FOOTNOTES:

[1] This is especially noticeable in the seventh satire, but it

applies also to the mention of Crispinus, Latinus, the class of

_delatores_, &c., in the first, to the notice of Veiento in the

third, of Rubellius Blandus in the eighth, of Gallicus in the

thirteenth, &c.

[2] Cf. Tacitus, _Annals_, xiii. 25.

[3] Pliny's remarks on the vulgarity as well as the ostentation of

his host imply that he regarded such behaviour as exceptional, at

least in the circle in which he himself lived (_Ep._ ii. 6).

[4] x. 56-107.

[5]

... "Meliusne hic rusticus infans

Cum matre et casulis et conlusore catello," &c.--ix. 60.

[6] xi. 152, 153.

JUVENCUS, GAIUS VETTIUS AQUILINUS, Christian poet, flourished during the

reign of Constantine the Great. Nothing is known of him except that he

was a Spanish presbyter of distinguished family. About 330 he published

his _Libri evangeliorum IV._, each book containing about 800 hexameters.

The division into books is possibly a reminiscence of the number of the

Gospels. The work itself, written with the idea of ousting the

absurdities of Pagan mythology and replacing them by the truths of

Christianity, may be called the first Christian epic. In the _Praefatio_

the author expresses the hope that the sacredness of his subject may

procure him safety at the final conflagration of the world and admission

into heaven. The whole is, in the main, a poetical version of the Gospel

of Matthew, the other evangelists only being used for supplementary

details. It is founded upon a pre-vulgate Latin translation, although

there is evidence that Juvencus also consulted the Greek. In spite of

metrical irregularities, the language and style are simple and show good

taste, being free from the artificiality of other Christian poets and

prose writers, and the author has made excellent use of Virgil (his

chief model) and other classical writers. Juvencus set the fashion of

verse translations of the Bible, and the large number of MSS. of his

poem mentioned in lists and still extant are sufficient evidence of its

great popularity. According to Jerome, he was also the author of some

poems on the sacraments, but no trace of these has survived. The Latin

_Heptateuch_, a hexameter version of the first seven books of the Old

Testament, has been attributed to Juvencus amongst others; but it is now

generally supposed to be the work of a certain Cyprianus, a Gaul who

lived in the 6th century, possibly a bishop of Toulon, author of the

_Life of Caesarius_, bishop of Arelate (Arles).

See M. Manitius, _Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie_

(1891); A. Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des

Mittelalters_, vol. i. (1889); editions of Juvencus by C. Marold

(1886); J. Humer in _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum_,

vol. xxiv. (Vienna, 1891); J. T. Hatfield, _A Study of Juvencus_

(1890), dealing with syntax, metre and language; editions of the

_Heptateuch_ by J. E. B. Mayor (1889; reviewed by W. Sanday in

_Classical Review_, October 1889, and by J. T. Hatfield in _American

Journal of Philology_, vol. xi., 1890), and R. Peiper, vol. xxiii. of

the Vienna series above.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In modern social science the question of the proper

penal treatment of juvenile (i.e. non-adult) offenders has been

increasingly discussed; and the reformatory principle, first applied in

the case of children, has even been extended to reclaimable adult

offenders (juveniles in crime, if not in age) in a way which brings them

sufficiently within the same category to be noticed in this article. In

the old days the main idea in England was to use the same penal methods

for all criminals, young and old; when the child broke the law he was

sent to prison like his elders. It was only in comparatively recent

times that it was realized that child criminals were too often the

victims to circumstances beyond their own control. They were cursed with

inherited taint; they were brought up among evil surroundings; they

suffered from the culpable neglect of vicious parents, and still more

from bad example and pernicious promptings. They were rather potential

than actual criminals, calling for rescue and regeneration rather than

vindictive reprisals. Under the old system a painstaking English gaol

chaplain calculated that 58% of all criminals had made their first lapse

at fifteen. Boys and girls laughed at imprisonment. Striplings of

thirteen and fourteen had been committed ten, twelve, sixteen or

seventeen times. Religion and moral improvement were little regarded in

prisons, industrial and technical training were impossible. The chief

lesson learnt was an intimate and contemptuous acquaintance with the

demoralizing interior of a gaol. There were at one time in London 200

"flash houses" frequented by 6000 boys trained and proficient in

thieving and depredation.

