy
with the Osmanli Turks, which only ended in 1472, when it was definitely
annexed by Mahommed II. The Osmanlis divided Karamania into Kharij
north, and Ichili south, of the Taurus, and restored Konia to its
metropolitan position. The name Karamania is now often given by
geographers to Ichili only; but so far as it has had any exact
significance in modern times, it has stood for the whole province of
Konia. Before the present provincial division was made (1864), Karamania
was the eyalet of which Konia was the capital, and it did not extend to
the sea, the whole littoral from Adalia eastward being under the pasha
of Adana. Nevertheless, in Levantine popular usage at the present day,
"Karamania" signifies the coast from Adalia to Messina. (D. G. H.)
KARAMNASA, a river of northern India, tributary to the Ganges on its
right bank, forming the boundary between Bengal and the United
Provinces. The name means "destroyer of religious merit," which is
explained by more than one legend. To this day all high-caste Hindus
have to be carried over without being defiled by the touch of its
waters.
KARA MUSTAFA (d. 1683), Turkish vizier, surnamed "Merzifunli," was a son
of Uruj Bey, a notable Sipahi of Merzifun (Marsovan), and brother-in-law
to Ahmed Kuprili, whom he succeeded as grand vizier in 1676, after
having for some years held the office of Kaimmakam or _locum tenens_.
His greed and ostentation were equalled by his incapacity, and he
behaved with characteristic insolence to the foreign ambassadors, from
whom he extorted large bribes. After conducting a campaign in Poland
which terminated unfortunately, he gave a ready response to the appeal
for aid made by the Hungarians under Imre Thokoly (q.v.) when they rose
against Austria, his hope being to form out of the Habsburg dominions a
Mussulman empire of the West, of which he should be the sultan. The plan
was foiled in part by his own lack of military skill, but chiefly
through the heroic resistance of Vienna and its timely relief by John
Sobieski, king of Poland. Kara Mustafa paid for his defeat with his
life; he was beheaded at Belgrade in 1683 and his head was brought to
the sultan on a silver dish.
Another KARA MUSTAFA PASHA (d. 1643), who figures in Turkish history,
was by birth a Hungarian, who was enrolled in the Janissaries, rose to
be Kapudan Pasha under Murad IV., and after the capture of Bagdad was
made grand vizier. He was severe, but just and impartial, and strove to
effect necessary reforms by reducing the numbers of the Janissaries,
improving the coinage, and checking the state expenditure. But the
discontent of the Janissaries led to his dismissal and death in 1643.
KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH (1765-1826), Russian historian, critic,
novelist and poet, was born at the village of Mikhailovka, in the
government of Orenburg, and not at Simbirsk as many of his English and
German biographers incorrectly state, on the 1st of December (old style)
1765. His father was an officer in the Russian army, of Tatar
extraction. He was sent to Moscow to study under Professor Schaden,
whence he afterwards removed to St Petersburg, where he made the
acquaintance of Dmitriev, a Russian poet of some merit, and occupied
himself with translating essays by foreign writers into his native
language. After residing some time at St Petersburg, he went to
Simbirsk, where he lived in retirement till induced to revisit Moscow.
There, finding himself in the midst of the society of learned men, he
again betook himself to literary work. In 1789 he resolved to travel,
and visited Germany, France, Switzerland and England. On his return he
published his _Letters of a Russian Traveller_, which met with great
success. These letters were first printed in the _Moscow Journal_, which
he edited, but were afterwards collected and issued in six volumes
(1797-1801). In the same periodical Karamzin also published translations
of some of the tales of Marmontel, and some original stories, among
which may be mentioned _Poor Liza_ and _Natalia the Boyar's Daughter_.
In 1794 and 1795 Karamzin abandoned his literary journal, and published
a miscellany in two volumes, entitled _Aglaia_, in which appeared, among
other things, "The Island of Bornholm" and "Ilia Mourometz," a story
based upon the adventures of the well-known hero of many a Russian
legend. In 1797-1799 he issued another miscellany or poetical almanac,
_The Aonides_, in conjunction with Derzhavin and Dmitriev. In 1798 he
compiled _The Pantheon_, a collection of pieces from the works of the
most celebrated authors ancient and modern, translated into Russian.
Many of his lighter productions were subsequently printed by him in a
volume entitled _My Trifles_. In 1802 and 1803 Karamzin edited the
journal the _European Messenger_. It was not until after the publication
of this work that he realized where his strength lay, and commenced his
_History of the Russian Empire_. In order to accomplish the task, he
secluded himself for two years; and, on the cause of his retirement
becoming known to the emperor Alexander, Karamzin was invited to Tver,
where he read to the emperor the first eight volumes of his history. In
1816 he removed to St Petersburg, where he spent the happiest days of
his life, enjoying the favour of Alexander, and submitting to him the
sheets of his great work, which the emperor read over with him in the
gardens of the palace of Tzarskoe Selo. He did not, however, live to
carry his work further than the eleventh volume, terminating it at the
accession of Michael Romanov in 1613. He died on the 22nd of May (old
style) 1826, in the Taurida palace. A monument was erected to his memory
at Simbirsk in 1845.
As an historian Karamzin has deservedly a very high reputation. Till
the appearance of his work little had been done in this direction in
Russia. The preceding attempt of Tatistchev was merely a rough sketch,
inelegant in style, and without the true spirit of criticism. Karamzin
was most industrious in accumulating materials, and the notes to his
volumes are mines of curious information. The style of his history is
elegant and flowing, modelled rather upon the easy sentences of the
French prose writers than the long periodical paragraphs of the old
Slavonic school. Perhaps Karamzin may justly be censured for the false
gloss and romantic air thrown over the early Russian annals,
concealing the coarseness and cruelty of the native manners; in this
respect he reminds us of Sir Walter Scott, whose writings were at this
time creating a great sensation throughout Europe, and probably had
their influence upon him. Karamzin appears openly as the panegyrist of
the autocracy; indeed, his work has been styled the "Epic of
Despotism." He does not hesitate to avow his admiration of Ivan the
Terrible, and considers him and his grandfather Ivan III. as the
builders up of Russian greatness, a glory which in his earlier
writings, perhaps at that time more under the influence of Western
ideas, he had assigned to Peter the Great. In the battle-pieces (e.g.
the description of the field of Koulikovo, the taking of Kazan, &c.)
we find considerable powers of description; and the characters of many
of the chief personages in the Russian annals are drawn in firm and
bold lines. As a critic Karamzin was of great service to his country;
in fact he may be regarded as the founder of the review and essay (in
the Western style) among the Russians.
KARA SEA, a portion of the Arctic Ocean demarcated, and except on the
north-west completely enclosed, by Novaya Zemlya, Vaygach Island and the
Siberian coast. It is approached from the west by three
straits--Matochkin, between the two islands of Novaya Zemlya, and Kara
and Yugor to the north and south of Vaygach Island respectively. On the
south-east Kara Bay penetrates deeply into the mainland, and to the west
of this the short Kara river enters the sea. The sea is all shallow, the
deepest parts lying off Vaygach Island and the northern part of Novaya
Zemlya. It had long the reputation of being almost constantly ice-bound,
but after the Norwegian captain Johannesen had demonstrated its
accessibility in 1869, and Nordenskiold had crossed it to the mouth of
the Yenisei in 1875, it was considered by many to offer a possible trade
route between European Russia and the north of Siberia. But the open
season is in any case very short, and the western straits are sometimes
ice-bound during the entire year.
KARASU-BAZAR, a town of Russia, in the Crimea and government of Taurida,
in 45 deg. 3' N. and 34 deg. 26' E., 25 m. E.N.E. of Simferopol. Pop.