The substantial movement for reform dates from the protests of Charles

Dickens, who roused public opinion to such an extent that the first

Reformatory School Act was passed in 1854. Sporadic efforts to meet the

evil had indeed been made earlier. In 1756 the Marine Society

established a school for the reception and reform of younger criminals;

in 1788 the City of London formed a similar institution, which grew much

later into the farm school at Redhlll. In 1838 an act of parliament

created an establishment at Parkhurst for the detention and correction

of juvenile offenders, to whom pardon was given conditional on their

entrance into some charitable institution. Parkhurst was technically a

prison, and the system combined industrial training with religious and

educational instruction. These earlier efforts had, however, been quite

insufficient to meet the evils, for in the years immediately preceding

1854 crime was being so constantly reinforced in its beginnings, under

the existing penal system, that it threatened to swamp the country.

Unofficial, but more or less accurate, figures showed that between

11,000 and 12,000 juveniles passed annually through the prisons of

England and Wales, a third of the whole number being contributed by

London alone. In 1854 the total reached 14,000. The ages of offenders

ranged from less than twelve to seventeen; 60% of the whole were between

fourteen and seventeen; 46% had been committed more than once; 18% four

times and more.

The Reformatory School Act 1854, which was thrashed out at conferences

held in Birmingham in 1851 and 1853, substituted the school for the

gaol, and all judicial benches were empowered to send delinquents to

schools when they had been guilty of acts punishable by short

imprisonment, the limit of which was at first fourteen and became

afterwards ten days. A serious flaw in this act long survived; this was

the provision that a short period of imprisonment in gaol must precede

reception into the reformatory; it was upheld by well-meaning but

mistaken people as essential for deterrence. But more enlightened

opinion condemned the rule as inflicting an indelible prison taint and

breeding contamination, even with ample and effective safeguards. Wiser

legislation has followed, and an act of 1899 abolished preliminary

imprisonment.

Existing reformatories, or "senior home office schools" as they are

officially styled, in England numbered 44 in 1907. They receive all

juvenile offenders, up to the age of sixteen, who have been convicted of

an offence punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment. The number

of these during the years between 1894 and 1906 constantly varied, but

the figure of the earliest date, 6604, was never exceeded, and in some

years it was considerably less, while in 1906 it was no more than 5586,

though the general population had increased by several millions in the

period. These figures, in comparison with those of 1854, must be deemed

highly satisfactory, even when we take into account that the latter went

up to the age of seventeen. Older offenders, between sixteen and

twenty-one, come within the category of juvenile adults and are dealt

with differently (see _Borstal Scheme_ below).

Other schools must be classed with the reformatory, although they have

no connexion with prisons and deal with youths who are only potential

criminals. The first in importance are the industrial schools. When the

newly devised reformatories were doing excellent service it was realized

that many of the rising generation might some day lapse into evil ways

but were still on the right side and might with proper precautions be

kept there. They wanted preventive, not punitive treatment, and for them

industrial schools were instituted. The germ of these establishments

existed in the Ragged Schools, "intended to educate destitute children

and save them from vagrancy and crime." They had been invented by John

Pounds (1766-1839), a Portsmouth shoemaker, who, early in the 19th

century, was moved with sympathy for these little outcasts and devoted

himself to this good work. The ragged school movement found powerful

support in active philanthropists when public attention was aroused to

the prevalence of juvenile delinquency. The first Industrial School Act

was passed in 1856 and applied only to Scotland. Next year its

provisions were extended to England, and their growth was rapid. There

were 45 schools in the beginning; in 1878 the number had more than been

doubled; in 1907 there were 102 in England and Wales and 31 in Scotland.

The provisions of the Education Acts 1871 and 1876 led to a large

increase in the number of children committed for breaches of the law and

to the establishment of two kinds of subsidiary industrial schools,

short detention of truant schools and day industrial schools in which

children do not reside but receive their meals, their elementary

education and a certain amount of industrial training. The total

admissions to truant schools in 1907 were 1368 boys, and the numbers

actually in the schools on the last day of that year were 1125 with 2568

on licence. The average length of detention was fourteen weeks and three

days on first admission, seventeen weeks and five days on first

re-admission, and twenty-three weeks six days on second re-admission.

The total number of admissions into truant schools from 1878 to the end

of 1907 was 44,315, of whom just half had been licensed and not

returned, 11,239 had been licensed and once re-admitted, 8900 had been

re-admitted twice or oftener.

The day industrial schools owed their origin to another reason than the

enforcement of the Education Acts. It was found that some special

treatment was required for large masses of youths in large cities, who

were in such a neglected or degraded condition that there was little

hope of their growing into healthy men and women or becoming good

citizens. They were left unclean, were ill-fed and insufficiently

clothed, and were not usefully taught. The total number who attended

these day schools in 1907 was 1951 boys and 1232 girls.

The disciplinary system of the English schools is planned upon the

establishment or institution system, as opposed to that of the "family"

or "boarding out" systems adopted in some countries, and some

controversy has been aroused as to the comparative value of the methods.

The British practice has always favoured the well-governed school, with

the proviso that it is kept small so that the head may know all of his

charges. But a compromise has been effected in large establishments by

dividing the boys into "houses," each containing a small manageable

total as a family under an official father or head. Under this system

the idea of the home is maintained, while uniformity of treatment and

discipline is secured by grouping several houses together under one

general authority. The plan of "boarding out" is not generally approved

of in England; the value of the domestic training is questionable and of

uncertain quality, depending entirely upon the character and fitness of

the foster-parents secured. Education must be less systematic in the

private home, industrial training is less easily carried out, and there

can be none of that _esprit de corps_ that stimulates effort in physical

training as applied to athletics and the playing of games. No very

definite decision has been arrived at as to the comparative merits of

institution life and boarding out. Among the Latin races--France, Italy,

Portugal and Spain--the former is as a rule preferred; also in Belgium;

in Germany, Holland and the United States placing out in private

families is very much the rule; in Austria-Hungary and Russia both

methods are in use.

The total admissions to English reformatory schools from their

creation to the 31st of December 1907 amounted to 76,455, or 64,031

boys and 12,424 girls. The total discharges for the same period were

70,890, or 59,081 boys and 11,809 girls. The results may be tested by

the figures for those discharged in 1904, 1905 and 1906:--

_Boys._--3573 were placed out, of whom 66 had died, leaving 3507; of

these it was found that 2735 (or about 78%) were in regular

employment; 158 (or about 4%) were in casual employment; 439 (or about

13%) had been convicted; and 175 (or about 5%) were unknown.

_Girls._--480, of whom 11 had died, leaving 469; of these it was found

that 384 (or about 82%) were in regular employment; 28 (or about 6%)

were in casual employment; 17 (or about 4%) had been convicted, and 40

(or about 8%) were unknown.

For industrial schools, including truant and day schools, the total

admissions, up to the 31st of December 1907, were 153,893, or 120,955

boys and 32,938 girls. The total discharges to the same date

(excluding transfers) were 136,961, or 108,398 boys and 28,563 girls.

The results as tested by those discharged in 1904, 1905 and 1906 were

as follow:--

_Boys._--8909 were placed out, of whom 118 had since died, leaving

8791 to be reported on; of these it was found that 7547 (or about 86%)

were in regular employment; 415 (or about 4.7%) were in casual

employment; 419 (or about 4.7%) convicted or re-committed; and 410 (or

about 4.6%) unknown.

_Girls._--2505 placed out, of whom 50 had died, leaving 2455; of these

2180 (or about 89%) were in regular employment; 112 (or about 4%) were

in casual employment; 21 (or about 1%) convicted or re-committed; and

142 (or about 6%) unknown.

These results are of course wholly independent of those achieved by

the juvenile-adult prison reformatory at Borstal instituted in October

1902. The record of the first year's work of this excellent system

showed that 50% of cases placed out had done well, thanks to the

system and philanthropic labours of the Borstal Association.

An interesting point in regard to the reclamation of these criminally

inclined juveniles is the nature of the employments to which they have

been recommended, and in which, as shown, they have done so well. In

1904, 1905 and 1906, the total number of boys discharged and placed

was 12,482. By far the largest number of these, nearly a sixth, joined

the army, 679 of them entering the bands; 292 joined the navy; 961 the

mercantile marine; 1567 went to farm service; 414 worked in factories

or mills as skilled hands; but others joined as labourers, a general

class the total of which was 1096. Other jobs found included miners

(629), carters (352), iron or steel workers (214), mechanics (301),

shoemakers (181), tailors (161), shop assistants (228), carpenters

(178), bakers (131), messengers and porters, including 112 errand boys

(315). The balance found employment in smaller numbers at other

trades. The fate of 585 was unknown, 858 had been re-convicted, and

the balance were in unrecorded or casual employment.

The outlets found by the girls from these various schools naturally

follow lines appropriate to their sex and the instruction received.