(1897), 12,961, consisting of Tatars, Armenians, Greeks, Qaraite Jews,
and about 200 so-called Krymchaki, i.e. Jews who have adopted the Tatar
language and dress, and who live chiefly by making morocco leather
goods, knives, embroidery and so forth. The site is low, but the town is
surrounded by hills, which afford protection from the north wind. The
dirty streets full of petty traders, the gloomy bazaar with its
multitude of tiny shops, the market squares, the blind alleys, the
little gates in the dead courtyard walls, all give the place the stamp
of a Tatar or Turkish town. Placed on the high road between Simferopol
and Kerch, and in the midst of a country rich in corn land, vineyards
and gardens, Karasu-Bazar used to be a chief seat of commercial activity
in the Crimea; but it is gradually declining in importance, though still
a considerable centre for the export of fruit.
The caves of Akkaya close by give evidence of early occupation of the
spot. When in 1736 Khan Feta Ghirai was driven by the Russians from
Bakhchi-sarai he settled at Karasu-Bazar, but next year the town was
captured, plundered and burned by the Russians.
KARATEGHIN, a country of Central Asia, subject to Bokhara, and
consisting of a highland district bounded on the N. by Samarkand and
Ferghana (Khokand), on the E. by Ferghana, on the S. by Darvaz, and on
the W. by Hissar and other Bokharian provinces. The plateau is traversed
by the Surkhab or Vakhsh, a right-hand tributary of the Amu-darya
(Oxus). On the N. border run the Hissar and Zarafshan mountains, and on
the S. border the Peter I. (Periokhtan) range (24,900 ft.). The area is
8000 sq. m. and the population about 60,000--five-sixths Tajiks, the
rest Kara-kirghiz. With the neighbouring lands Karateghin has no
communication except during summer, that is, from May to September. The
winter climate is extremely severe; snow begins to fall in October and
it is May before it disappears. During the warmer months, however, the
mountain sides are richly clothed with the foliage of maple, mountain
ash, apple, pear and walnut trees; the orchards furnish, not only apples
and pears, but peaches, cherries, mulberries and apricots; and the
farmers grow sufficient corn to export. Both cattle and horses are of a
small and hardy breed. Rough woollen cloth and mohair are woven by the
natives, who also make excellent firearms and other weapons. Gold is
found in various places and there are salt-pits in the mountains. The
chief town, Harm or Garm, is a place of some 2000 inhabitants, situated
on a hill on the right bank of the Surkhab.
The native princes, who claimed to be descended from Alexander the
Great, were till 1868 practically independent, though their allegiance
was claimed in an ineffective way by Khokand, but eventually Bokhara
took advantage of their intestine feuds to secure their real submission
in 1877.
KARAULI, or KEROWLEE, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency.
Area, 1242 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 156,786; estimated revenue about
L330,000. Almost the entire territory is composed of hills and broken
ground, but there are no lofty peaks, the highest having an elevation of
less than 1400 ft. above sea-level. The Chambal river flows along the
south-east boundary of the state. Iron ore and building stone comprise
the mineral resources. The prevailing agricultural products are millets,
which form the staple food of the people. The only manufactures consist
of a little weaving, dyeing, wood-turning and stone-cutting. The
principal imports are piece goods, salt, sugar, cotton, buffaloes and
bullocks; the exports rice and goats. The feudal aristocracy of the
state consists of Jadu Rajputs connected with the ruling house. They pay
a tribute in lieu of constant military service, but in case of emergency
or on occasions of state display they are bound to attend on the chief
with their retainers. The maharaja is the head of the clan, which claims
descent from Krishna. Maharaja Bhanwar Pal Deo, who was born in 1862 and
succeeded in 1866, was appointed G.C.I.E. in 1897, on the occasion of
Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee.
The town of KARAULI had a population in 1901 of 23,482. It dates from
1348, and is well situated in a position naturally defended by ravines
on the north and east, while it is further protected by a great wall.
The palace of the maharaja is a handsome block of buildings dating
mainly from the middle of the 18th century.
KAREN, one of the chief hill races of Burma. The Karens inhabit the
central Pegu Yoma range, forming the watershed between the Sittang and
Irrawaddy rivers, the Paunglaung range between the Sittang and the
Salween, and the eastern slopes of the Arakan Yoma mountains to the west
of the Irrawaddy delta. They are supposed to be the descendants of
Chinese tribes driven southwards by the pressure of the Shan races,
before they were again made to retire into the hills by the expansion of
the Mon power. Their own traditions ascribe their original home to the
west of the sandy desert of Gobi stretching between China and Tibet.
According to the census of 1901 they numbered in all 727,235 persons
within British India, divided into the Sgaw, 86,434, the Pwo, 174,070,
and the Bghai, 4936, while 457,355 are returned as "unspecified." The
Sgaw and Pwo are collectively known as the "White Karens," and chiefly
inhabit British territory. They take their name from the colour of their
clothes. The Bghai, or "Red Karens," who are supposed by some to be an
entirely distinct race, chiefly inhabit the independent hill state of
Karen-ni (q.v.). The Karen is of a squarer build than the Burman, his
skin is fairer, and he has more of the Mongolian obliquity of the eyes.
In character also the people differ from the Burmese. They are
singularly devoid of humour, they are stolid and cautious, and lack
altogether the light gaiety and fascination of the Burmese. They are
noted for truthfulness and chastity, but are dirty and addicted to
drink. The White Karens furnish perhaps the most notable instance of
conversion to Christianity of any native race in the British empire.
Prepared by prophecies current among them, and by curious traditions of
a biblical flavour, in addition to their antagonism to the dominant
Burmese, they embraced with fervour the new creed brought to them by the
missionaries, so that out of the 147,525 Christians in Burma according
to the census of 1901 upwards of a hundred thousand were Karens. The Red
Karens differ considerably from the White Karens. They are the wildest
and most lawless of the so-called Karen tribes. Every male belonging to
the clan used to have the rising sun tattooed in bright vermilion on his
back. The men are small and wizened, but athletic, and have broad
reddish-brown faces. Their dress consists of a short pair of breeches,
usually of a reddish colour, with black and white stripes interwoven
perpendicularly or like a tartan, and a handkerchief is tied round the
head. The Karen language is tonal, and belongs to the Siamese-Chinese
branch of the Indo-Chinese family.
See D. M. Smeaton, _The Loyal Karens of Burma_ (1887); J. Nisbet,
_Burma under British Rule_ (1901); M. and B. Ferrars, _Burma_ (1900);
and O'Connor Scott, _The Silken East_ (1904). (J. G. Sc.)
KAREN-NI, the country of the Red Karens, a collection of small states,
formerly independent, but now feudatory to Burma. It is situated
approximately between 18 deg. 50' and 19 deg. 55' N. and between 97 deg.
10' and 97 deg. 50' E. The tract is bounded on the N. by the Shan states
of Mong Pai, Hsatung and Mawkmai; on the E. by Siam; on the S. by the
Papun district of Lower Burma; and on the W. a stretch of mountainous
country, inhabited by the Bre and various other small tribes, formerly
in a state of independence, divides it from the districts of Toungoo and
Yamethin. It is divided in a general way into eastern and western
Karen-ni; the former consisting of one state, Gantarawadi, with an
approximate area of 2500 sq. m.; the latter of the four small states of
Kyebogyi, area about 350 sq. m.; Bawlake, 200 sq. m.; Nammekon, 50 sq.
m.; and Naungpale, about 30 sq. m. The small states of western Karen-ni
were formerly all subject to Bawlake, but the subordination has now
ceased. Karen-ni consists of two widely differing tracts of country,
which roughly mark now, and formerly actually did mark, the division
into east and west. Gantarawadi has, however, encroached westwards
beyond the boundaries which nature would assign to it. The first of
these two divisions is the southern portion of the valley of the Hpilu,
or Balu stream, an open, fairly level plain, well watered and in some
parts swampy. The second division is a series of chains of hills,
intersected by deep valleys, through which run the two main rivers, the
Salween and the Pawn, and their feeder streams. Many of the latter are
dried up in the hot season and only flow freely during the rains. The
whole country being hilly, the most conspicuous ridge is that lying
between the Pawn and the Salween, which has an average altitude of 5000
ft. It is crossed by several tracks, passable for pack-animals, the most
in use being the road between Sawlon, the capital of Gantarawadi and Man
Mau. The principal peak east of the Salween is on the Loi Lan ridge,
7109 ft. above mean sea-level. Parts of this ridge form the boundary
between eastern Karen-ni and Mawkmai on the west and Siam on the east.
It falls away rapidly to the south, and at Pang Salang is crossed at a
height of 2200 ft. by the road from Hsataw to Mehawnghsawn. West of the
Balu valley the continuation of the eastern rim of the Myelat plateau
rises in Loi Nangpa to about 5000 ft. The Nam Pawn is a large river,
with an average breadth of 100 yds., but is unnavigable owing to its
rocky bed. Even timber cannot be floated down it without the assistance
of elephants. The Salween throughout Karen-ni is navigated by large
native craft. Its tributary, the Me Pai, on the eastern bank, is
navigable as far as Mehawnghsawn in Siamese territory. The Balu stream
flows out of the Inle lake, and is navigable from that point to close on
Lawpita, where it sinks into the ground in a marsh or succession of
funnel holes. Its breadth averages 50 yds., and its depth is 15 ft. in
some places.
The chief tribes are the Red Karens (24,043), Bres (3500), and Padaungs
(1867). Total revenue, Rs. 37,000. An agent of the British government,
with a guard of military police, is posted at the village of Loikaw.
Little of the history of the Red Karens is known; but it appears to be
generally admitted that Bawlake was originally the chief state of the
whole country, east and west, but eastern Karen-ni under Papaw-gyi early
became the most powerful. Slaving raids far into the Shan states brought
on invasions from Burma, which, however, were not very successful.
Eastern Karen-ni was never reduced until Sawlapaw, having defied the
British government, was overcome and deposed by General Collett in the
beginning of 1889. Sawlawi was then appointed myoza, and received a
_sanad_, or patent of appointment, on the same terms as the chiefs of
the Shan states. The independence of the Western Karen-ni states had
been guaranteed by the British government in a treaty with King Mindon
in 1875. They were, however, formally recognized as feudatories in 1892
and were presented with _sanads_ on the 23rd of January of that year.
Gantarawadi pays a regular tribute of Rs. 5000 yearly, whereas these
chieflets pay an annual _kadaw_, or _nuzzur_, of about Rs. 100. They are
forbidden to carry out a sentence of death passed on a criminal without
the sanction of the superintendent of the southern Shan states, but
otherwise retain nearly all their customary law.
Tin, or what is called tin, is worked in Bawlake. It appears, however,
to be very impure. It is worked intermittently by White Karens on the
upper waters of the Hkemapyu stream. Rubies, spinels and other stones
are found in the upper Tu valley and in the west of Nammekon state,
but they are of inferior quality. The trade in teak is the chief or
only source of wealth in Karen-ni. The largest and most important
forests are those on the left bank of the Salween. Others lie on both
banks of the Nam Pawn, and in western Karen-ni on the Nam Tu. The
yearly out-turn is estimated at over 20,000 logs, and forest officers
have estimated that an annual out-turn of 9000 logs might be kept up
without injury to the forests. Some quantity of cutch is exported, as
also stick-lac, which the Red Karens graft so as to foster the
production. Other valuable forest produce exists, but is not exported.
Rice, areca-nuts, and betel-vine leaf are the chief agricultural
products. The Red Karen women weave their own and their husbands'
clothing. A characteristic manufacture is the _pa-si_ or Karen metal
drum, which is made at Ngwedaung. These drums are from 2(1/2) to 3 ft.
across the boss, with sides of about the same depth. The sound is out
of proportion to the metal used, and is inferior to that of the Shan
and Burmese gongs. It is thought that the population of Karen-ni is
steadily decreasing. The birth-rate of the people is considered to
exceed the death-rate by very little, and the Red Karen habit of life
is most unwholesome. Numbers have enlisted in the Burma police, but
there are various opinions as to their value. (J. G. Sc.)
KARIKAL, a French settlement in India, situated on the south-east coast,
within the limits of Tanjore district, with an area of 53 sq. m., and a
population (1901) of 56,595. The site was promised to the French by the
Tanjore raja in 1738, in return for services rendered, but was only
obtained by them by force in 1739. It was captured by the British in
1760, restored in 1765, again taken in 1768, and finally restored in
1817. The town is neatly built on one of the mouths of the Cauvery, and
carries on a brisk trade with Ceylon, exporting rice and importing
chiefly European articles and timber. A _chef de l'administration_,
subordinate to the government at Pondicherry, is in charge of the
settlement, and there is a tribunal of first instance.
KARLI, a village of British India, in the Poona district of the Bombay
presidency, famous for its rock caves. Pop. (1901), 903. The great cave
of Karli is said by Fergusson to be without exception the largest and
finest _chaitya_ cave in India; it was excavated at a time when the
style was in its greatest purity, and is splendidly preserved. The great
_chaitya_ hall is 126 ft. long, 45 ft. 7 in. wide, and about 46 ft.
high. A row of ornamental columns rises on either side to the ribbed
teak roof, and at the far end of the nave is a massive _dagoba_. Dating
from the beginning of the Christian era or earlier, this cave has a
wooden roof, which repeats the pattern of the walls, and which Fergusson
considers to be part of the original design. Since wood rapidly
deteriorates in India owing to the climate and the ravages of white
ants, the state of preservation of this roof is remarkable.
KARLOWITZ, or CARLOWITZ (Hungarian, _Karloeza_; Croatian, Karlovci), a
city of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Syrmia; on the right bank of
the Danube, and on the railway from Peterwardein, 6 m. N.W. to Belgrade.
Pop. (1900), 5643. Karlowitz is the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan,
and has several churches and schools, and a hospital. The fruit-farms
and vineyards of the Fruska Gora, a range of hills to the south, yield
excellent plum brandy and red wine. An obelisk at Slankamen, 13 m. E. by
S., commemorates the defeat of the Turks by Louis of Baden, in 1691. The
treaty of Karlowitz, between Austria, Turkey, Poland and Venice, was
concluded in 1699; in 1848-1849 the city was the headquarters of Servian
opposition to Hungary. It was included, until 1881, in the Military
Frontier.
KARLSKRONA [CARLSCRONA,] a seaport of Sweden, on the Baltic coast, chief
town of the district (_lan_) of Blekinge, and headquarters of the
Swedish navy. Pop. (1900), 23,955. It is pleasantly situated upon
islands and the mainland, 290 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by rail. The
harbour is capacious and secure, with a sufficient depth of water for
the largest vessels. It has three entrances; the principal, and the only
one practicable for large vessels, is to the south of the town, and is
defended by two strong forts, at Drottningskar on the island of Aspo,
and on the islet of Kungsholm. The dry docks, of great extent, are cut
out of the solid granite. There is slip-accommodation for large vessels.
Karlskrona is the seat of the Royal Naval Society, and has a
navy-arsenal and hospital, and naval and other schools. Charles XI., the
founder of the town as naval headquarters (1680), is commemorated by a
bronze statue (1897). There are factories for naval equipments,
galvanized metal goods, felt hats, canvas, leather and rice, and
breweries and granite quarries. Exports are granite and timber; imports,
coal, flour, provisions, hides and machinery.