Out of a total of 2985 discharged in the three years mentioned, 1235

became general servants, 268 housemaids, 203 laundry-maids, 52 cooks,

98 nursemaids, 65 dressmakers, 221 were engaged in factories and

mills, and the balance was made up by marriage, death or casual

employment.

In Ireland the reformatory and industrial school system conforms to

that of Great Britain. There were in 1905 six reformatory and 70

industrial schools in Ireland, mostly under Roman Catholic management.

A short account of the reformatory methods of dealing with juvenile

offenders in certain other countries will fitly find a place here.

_Austria-Hungary._--The law leaves children of less than ten years of

age to domestic discipline, as also children above that age if not

exactly criminal, although the latter may be sent to correctional

schools. There they are detained for varying periods, but never after

twenty years of age, and they may be sent out on licence to situations

or employment found for them. These schools also receive children

between ten and fourteen guilty of crimes which are, however, by law

deemed "contraventions" only; also the destitute between the same ages

and the incorrigible whose parents cannot manage them.

In Hungary the penal code prescribes that children of less than twelve

cannot be charged with offences; those between twelve and sixteen may be

deemed to have acted without discretion, and thus escape sentence, but

are sent to a correctional school where they may be detained till they

are twenty years of age. An excellent system prevails in Hungary by

which the supervision of those liberated is entrusted to a "protector,"

a philanthropic person in the district who visits and reports upon the

conduct of the boys, much like the "probation officer" in the United

States.

_Belgium._--The law of November 1891 places the whole mass of

juveniles--those who are likely to give trouble and those who have

already done so--at the disposal of the state. The system is very

elastic, realizing the infinite variety of childish natures. The purely

paternal regime would be wasted upon the really vicious; a severe

discipline would press too heavily on the well-disposed. Accordingly,

all juveniles, male and female, are divided into six principal classes

with a corresponding treatment, it being strictly ruled that there is no

intermingling of the classes; the very youngest, rescued early, are

never to be associated with the older, who may be already vicious and

degraded and who could not fail to exercise a pernicious influence. One

of the great merits of the Belgian system is that the regulations may be

relaxed, and children of whose amendment good hopes are entertained may

be released provisionally, either to the care of parents and guardians

or to employers, artisans or agriculturists who will teach them a trade.

_Denmark._--There were 61 establishments of all classes for juveniles in

Denmark in 1906, holding some 2000 inmates. In 1874, by the will of

Countess Danner, a large female refuge was founded at Castle Jagerspris,

which holds some 360 girls. Another of the same class is the Royal

Vodrofsvei Bonnehjem at Copenhagen, founded in the same year by Mlle

Schneider. The regime preferred in Denmark is that of the family or the

very small school. The Jagerspris system is to divide the whole number

of 360 into small parties of 20 each under a nurse or official mother.

Employment in Danish schools is mainly agricultural, field labour and

gardening, with a certain amount of industrial training; and on

discharge the inmates go to farms or to apprenticeship, while a few

emigrate.

_France._--There are five methods of disposing of juvenile offenders in

France:--

1. The preliminary or preventative prison (_maisons d'arret_ and _de

justice_) for those arrested and accused.

2. The ordinary prison for all sentenced to less than six months,

whose time of detention is too short to admit of their transfer to a

provincial colony. It also receives children whom parents have found

unmanageable.

3. The public or private penitentiary colony for the irresponsible

children, acquitted as "without discretion," as well as for the guilty

sentenced to more than six months' and less than two years' detention.

4. The correctional colony, where the system is more severe, receiving

all sentenced for more than two years and all who have misconducted

themselves in the milder establishments.

5. Various penitentiary houses for young females, whatever their

particular sentence.

Foremost among French penal reformers stands the name of F. A. Demetz

(1796-1873), the founder of the famous colony of Mettray. M. Demetz was

a judge who, aghast at the evils inflicted upon children whom he was

compelled by law to imprison, left the bench and undertook to find some

other outlet for them. At that time the French law, while it acquitted

minors shown to have acted without discretion, still consigned them for

safe keeping and inevitable contamination to the common gaols. M. Demetz

conceived the idea of an agricultural colony, and in 1840 organized a

small "_societe paternelle_," as it was called, of which he became

vice-president. Another philanthropist, the Vicomte de Bretignieres de

Courteilles, a landed proprietor in Touraine, associated himself in the

enterprise and endowed the institution with land at Mettray near Tours.