KARLSRUHE, or CARLSRUHE, a city of Germany, capital of the grand-duchy of
Baden, 33 m. S.W. of Heidelberg, on the railway Frankfort-on-Main-Basel,
and 39 m. N.W. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1895), 84,030; (1905), 111,200. It
stands on an elevated plain, 5 m. E. of the Rhine and on the fringe of
the Hardtwald forest. Karlsruhe takes its name from Karl Wilhelm,
margrave of Baden, who, owing to disputes with the citizens of Durlach,
erected here in 1715 a hunting seat, around which the town has been
built. The city is surrounded by beautiful parks and gardens. The palace
(Schloss), built in 1751-1776 on the site of the previous erection of
1715, is a plain building in the old French style, composed of a centre
and two wings, presenting nothing remarkable except the octagon tower
(_Bleiturm_), from the summit of which a splendid view of the city and
surrounding country is obtained, and the marble saloon, in which the
meridian of Cassini was fixed or drawn. In front of the palace is the
Great Circle, a semicircular line of buildings, containing the government
offices. From the palace the principal streets, fourteen in number,
radiate in the form of an expanded fan, in a S.E., S. and S.W. direction,
and are again intersected by parallel streets. This fan-like plan of the
older city has, however, been abandoned in the more modern extensions.
Karlsruhe has several fine public squares, the principal of which are the
Schlossplatz, with Schwanthaler's statue of the grand duke Karl Friedrich
in the centre, and market square (Marktplatz), with a fountain and a
statue of Louis, grand duke of Baden. In the centre of the Rondelplatz is
an obelisk in honour of the grand duke Karl Wilhelm. The finest street is
the Kaiserstrasse, running from east to west and having a length of a
mile and a half and a uniform breadth of 72 ft. In it are several of the
chief public buildings, notably the technical high school, the arsenal
and the post office. Among other notable buildings are the town hall; the
theatre; the hall of representatives; the mint; the joint museum of the
grand-ducal and national collections (natural history, archaeology,
ethnology, art and a library of over 150,000 volumes); the palace of the
heir-apparent, a late Renaissance building of 1891-1896; the imperial
bank (1893); the national industrial hall, with an exhibition of
machinery; the new law courts; and the hall of fine arts, which shelters
a good picture gallery. The city has six Evangelical and four Roman
Catholic Churches. The most noteworthy of these are the Evangelical town
church, the burial-place of the margraves of Baden; the Christuskirche,
and the Bernharduskirche. Karlsruhe possesses further the Zahringen
museum of curiosities, which is in the left wing of the Schloss; an
architectural school (1891); industrial art school and museum; cadet
school (1892); botanical and electro-technical institutes; and
horticultural and agricultural schools. Of its recent public monuments
may be mentioned one to Joseph Victor von Scheffel (1826-1886); a bronze
equestrian statue of the emperor William I. (1896); and a memorial of the
1870-71 war. Karlsruhe is the headquarters of the XIV. German army corps.
Since 1870 the industry of the city has grown rapidly, as well as the
city itself. There are large railway workshops; and the principal
branches of industry are the making of locomotives, carriages, tools and
machinery, jewelry, furniture, gloves, cement, carpets, perfumery,
tobacco and beer. There is an important arms factory. Maxau, on the
Rhine, serves as the river port of Karlsruhe and is connected with it by
a canal finished in 1901.
See Fecht, _Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Karlsruhe_
(Karlsruhe, 1887); F. von Weech, _Karlsruhe, Geschichte der Stadt und
ihrer Verwaltung_ (Karlsruhe, 1893-1902); Naeher, _Die Umgebung der
Residenz Karlsruhe_ (Karlsruhe, 1888); and the annual _Chronik der
Haupt- und Residenzstadt Karlsruhe._
KARLSTAD [CARLSTAD], a town of Sweden, the capital of the district
(_lan_) of Vermland, on the island of Tingvalla under the northern shore
of Lake Vener, 205 m. W. of Stockholm by the Christiania railway. Pop.
(1900), 11,869. The fine Klar River here enters the lake, descending
from the mountains of the frontier. To the north-west lies the Fryksdal
or valley of the Nors River, containing three beautiful lakes and
fancifully named the "Swedish Switzerland." In this and other parts of
the district are numerous iron-works. Karlstad was founded in 1584. It
is the seat of a bishop and has a cathedral. Trade is carried on by way
of the lake and the Gota canal. There are mechanical works, match
factories and stockinet factories, and a mineral spring rich in iron,
the water of which is bottled for export. Under the constitution of
united Sweden and Norway, in the event of the necessity of electing a
Regent and the disagreement of the parliaments of the two countries,
Karlstad was indicated as the meeting-place of a delegacy for the
purpose. Here, on the 31st of August 1905 the conference met to decide
upon the severance of the union between Sweden and Norway, the delegates
concluding their work on the 23rd of September.
KARLSTADT or CARLSTADT (Hungarian, _Karolyvaros_; Croatian, _Karlovac_),
a royal free city, municipality and garrison town in the county of
Agram, Croatia-Slavonia; standing on hilly ground beside the river
Kulpa, which here receives the Korana and the Dobra. Pop. (1900), 7396.
Karlstadt is on the railway from Agram to Fiume. It consists of the
fortress, now obsolete, the inner town and the suburbs. Besides the
Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches, its chief buildings are the
Franciscan monastery, law-courts and several large schools, including
one for military cadets. Karlstadt has a considerable transit trade in
grain, wine, spirits and honey, and manufactures the liqueur called
_rosoglio_.
KARMA, sometimes written KARMAN, a Sanskrit noun (from the root _kri_,
to do), meaning deed or action. In addition to this simple meaning it
has also, both in the philosophical and the colloquial speech of India a
technical meaning, denoting "a person's deeds as determining his future
lot." This is not merely in the vague sense that on the whole good will
be rewarded and evil punished, but that every single act must work out
to the uttermost its inevitable consequences, and receive its
retribution, however many ages the process may require. Every part of
the material universe--man, woman, insect, tree, stone, or whatever it
be--is the dwelling of an eternal spirit that is working out its
destiny, and while receiving reward and punishment for the past is
laying up reward and punishment for the future. This view of existence
as an endless and concomitant sowing and reaping is accepted by learned
and unlearned alike as accounting for those inequalities in human life
which might otherwise lead men to doubt the justice of God. Every act of
every person has not only a moral value producing merit or demerit, but
also an inherent power which works out its fitting reward or punishment.
To the Hindu this does not make heaven and hell unnecessary. These two
exist in many forms more or less grotesque, and after death the soul
passes to one of them and there receives its due; but that existence too
is marked by desire and action, and is therefore productive of merit or
demerit, and as the soul is thus still entangled in the meshes of karma
it must again assume an earthly garb and continue the strife. Salvation
is to the Hindu simply deliverance from the power of karma, and each of
the philosophic systems has its own method of obtaining it. The last
book of the Laws of Manu deals with _karmaphalam_, "the fruit of karma,"
and gives many curious details of the way in which sin is punished and
merit rewarded. The origin of the doctrine cannot be traced with
certainty, but there is little doubt that it is post-vedic, and that it
was readily accepted by Buddha in the 6th century B.C. As he did not
believe in the existence of soul he had to modify the doctrine (see
BUDDHISM).
KARMAN, JOZSEF (1769-1795), Hungarian author, was born at Losoncz on the
14th of March 1769, the son of a Calvinist pastor. He was educated at
Losoncz and Pest, whence he migrated to Vienna. There he made the
acquaintance of the beautiful and eccentric Countess Markovics, who was
for a time his mistress, but she was not, as has often been supposed,
the heroine of his famous novel _Fanni Hagyomanai_ (Fanny's testament).
Subsequently he settled in Pest as a lawyer. His sensibility, social
charm, liberal ideas (he was one of the earliest of the Magyar
freemasons) and personal beauty, opened the doors of the best houses to
him. He was generally known as the Pest Alcibiades, and was especially
at home in the salons of the Protestant magnates. In 1792, together with
Count Raday, he founded the first theatrical society at Buda. He
maintained that Pest, not Pressburg, should be the literary centre of
Hungary, and in 1794 founded the first Hungarian quarterly, _Urania_,
but it met with little support and ceased to exist in 1795, after three
volumes had appeared. Karman, who had long been suffering from an
incurable disease, died in the same year. The most important
contribution to _Urania_ was his sentimental novel, _Fanni Hagyomanai_,
much in the style of _La nouvelle Heloise_ and _Werther_, the most
exquisite product of Hungarian prose in the 18th century and one of the
finest psychological romances in the literature. Karman also wrote two
satires and fragments of an historical novel, while his literary
programme is set forth in his dissertation _Anemzet csinosodasa_.
Karman's collected works were published in Abafi's _Nemzeti Konyvtar_
(Pest, 1878), &c., preceded by a life of Karman. See F. Barath,
_Joseph Karman_ (Hung., Vas. Ujs, 1874); Zsolt Beothy, article on
Karman in _Kepes Irodalomtortenet_ (Budapest, 1894). (R. N. B.)
KARNAK, a village in Upper Egypt (pop. 1907, 12,585), which has given
its name to the northern half of the ruins of Thebes on the east bank of
the Nile, the southern being known as Luxor (q.v.). The Karnak ruins
comprise three great enclosures built of crude brick. The northernmost
and smallest of these contained a temple of the god Mont, built by
Amenophis III., and restored by Rameses II. and the Ptolemies. Except a
well-preserved gateway dating from the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes I.,
little more than the plan of the foundations is traceable. Its axis, the
line of which is continued beyond the enclosure wall by an avenue of
sphinxes, pointed down-stream (N.E.). The southern enclosure contained a
temple of the goddess Mut, also built by Amenophis III., and almost as
ruinous as the last, but on a much larger scale. At the back is the
sacred lake in the shape of a horse-shoe. The axis of the temple runs
approximately northward, and is continued by a great avenue of rams to
the southern pylons of the central enclosure. This last is of vast
dimensions, forming approximately a square of 1500 ft., and it contains
the greatest of all known temples, the Karnak temple of Ammon (see
ARCHITECTURE, sect. "Egyptian," with plan).
Inside and outside each of these enclosures there were a number of
subsidiary temples and shrines, mostly erected by individual kings to
special deities. The triad of Thebes was formed by Ammon, his wife Mut
and their son Khons. The large temple of Khons is in the enclosure of
the Ammon temple, and the temple of Mut, as already stated, is connected
with the latter by the avenue of rams. The Mont temple, on the other
hand, is isolated from the others and turned away from them; it is
smaller than that of Khons. Mont, however, may perhaps be considered a
special god of Thebes; he certainly was a great god from very ancient
times in the immediate neighbourhood, his seats being about 4 m. N.E. at
Medamot, the ancient Madu, and about 10 m. S.W. on the west bank at
Hermonthis.
It is probable that a temple of Ammon existed at Karnak under the Old
Kingdom, if not in the prehistoric age; but it was unimportant, and no
trace of it has been discovered. Slight remains of a considerable temple
of the Middle Kingdom survive behind the shrine of the great temple, and
numbers of fine statues of the twelfth and later dynasties have been
found; two of these were placed against the later seventh pylon, while a
large number were buried in a great pit, in the area behind that pylon,
which has yielded an enormous number of valuable and interesting
monuments reaching to the age of the Ptolemies. The axis of the early
temple lay from E. to W., and was followed by the main line of the later
growth; but at the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty, Amenophis I.
built a temple south of the west front of the old one, and at right
angles to it, and thus started a new axis which was later developed in
the series of pylons VII.-X., and the avenue to the temple of Mut. The
VIIIth pylon in particular was built by Hatshepsut, probably as an
approach to this temple of Amenophis, but eventually Tethmosis III.
cleared the latter away entirely. Thebes was then the royal residence,
and Ammon of Karnak was the great god of the state. Tethmosis I. built a
court round the temple of the Middle Kingdom, entered through a pylon
(No. V.), and later added the pylon No. IV. with obelisks in front of
it. Hatshepsut placed two splendid obelisks between the Pylons IV. and
V., and built a shrine in the court of Tethmosis I., in front of the old
temple. Tethmosis III., greatest of the Pharaohs, remodelled the
buildings about the obelisks of his unloved sister with the deliberate
intention of hiding them from view, and largely reconstructed the
surroundings of the court. At a later date, after his wars were over, he
altered Hatshepsut's sanctuary, engraving on the walls about it a record
of his campaigns; to this time also is to be attributed the erection of
a great festival hall at the back of the temple. The small innermost
pylon (No. VI.) is likewise the work of Tethmosis III. Amenophis III.,
though so great a builder at Thebes, seems to have contented himself
with erecting a great pylon (No. III.) at the west end. The closely
crowded succession of broad pylons here suggests a want of space for
westward expansion, and this is perhaps explained by a trace of a quay
found by Legrain in 1905 near the southern line of pylons; a branch of
the Nile or a large canal may have limited the growth. As has been
stated, Tethmosis III. continued on the southern axis; he destroyed the
temple of Amenophis I. and erected a larger pylon (No. VII.) to the
north of Hatshepsut's No. VIII. To these Haremheb added two great pylons
and the long avenue of ram-figures, changing the axis slightly so as to
lead direct to the temple of Mut built by Amenophis III. All of these
southern pylons are well spaced. In the angle between these pylons and
the main temple was the great rectangular sacred lake. By this time the
temple of Karnak had attained to little more than half of its ultimate
length from east to west.
With the XIXth Dynasty there is a notable change perhaps due to the
filling of the hypothetical canal. No more was added on the southern
line of building, but westward Rameses I. erected pylon No. II. at an
ample distance from that of Amenophis III., and Seti I. and Rameses II.
utilized the space between for their immense Hall of Columns, one of the
most celebrated achievements of Egyptian architecture. The materials of
which the pylon is composed bear witness to a temple having stood near
by of the heretic and unacknowledged kings of the XVIIIth Dynasty.
Haremheb's pylon No. IX. was likewise constructed out of the ruins of a
temple dedicated by Amenophis IV. (Akhenaten) to the sun-god Harmakhis.
Rameses III. built a fine temple, still well preserved, to Ammon at
right angles to the axis westward of pylon No. II.; Sheshonk I. (Dynasty
XXII.) commenced a great colonnaded court in front of the pylon,
enclosing part of this temple and a smaller triple shrine built by Seti
II. In the centre of the court Tirhaka (Tirhaka, Dynasty XXV.) set up
huge columns 64 ft. high, rivalling those of the central aisle in the
Hall of Columns, for some building now destroyed. A vast unfinished
pylon at the west end (No. I.), 370 ft. wide and 142(1/2) ft. high, is
of later date than the court, and is usually attributed to the Ptolemaic
age. It will be observed that the successive pylons diminish in size
from the outside inwards. Portions of the solid crude-brick scaffolding
are still seen banked against this pylon. About 100 metres west of it is
a stone quay, on the platform of which stood a pair of obelisks of Seti
II.; numerous graffiti recording the height of the Nile from the XXIst
to the XXVIth Dynasties are engraved on the quay.
Besides the kings named above, numbers of others contributed in greater
or less measure to the building or decoration of the colossal temple.
Alexander the Great restored a chamber in the festival hall of Tethmosis
III., and Ptolemy Soter built the central shrine of granite in the name
of Philip Arrhidaeus. The walls throughout, as usually in Egyptian
temples, are covered with scenes and inscriptions, many of these, such
as those which record the annals of Tethmosis III., the campaign of Seti
I. in Syria, the exploit of Rameses II. at the battle of Kadesh and his
treaty with the Hittites, and the dedication of Sheshonk's victories to
Ammon, are of great historical importance. Several large stelae with
interesting inscriptions have been found in the ruins, and statues of
many ages of workmanship. In December 1903 M. Legrain, who has been
engaged for several years in clearing the temple area systematically,
first tapped an immense deposit of colossal statues, stelae and other
votive objects large and small in the space between pylon No. VII. and
the great hypostyle hall. After three seasons' work, much of it in deep
water, 750 large monuments have been extracted, while the small figures,
&c. in bronze and other materials amount to nearly 20,000. The value of
the find, both from the artistic and historical standpoints, is immense.