The earliest labours at Mettray were in the development of the

institution, but as this approached completion they were applied to

farmwork, agricultural employment being the chief feature of the place.

The motto and device of Mettray was "the moralization of youth by the

cultivation of the soil"; a healthy life in the open air was to replace

the enervating and demoralizing influences of the confined prisons; and

this was effected in the usual farming operations, to which were added

gardening, vine-dressing, the raising of stock and the breeding of

silkworms. The labour was not light; on the contrary, the directors of

the colony sought by constant employment to send their charges to bed

tired, ready to sleep soundly and not romp and chatter in their

dormitories. The excellence of its aims, and the manifestly good results

that were growing out of the system, soon made Mettray a model for

imitation in France and beyond it. Many establishments were planned upon

it, started by the state or private enterprise; penitentiary colonies

were created for boys in connexion with some of the great central

prisons. The colony of Val de Yevre has a good record. It was started by

a private philanthropist, Charles J. M. Lucas, (1803-1889) but after

five-and-twenty years was handed over to the state. Other cognate

establishments are those of Petit Quevilly near Rouen, Petit Bourg near

Paris, St Hiliar and Eysses. There are several female colonies,

especially that of Darnetal at Rouen.

It is for the magistrate or _juge d'instruction_ to select the class of

establishment to which the juvenile delinquents brought before him shall

be committed. The very young, those of twelve years of age and under,

are placed out in the country with families, unless they can be again

entrusted to their parents or committed to _maisons paternels_,

containing very limited numbers, twenty or thirty, in charge of a large

staff. After twelve, and from that age to fourteen or fifteen, the

"ungrateful age" as the French call it, boys are sent to a reformatory

or "preservative school," where they will be under stronger discipline.

For the third class, from fifteen to sixteen or eighteen, stricter

measures are necessary, so as to dispose of them in specially selected

penal colonies, as has already been done at Eysses, where the discipline

is severe, while embodying technical and industrial instruction.

_Germany._--In most parts of the German Empire juvenile delinquents and

neglected youths are treated in the same establishments. No child of

less than twelve years of age can be proceeded against in a court of

law, although in some German states destitute or abandoned children have

been taken at the ages of six, five and even three years. Youths between

twelve and eighteen may be convicted, but their offences are passed over

if they are proved to have acted without discretion. There are many

kinds of correctional institutions and a number of schools not of a

correctional character. These last are generally very small, the largest

taking barely a hundred, but are very numerous. Many private persons

have devoted themselves to the work. Count A. von der Recke-Volmerstein

(1791-1878) about 1821 founded a refuge for neglected children in

Dusselthal, between Dusseldorf and Elberstadt. Pastor T. F. Fliedner

(1800-1864) built up a fine establishment at Kaiserswerth from 1833, in

which was an infant school, a penitentiary and an orphan asylum. Another

famous name is that of W. von Turk (1774-1846), who studied under

Pestalozzi in Switzerland.

A school which has largely influenced public opinion in Great Britain,

as in Germany, is the Rauhe Haus, near Hamburg, founded by Dr Wickern in

1833. This began with a single cottage but had grown in twenty years to

a hamlet of twenty houses, with from twelve to sixteen inmates in each.

The establishment is a Lutheran one; both boys and girls are admitted,

in separate houses, and a marked feature of the place is the number of

"brothers," young men of good character qualifying for rescue work as

superintendents of homes, prison officers and schoolmasters. They take

part in the work and are in constant touch with the boys whom they

closely supervise, being bound to "keep them in sight day and night, eat

with them, sleep in their dormitories, direct their labour, accompany

them to chapel, join in their recreations and sports." These "brothers"

are honourably known throughout the world and have performed a large

work in distant lands as missionaries, prison officers and

schoolmasters. The Rauhe Haus receives three classes of juveniles:

first, the boys, mostly street arabs; second, girls of the same

category; third, children taken as boarders from private families, who

confess their inability to manage them. The instruction given is in

trades, in farming operations, gardening and fruit-raising. The pupils

are largely assisted on release, through the good offices of the

citizens of Hamburg.