The purpose of the deposit is still in doubt; many of the objects are of
the finest materials and finest workmanship, and in perfect
preservation: even precious metals are not absent. Multitudes of objects
in wood, ivory, &c., have decayed beyond recovery. That all were waste
pieces seems incredible. They are found lying in the utmost confusion;
in date they range from the XIIth Dynasty to the Ptolemaic period.
The inundation annually reaches the floor of the temple, and the
saltpetre produced from the organic matter about the ruins, annually
melting and crystallizing, has disintegrated the soft sandstone in the
lower courses of the walls and the lower drums and bases of the columns.
There is moreover no solid foundation in any part of the temple. Slight
falls of masonry have taken place from time to time, and the
accumulation of rubbish was the only thing that prevented a great
disaster. Repairs, often on a large scale, have therefore gone on side
by side with the clearance, especially since the fall of many columns in
the great hall in 1899. All the columns which fell in that year were
re-erected by 1908.
The temple of Khons, in the S.W. corner of the great enclosure, is
approached by an avenue of rams, and entered through a fine pylon
erected by Euergetes I. It was built by Rameses III. and his successors
of the XXth Dynasty, with Hrihor of Dynasty XXI. Excavations in the
opposite S.E. corner have revealed flint weapons and other sepulchral
remains of the earliest periods, proving that the history of Thebes goes
back to a remote antiquity.
See Baedeker's _Handbook for Egypt_; also _Description de l'Egypte.
Atlas, Antiquites_ (tome iii.); A. Mariette, _Karnak, Etude
topographique et archeologique_; L. Borchardt, _Zur Baugeschichte des
Ammontempels von Karnak_; G. Legrain in _Recueil des travaux relatifs
a l'arch. Egypt._, vol. xxvii. &c.; and reports in _Annales du service
des antiquites de l'Egypte_. (F. Ll. G.)
KARNAL, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of
the Punjab. The town is 7 m. from the right bank of the Jumna, with a
railway station 76 m. N. of Delhi. Pop. (1901), 23,559. There are
manufactures of cotton cloth and boots, besides considerable local trade
and an annual horse fair.
The DISTRICT OF KARNAL stretches along the right bank of the Jumna,
north of Delhi. It is entirely an alluvial plain, but is crossed by the
low uplift of the watershed between the Indian Ocean and the Bay of
Bengal. Area, 3153 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 883,225, showing an increase of
nearly 3% in the decade. The principal crops are millets, wheat, pulse,
rice, cotton and sugar-cane. There are several factories for ginning and
pressing cotton. The district is traversed by the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka
railway, and also by the Western Jumna canal. It suffered from famine in
1896-1897, and again to some extent in 1899-1900.
No district of India can boast of a more ancient history than Karnal, as
almost every town or stream is connected with the legends of the
_Mahabharata_. The town of Karnal itself is said to owe its foundation
to Raja Karna, the mythical champion of the Kauravas in the great war
which forms the theme of the national epic. Panipat, in the south of the
district, is said to have been one of the pledges demanded from
Duryodhana by Yudisthira as the price of peace in that famous conflict.
In historical times the plains of Panipat have three times proved the
theatre of battles which decided the fate of Upper India. It was here
that Ibrahim Lodi and his vast host were defeated in 1526 by the veteran
army of Baber; in 1556 Akbar reasserted the claims of his family on the
same battlefield against the Hindu general of the house of Adil Shah,
which had driven the heirs of Baber from the throne for a brief
interval; and at Panipat too, on the 7th of January 1761, the Mahratta
confederation was defeated by Ahmad Shah Durani. During the troublous
period which then ensued the Sikhs managed to introduce themselves, and
in 1767 one of their chieftains, Desu Singh, appropriated the fort of
Kaithal, which had been built during the reign of Akbar. His
descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, were reckoned amongst the most
important Cis-Sutlej princes. Different portions of this district have
lapsed from time to time into the hands of the British.
KAROLYI, ALOYS, COUNT (1825-1889), Austro-Hungarian diplomatist, was
born in Vienna on the 8th of August 1825. The greatness of the Hungarian
family of Karolyi dates from the time of Alexander Karolyi (1668-1743),
one of the generals of Francis Rakoczy II., who in 1711 negotiated the
peace of Szatmar between the insurgent Hungarians and the new king, the
emperor Charles VI., was made a count of the Empire in 1712, and
subsequently became a field marshal in the imperial army. Aloys Karolyi
entered the Austrian diplomatic service, and was attached successively
to embassies at various European capitals. In 1858 he was sent to St
Petersburg on a special mission to seek the support of Russia against
Napoleon III. He was ambassador at Berlin in 1866 at the time of the
rupture between Prussia and Austria, and after the Seven Weeks' War was
charged with the negotiation of the preliminaries of peace at
Nikolsburg. He was again sent to Berlin in 1871, acted as second
plenipotentiary at the Berlin congress of 1878, and was sent in the same
year to London, where he represented Austria for ten years. He died on
the 2nd of December 1889 at Totmegyer.
KAROSS, a cloak made of sheepskin, or the hide of other animals, with
the hair left on. It is properly confined to the coat of skin without
sleeves worn by the Hottentots and Bushmen of South Africa. These
karosses are now often replaced by a blanket. Their chiefs wore karosses
of the skin of the wild cat, leopard or caracal. The word is also
loosely applied to the cloaks of leopard-skin worn by the chiefs and
principal men of the Kaffir tribes. Kaross is probably either a genuine
Hottentot word, or else an adaptation of the Dutch _kuras_ (Portuguese
_couraca_), a cuirass. In a vocabulary dated 1673 _karos_ is described
as a "corrupt Dutch word."
KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE (1808-1890), French critic and novelist,
was born in Paris, on the 24th of November 1808, and after being
educated at the College Bourbon, became a teacher there. In 1832 he
published a novel, _Sous les tilleuls_, characterized by an attractive
originality and a delightful freshness of personal sentiment. A second
novel, _Une heure trop tard_, followed next year, and was succeeded by
many other popular works. His _Vendredi soir_ (1835) and _Le Chemin le
plus court_ (1836) continued the vein of autobiographical romance with
which he had made his first success. _Genevieve_ (1838) is one of his
best stories, and his _Voyage autour de mon jardin_ (1845) was
deservedly popular. Others were _Feu Bressier_ (1848), and _Fort en
theme_ (1853), which had some influence in stimulating educational
reform. In 1839 Alphonse Karr, who was essentially a brilliant
journalist, became editor of _Le Figaro_, to which he had been a
constant contributor; and he also started a monthly journal, _Les
Guepes_, of a keenly satirical tone, a publication which brought him the
reputation of a somewhat bitter wit. His epigrams were frequently
quoted; e.g. "plus ca change, plus c'est la meme chose," and, on the
proposal to abolish capital punishment, "je veux bien que messieurs les
assassins commencent." In 1848 he founded _Le Journal_. In 1855 he went
to live at Nice, where he indulged his predilections for floriculture,
and gave his name to more than one new variety. Indeed he practically
founded the trade in cut flowers on the Riviera. He was also devoted to
fishing, and in _Les Soirees de Sainte-Adresse_ (1853) and _Au bord de
la mer_ (1860) he made use of his experiences. His reminiscences, _Livre
de bord_, were published in 1879-1880. He died at St Raphael (Var), on
the 29th of September 1890.
KARRER, FELIX (1825-1903), Austrian geologist, was born in Venice on the
11th of March 1825. He was educated in Vienna, and served for a time in
the war department, but he retired from the public service at the age of
thirty-two, and devoted himself to science. He made especial studies of
the Tertiary formations and fossils of the Vienna Basin, and
investigated the geological relations of the thermal and other springs
in that region. He became an authority on the foraminifera, on which
subject he published numerous papers. He wrote also a little book
entitled _Der Boden der Hauptstadte Europas_ (1881). He died in Vienna
on the 19th of April 1903.