_Holland._--In the Low Countries, refuges, called "Godshuis," were

founded as early as the 14th century, intended for the care and shelter

of neglected youth and indigent old age. In the 17th century people came

from all parts of Europe to learn from the Dutch how orphans and

unfortunate children could best be cared for. The Godshuis of Amsterdam

was a vast establishment, into which as many as 4000 juveniles were

sometimes crowded, with such disastrous effects that its name was

changed to that of "pesthuis," and the government in the beginning of

the present century ordered it to be emptied and closed. Other

reformatory institutions in Holland are the Netherlands Mettray, the

reform school of Zetten, near the Arnheim railway station, for

Protestant girls; and that of Alkmaar for boys; the reformatory school

of St Vincent de Paul at Amsterdam for both sexes; the Amsterdam

reformatory for young vagabonds, male and female; the reform school of

Smallepod at Amsterdam. The Netherlands Mettray, which is about five

hours' journey from Amsterdam on a farm called Rissjelt, near Zutphen,

is planned on the model of the French Mettray and was founded about 1855

by M. Suringar, a veteran Dutch philanthropist, long vice-president of

the directors of prisons in Amsterdam.

_Italy._--In Italy there is no distinction between the treatment of the

offending and the neglected or deserted in youth. There are seventeen or

more correctional establishments, eight of which are state institutions

and the rest founded by private benevolence or by charitable

associations or local communities. None of these is exclusively

agricultural; ten are industrial, seven industrial and agricultural

combined. In Italy the age of responsibility is nine, below which no

child can be charged with an offence. The Italian schools are mostly

planned on a large scale. That of Marchiondi Spagliardi accommodates

550, divided among three houses under one supreme head. The Turazza

institution at Treviso holds 380, and there are eight others with from

200 to 300 inmates. The regime is very various; the larger number of

schools are on the congregate system, with daily labour in association

and isolation by night. The "family" method is also practised with small

groups, divisions or companies, into which the children are formed

according to age or conduct.

_Sweden._--All children below the age of sixteen may be sent to a

correctional establishment or boarded out in respectable families:--

1. If they have committed acts punishable by law which indicate moral

perversity and it is deemed advisable to correct them.

2. If they are neglected, ill-used, or if their moral deterioration is

feared from the vicious life and character of parents or friends.

3. If their conduct at school or at home is such that a more severe

correctional treatment is necessary for their rescue.

Under this law the state is also to provide special schools to take all

above ten who have shown peculiar depravity; all who have reached

eighteen and who are not yet thought fit for freedom; all who have

relapsed after provisional release. Sweden is rich in institutions

devoted to the care of destitute and deserted children, all due to the

efforts of the charitable. The largest correctional establishment is

that founded at Hall, near the town of Sodertelge on the shores of the

Baltic. This admirable agricultural colony, modelled on that of Mettray,

owes its existence to the "Oscar-Josephine society," founded by Queen

Josephine, widow of Oscar I.

_United States._--In the words of a report made in 1878 by F. B.

Sanborn, secretary of the American Social Science Society, "America can

justly plume herself upon the work accomplished by her juvenile

reformatories since their inauguration down to the present time." The

first in point of date and still the most considerable of the

reformatories in the United States is that founded in 1825, thanks to

the unwearied efforts of the great American publicist and philanthropist

Edward Livingston, which now has its home on Randall's Island in New

York City. In the following year a reformatory of the same class was

founded in Boston, and another in the year after in Philadelphia. All

were intended to receive criminal youth. There are state reformatories

now in almost all the states of the Union, and those for juvenile adults

in New York and Massachusetts have attracted world-wide attention,

aiming so high and with such an elaboration of means that they deserve

particular description.

The great state reformatory establishment of Elmira, New York, called

into existence in 1889 with the avowed aim of compassing the reformation

of the criminal by new processes, partakes of the system involved in the

treatment of juvenile offenders. It was based upon the principle that

crime ought to be attacked in its beginnings by other than ordinary

punitive and prison methods. Under this view, the right of society to

defend itself by punishment was denied, and it was held that a youthful

offender was more sinned against than sinning. It was urged that his

crime, due largely to inherited defects, mental or physical and vicious

surroundings, was not his own fault, and he had a paramount claim to be

treated differently by the state when in custody. The state was not

justified in using powers of repression to imprison him in the usual

mechanical hard and fast fashion and then return him to society, no

better, possibly worse, than before; it was bound to regenerate him, to

change his nature, improve his physique, and give him a new mental

equipment, so that when again at large he might be fitted to take his

place amongst honest citizens, to earn his living by reputable means and

escape all temptation to drift back into crime. This is the plausible

explanation given for the state reformatory movement, which led to the

creation on such costly and extensive lines of Elmira, and of Concord in

Massachusetts, a cognate establishment. There is very little penal about

the treatment, which is that of a boarding school; the education,

thorough and carried far, includes languages, music, science and

industrial art; diet is plentiful, even luxurious; amusements and varied

recreation are permitted; well stocked libraries are provided with

entertaining books; a prison newspaper is issued (edited by an inmate).

Physical development is sedulously cultivated both by gymnastics and

military exercises, and the whole course is well adapted to change

entirely the character of the individual subjected to it. The trouble

taken in the hope of transforming erring youth into useful members of

society goes still further. The original sentence has been indefinite,

and release on parole will be granted to inmates who pass through the

various courses with credit and are supposed to have satisfied the

authorities of their desire to amend. The limit of detention need not

exceed twelve months, after which parole is possible, although the

average period passed before it is granted is twenty-two months. The

hope of permanent amendment is further sought by the fact that a

situation, generally with good wages and congenial work, provided by the

authorities, awaits every inmate at the time of his discharge. The

inmates, selected from a very large class, are first offenders, but

guilty generally of criminal offences, which include manslaughter,

burglary, forgery, fraud, robbery and receiving. The exact measure of

reformation achieved can never be exactly known, from the absence of

authentic statistics and the difficulty of following up the surveillance

of individuals when released on parole. Reports issued by the manager of

Elmira claim that 81% of those paroled have done well, but these results

are not definitely authenticated. They are based upon the ascertained

good conduct during the term of surveillance, six or twelve months only,

during which time these subjects have not yet spent the gratuities

earned and have probably still kept the situations found for them on

discharge. No doubt the material treated at Elmira and Concord is of a

kind to encourage hope of reformation, as they are first offenders and

presumably not of the criminal classes. Although the processes are open

to criticism, the discipline enforced in these state reformatories does

not err in excessive leniency. They are not "hotels," as has been

sometimes said in ridicule, where prisoners go to enjoy themselves, have

a good time, study Plato and conic sections, and pass out to an assured

future. There is plenty of hard work, mental and physical, and the

"inmates" rather envy their fellows in state prisons. A point to which

great attention is paid is that physical degeneracy lies at the bottom

of the criminal character, and great attention is paid to the

development of nervous energy and strengthening by every means the

normal and healthful functions of the body. A leading feature in the

treatment is the frequency and perfection with which bathing is carried

out. A series of Turkish baths forms a part of the course of

instruction; the baths being fitted elaborately with all the adjuncts of

shower bath, cold douche, ending with gymnastic exercises.

A remarkable and unique institution is the state reformatory for women

at Sherborn, Massachusetts, for women with sentences of more than a

year, who in the opinion of the court are fit subjects for reformatory

treatment. The majority of the inmates were convicted of drunkenness, an

offence which the law of Massachusetts visits with severity--a sentence

of two years being very common. This at once differentiates the class of

women from that in ordinary penal establishments. At the same time we

find that other women guilty of serious crime are sent by the courts to

this prison with a view to their reform. Thus of 352 inmates, while no

fewer than 200 were convicted of drunkenness, there were also 63 cases

of offences against chastity and 30 of larceny. The average age was

thirty-one and the average duration of sentence just over a year. In

appearance and in character it more resembles a hospital or home for

inebriates than a state convict prison. A system of grades or divisions

is relied upon as a stimulus to reform. The difference in grades is

denoted by small and scarcely perceptible variations of the little

details of everyday life, such as are supposed in a peculiar degree to

affect the appreciation of women, e.g. in the lowest division the women

have their meals off old and chipped china; in the next the china is

less chipped; in the highest there is no chipped china; in the next

prettily set out with tumblers, cruet-stands and a pepper pot to each

prisoner. The superintendent relies greatly also on the moralizing

influence of animals and birds. Well-behaved convicts are allowed to

tend sheep, calves, pigs, chickens, canaries and parrots. This privilege

is highly esteemed and productive, it is said, of the most softening

influences.

The "George Junior Republic" (q.v.) is a remarkable institution

established in 1895 at Freeville, near the centre of New York State, by

Mr. William Reuben George. The original features of the institution are

that the motto "Nothing without labour" is rigidly enforced, and that

self-government is carried to a point that, with mere children, would

appear whimsical were it not a proved success. The place is, as the name

implies, a miniature "republic" with laws, legislature, courts and

administration of its own, all made and carried on by the "citizens"

themselves. The tone and spirit of the place appeared to be excellent

and there is much evidence that in many cases strong and independent

character is developed in children whose antecedents have been almost

hopeless.