KARROO, two extensive plateaus in the Cape province, South Africa, known
respectively as the Great and Little Karroo. Karroo is a corruption of
_Karusa_, a Hottentot word meaning dry, barren, and its use as a
place-name indicates the character of the plateaus so designated. They
form the two intermediate "steps" between the coast-lands and the inner
plateau which constitutes the largest part of South Africa. The Little
(also called Southern) Karroo is the table-land nearest the southern
coast-line of the Cape, and is bounded north by the Zwaarteberg, which
separates it from the Great Karroo. From west to east the Little Karroo
has a length of some 200 m., whilst its average width is 30 m. West of
the Zwaarteberg the Little Karroo merges into the Great Karroo. Eastward
it is limited by the hills which almost reach the sea in the direction
of St Francis and Algoa Bays. The Great Karroo is of much larger extent.
Bounded south, as stated, by the Zwaarteberg, further east by the
Zuurberg (of the coast chain), its northern limit is the mountain range
which, under various names, such as Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg, forms the
wall of the inner plateau. To the south-west and west it is bounded by
the Hex River Mountains and the Cold Bokkeveld, eastward by the Great
Fish River. West to east it extends fully 350 m. in a straight line,
varying in breadth from more than 80 to less than 40 m. Whilst the
Little Karroo is divided by a chain of hills which run across it from
east to west, and varies in altitude from 1000 to 2000 ft., the Great
Karroo has more the aspect of a vast plain and has a level of from 2000
to 3000 ft. The total area of the Karroo plateaus is stated to be over
100,000 sq. m. The plains are dotted with low ranges of _kopjes_. The
chief characteristics of the Karroo are the absence of running water
during a great part of the year and the consequent parched aspect of the
country. There is little vegetation save stunted shrubs, such as the
mimosa (which generally marks the river beds), wild pomegranate, and wax
heaths, known collectively as Karroo bush. After the early rains the
bush bursts into gorgeous purple and yellow blossoms and vivid greens,
affording striking evidence of the fertility of the soil. Such parts of
the Karroo as are under perennial irrigation are among the most
productive lands in South Africa. Even the parched bush provides
sufficient nourishment for millions of sheep and goats. There are also
numerous ostrich farms, in particular in the districts of Oudtshoorn and
Ladismith in the Little Karroo, where lucerne grows with extraordinary
luxuriance. The Karroo is admirably adapted to sufferers from pulmonary
complaints. The dryness of the air tempers the heat of summer, which
reaches in January a mean maximum of 87 deg. F., whilst July, the
coldest month, has a mean minimum of 36 deg. F. A marked feature of the
climate is the great daily range (nearly 30 deg.) in temperature; the
Karroo towns are also subject to violent dust storms. Game, formerly
plentiful, has been, with the exception of buck, almost exterminated. In
a looser sense the term Karroo is also used of the vast northern plains
of the Cape which are part of the inner table-land of the continent.
(See CAPE COLONY.)
KARS, a province of Russian Transcaucasia, having the governments of
Kutais and Tiflis on the N., those of Tiflis and Erivan on the E., and
Asiatic Turkey on the S. and W. Its area amounts to 7410 sq. m. It is a
mountainous, or rather a highland, country, being in reality a plateau,
with ranges of mountains running across it. The northern border is
formed by the Arzyan range, a branch of the Ajari Mts., which attains
altitudes of over 9000 ft. In the south the Kara-dagh reach 10,270 ft.
in Mount Ala-dagh, and the Agry-dagh 10,720 ft. in Mount Ashakh; and in
the middle Allah-akhbar rises to 10,215 ft. The passes which connect
valley with valley often lie at considerable altitudes, the average of
those in the S.E. being 9000 ft. Chaldir-gol (altitude 6520 ft.) and one
or two other smaller lakes lie towards the N.E.; the Chaldir-gol is
overhung on the S.W. by the Kysyr-dagh (10,470 ft.). The east side of
the province is throughout demarcated by the Arpa-chai, which receives
from the right the Kars river, and as it leaves the province at its S.E.
corner joins the Aras. The Kura rises within the province not far from
the Kysyr-dagh and flows across it westwards, then eastwards and
north-eastwards, quitting it in the north-east. The winters are very
severe. The towns of Kaghyshman (4620 ft.) and Sarykamish (7800 ft.)
have a winter temperature like that of Finland, and at the latter place,
with an annual mean (35 deg. F.) equal to that of Hammerfest in the
extreme north of Norway, the thermometer goes down in winter to 40 deg.
below zero and rises in summer to 99 deg. The annual mean temperature at
Kars is 40.5 deg. and at Ardahan, farther north, 37 deg. The Alpine
meadows (_yailas_) reach up to 1000 ft. and afford excellent pasturage
in spring and summer. The province is almost everywhere heavily
forested. Firs and birches flourish as high as 7000 ft., and the vine up
to above 3000 ft. Cereals ripen well, and barley and maize grow up to
considerable altitudes. Large numbers of cattle and sheep are bred.
Extensive deposits of salt occur at Kaghyshman and Olty. The population
was 167,610 in 1883 and 292,863 in 1897. The estimated population in
1906 was 349,100. It is mixed. In remote antiquity the province was
inhabited by Armenians, the ruins of whose capital, Ani, attest the
ancient prosperity of the country. To the Armenians succeeded the Turks,
while Kurds invaded the Alpine pasturages above the valley of the Aras;
and after them Kabardians, Circassians, Ossetes and Kara-papaks
successively found a refuge in this highland region. After the
Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, when this region was transferred to Russia
by the treaty of Berlin, some 82,750 Turks emigrated to Asia Minor,
their places being taken by nearly 22,000 Armenians, Greeks and
Russians. At the census of 1897 the population consisted principally of
Armenians (73,400), Kurds (43,000), Greeks (32,600), Kara-papaks
(30,000), Russians, Turks and Persians. The capital is Kars. The
province is divided into four districts, the chief towns of which are
Kars (q.v.), Ardahan (pop. 800 in 1897), Kaghyshman (3435) and Olty.
(J. T. Be.)
KARS, a fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the province of
Kars, formerly at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of
Erzerum. It is situated in 40 deg. 37' N. and 43 deg. 6' E., 185 m. by
rail S.W. of Tiflis, on a dark basalt spur of the Soghanli-dagh, above
the deep ravine of the Kars-chai, a sub-tributary of the Aras. Pop.
(1878), 8672; (1897), 20,891. There are three considerable
suburbs--Orta-kapi to the S., Bairam Pasha to the E., and Timur Pasha on
the western side of the river. At the N.W. corner of the town,
overhanging the river, is the ancient citadel, in earlier times a strong
military post, but completely commanded by the surrounding eminences.
The place is, however, still defended by a fort and batteries. There is
a 10th century cathedral, Kars being the see of a bishop of the Orthodox
Greek Church. Coarse woollens, carpets and felt are manufactured.
During the 9th and 10th centuries the seat of an independent Armenian
principality, Kars was captured and destroyed by the Seljuk Turks in the
11th century, by the Mongols in the 13th, and by Timur (Tamerlane) in
1387. The citadel, it would appear, was built by Sultan Murad III.
during the war with Persia, at the close of the 16th century. It was
strong enough to withstand a siege by Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1731, and
in 1807 it successfully resisted the Russians. After a brave defence it
surrendered on the 23rd of June 1828 to the Russian general Count I. F.
Paskevich, 11,000 men becoming prisoners of war. During the Crimean War
the Turkish garrison, guided by General Williams (Sir W. Fenwick
Williams of Kars) and other foreign officers, kept the Russians at bay
during a protracted siege; but, after the garrison had been devastated
by cholera, and food had utterly failed, nothing was left but to
capitulate (Nov. 1855). The fortress was again stormed by the Russians
in the war of 1877-78, and on its conclusion was transferred to Russia.
See Kmety, _The Defence of Kars_ (1856), translated from the German;
H. A. Lake, _Kars and our Captivity in Russia_ (London, 1856); and
_Narrative of the Defence of Kars_ (London, 1857); Dr Sandwith,
_Narrative of the Siege of Kars_ (London, 1856); C. B. Norman,
_Armenia and the Campaign of 1877_ (London, 1878); Greene, _Russian
Army and its Campaigns in Turkey_ (1879).
KARSHI, a town of Bokhara, in Central Asia, situated 96 m. S.E. of the
city of Bokhara, in a plain at the junction of two main confluents of
the Kashka-darya. It is a large and straggling place, with a citadel,
and the population amounts to 25,000. There are three colleges, and the
Biki mosque is a fine building inlaid with blue and white tiles. Along
the river stretches a fine promenade sheltered by poplars. Poppies and
tobacco are largely grown, the tobacco being deemed the best in Central
Asia. There is a considerable trade in grain; but the commercial
prosperity of Karshi is mainly due to its being a meeting-point for the
roads from Samarkand, Bokhara, Hissar, Balkh and Maimana, and serves as
the market where the Turkomans and Uzbegs dispose of their carpets,
knives and firearms. Its coppersmiths turn out excellent work. Karshi
was a favourite residence of Timur (Tamerlane).
KARST, in physical geography, the region east of the northern part of
the Adriatic. It is composed of high and dry limestone ridges. The
country is excessively faulted by a long series of parallel fractures
that border the N.E. Adriatic and continue inland that series of steps
which descend beneath the sea and produce the series of long parallel
islands off the coast of Triest and along the Dalmatian shore. It has
been shown by E. Suess (_Antlitz der Erde_, vol. i. pt. 2, ch. iii.)
that the N. Adriatic is a sunken dish that has descended along these
fractures and folds, which are not uncommonly the scene of earthquakes,
showing that these movements are still in progress. The crust is very
much broken in consequence and the water sinks readily through the
broken limestone rocks, which owing to their nature are also very
absorbent. The result is that the scenery is barren and desolate, and as
this structure always, wherever found, gives rise to similar features, a
landscape of this character is called a Karst landscape. The water
running in underground channels dissolves and denudes away the
underlying rock, producing great caves as at Adelsberg, and breaking the
surface with sinks, potholes and unroofed chasms. The barren nature of a
purely limestone country is seen in the treeless regions of some parts
of Derbyshire, while the underground streams and sinks of parts of
Yorkshire, and the unroofed gorge formed by the Cheddar cliffs, give
some indication of the action that in the high fractured mountains of
the Karst produces a depressing landscape which has some of the features
of the "bad lands" of America, though due to a different cause.
KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD (1782-1853), German mineralogist, was born
at Butzow in Mecklenburg, on the 26th of November 1782. He was author of
several comprehensive works, including _Handbuch der Eisenhuttenkunde_
(2 vols., 1816; 3rd ed., 1841); _System der Metallurgie geschichtlich,
statistisch, theoretisch und technisch_ (5 vols. with atlas, 1831-1832);
_Lehrbuch der Salinenkunde_ (2 vols., 1846-1847). He was well known as
editor of the _Archiv fur Bergbau und Huttenwesen_ (20 vols.,
1818-1831); and (with H. von Dechen) of the _Archiv fur Mineralogie,
Geognosie, Bergbau und Huttenkunde_ (26 vols., 1820-1854). He died at
Berlin on the 22nd of August 1853. His son, Dr Hermann Karsten
(1809-1877), was professor of mathematics and physics in the university
of Rostock.
KARTIKEYA, in Hindu mythology, the god of war. Of his birth there are
various legends. One relates that he had no mother but was produced by
Siva alone, and was suckled by six nymphs of the Ganges, being
miraculously endowed with six faces that he might simultaneously obtain
nourishment from each. Another story is that six babes, miraculously
conceived, were born of the six nymphs, and that Parvati, the wife of
Siva, in her great affection for them, embraced the infants so closely
that they became one, but preserved six faces, twelve arms, feet, eyes,
&c. Kartikeya became the victor of giants and the leader of the armies
of the gods. He is represented as riding a peacock. In southern India he
is known as Subramanya.
KARUN, an important river of Persia. Its head-waters are in the mountain
cluster known since at least the 14th century as Zardeh Kuh (13,000 ft.)
and situated in the Bakhtiari country about 115 m. W. of Isfahan. In its
upper course until it reaches Shushter it is called Ab i Kurang (also
Kurand and Kuran), and in the _Bundahish_, an old cosmographical work in
Pahlavi, it is named Kharae.[1] From the junction of the two principal
sources in the Zardeh Kuh at an altitude of about 8000 ft., the Ab i
Kurang is a powerful stream, full, deep and flowing with great velocity
for most of its upper course between precipices varying in height from
1000 to 3000 ft. The steepness and height of its banks make it in
general useless for irrigation purposes. From its principal sources to
Shushter the distance as the crow flies is only about 75 m., but the
course of the river is so tortuous that it travels 250 m. before it
reaches that city. Besides being fed on its journey through the
Bakhtiari country by many mountain-side streams, fresh-water and salt,
it receives various tributaries, the most important being the Ab i
Bazuft from the right and the Ab i Barz from the left. At Shushter it
divides into two branches, one the "Gerger," an artificial channel cut
in olden times and flowing east of the city, the other the "Shutait"
flowing west. These two branches, which are navigable to within a few
miles below Shushter, unite after a run of about 50 m. at Band i Kir, 24
m. S. of Shushter, and there also take up the Ab i Diz (river of
Dizful). From Band i Kir to a point two miles above Muhamrah the river
is called Karun (Rio Carom of the Portuguese writers of the 16th and
17th centuries) and is navigable all the way with the exception of about
two miles at Ahvaz, where a series of cliffs and rocky shelves cross the
river and cause rapids. Between Ahvaz and Band i Kir (46 m. by river, 24
m. by road) the river has an average depth of about 20 ft., but below
Ahvaz down to a few miles above Muhamrah it is in places very shallow,
and vessels with a draught exceeding 3 ft. are liable to ground. About
12 m. above Muhamrah and branching off to the left is a choked-up river
bed called the "blind Karun," by which the Karun found its way to the
sea in former days. Ten miles farther a part of the river branches off
to the left and due S. by a channel called Bahmashir (from
Bahman-Ardashir, the name of the district in the early middle ages)
which is navigable to the sea for vessels of little draught. The
principal river, here about a quarter of a mile broad and 20 to 30 ft.
deep, now flows west, and after passing Muhamrah enters into the Shatt
el Arab about 20 m. below Basra. This part of the river, from the
Bahmashir to the Shatt, is a little over three miles in length and, as
its name, Hafar ("dug") implies, an artificial channel. It was dug c.
A.D. 980 by Azud ed-Dowleh to facilitate communication by water between
Basra and Ahvaz, as related by the Arab geographer Mukaddasi A.D. 986.
The total length of the river is 460 to 470 m. while the distance from
the sources to its junction with the Shatt el Arab is only 160 m. as the
crow flies. The Karun up to Ahvaz was opened to international navigation
on the 30th of October 1888, and Messrs Lynch of London established a
fortnightly steamer service on it immediately after.
To increase the water supply of Isfahan Shah Tahmasp I. (1524-1576) and
some of his successors, notably Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629), undertook
some works for diverting the Kurang into a valley which drains into the
Zayendeh-rud, the river of Isfahan, by tunnelling, or cutting through a
narrow rocky ridge separating the two river systems. The result of many
years' work, a cleft 300 yds. long, 15 broad and 18 deep, cut into the
rock, probably amounting to no more than one-twentieth of the necessary
work, can be seen at the junction of the two principal sources of the
Kurang.
On the upper Karun see Mrs Bishop, _Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan_
(London, 1891); Lord Curzon, _Persia and the Persian Question_
(London, 1892); Lieut.-Colonel H. A. Sawyer, "The Bakhtiari Mountains
and Upper Elam," _Geog. Journal_ (Dec. 1894). (A. H.-S.)