_Borstal Scheme in England._--The American system of state reformatories

as above described has been sharply criticized, but the principle that

underlies it is recognized as, in a measure, sound, and it has been

adopted by the English authorities. Some time back the experiment of

establishing a penal reformatory for offenders above the age hitherto

committed to reformatory schools was resolved upon. This led to the

foundation of the Borstal scheme, which was first formally started in

October 1902. The arguments which had led to it may be briefly stated

here. It had been conclusively shown that quite half the whole number of

professional criminals had been first convicted when under twenty-one

years of age, when still at a malleable period of development, when in

short the criminal habit had not yet been definitely formed. Moreover

these adolescents escaped special reformatory treatment, for sixteen is

in Great Britain the age of criminal majority, after which no youthful

offenders can be committed to the state reformatory schools. But there

was always a formidable contingent of juvenile adults between sixteen and

twenty-one, sent to penal servitude, and their numbers although

diminishing rose to an average total of 15,000. It was accordingly

decided to create a penal establishment under state control, which should

be a half-way house between the prison and the reformatory school. A

selection was made of juvenile adults, sentenced to not less than six

months and sent to Borstal in 1902 to be treated under rules approved by

the home secretary. They were to be divided on arrival into three

separate classes, penal, ordinary and special, with promotion by industry

and good conduct from the lowest to the highest, in which they enjoyed

distinctive privileges. The general system, educational and disciplinary,

was intelligent and governed by common sense. Instruction, both manual

and educational, was well suited to the recipients; the first embraced

field work, market gardening, and a knowledge of useful handicrafts; the

second was elementary but sound, aided by well-chosen libraries and

brightened by the privilege of evening association to play harmless but

interesting games. Physical development was also guaranteed by gymnastics

and regular exercises. The results were distinctly encouraging. They

arrived at Borstal "rough, untrained cubs," but rapidly improved in

demeanour and inward character, gaining self-reliance and self-respect,

and left the prison on the high road to regeneration. It was wisely

remembered that to secure lasting amendment it is not enough to chasten

the erring subject, to train his hands, to strengthen his moral sense

while still in durance; it is essential to assist him on discharge by

helping him to find work, and encourage him by timely advice to keep him

in the straight path. Too much praise cannot be accorded to the agencies

and associations which labour strenuously and unceasingly to this

excellent end. Especial good work has been done by the Borstal

association, founded under the patronage of the best known and most

distinguished persons in English public life--archbishops, judges,

cabinet ministers and privy councillors--which receives the juvenile

adults on their release and helps them to employment. Their labours,

backed by generous voluntary contributions, have produced very gratifying

results. Although the offenders originally selected to undergo the

Borstal treatment were those committed for a period of six months, it was

recognized that this limit was experimental, and that thoroughly

satisfactory results could only be obtained with sentences of at least a

year's duration, so as to give the reforming agencies ample time to

operate. In the second year's working of the system it was formally

applied to young convicts sentenced to penal servitude between the ages

of sixteen and twenty-one. In the next year it was adopted for all

offenders between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one committed to prison,

as far as the length of sentence would permit. The commissioners of

prisons, in their _Report_ for the year 1908 (Cd. 4300) thus expressed

themselves on the working of the experiment:--

"Experience soon began to point to the probable success of this

general application of the principle, in spite of the fact that the

prevailing shortness of sentences operated against full benefit being

derived from reformatory effort. The success was most marked in those

localities where magistrates, or other benevolent persons, personally

co-operated in making the scheme a success. Local Borstal committees

were established at all prisons, and it was arranged that those

members of the local committees should become _ex officio_ honorary

members of the Central Borstal Association, which it was intended

should become, what it now is, the parent society directing the

general aid on discharge of this category of young prisoners."

In spite of the general adoption of the Borstal system, there was a

large class of young criminals who were outside its effects, those who

were sentenced to terms of ten days and under for trifling offences.

These juvenile adults, once having had the fear of prison taken away by

actual experience, were found to come back again and again. To remedy

this state of affairs, a bill was introduced in 1907 to give effect to

the principle of a long period of detention for all those showing a

tendency to embark on a criminal career. The bill was, however, dropped,

but a somewhat similar bill was introduced the next year and became law

under the title of The Prevention of Crime Act 1908. This measure

introduces a new departure in the treatment of professional crime by

initiating a system of detention for habitual criminals (see

RECIDIVISM). The act attempts the reformation of young offenders by

giving the court power to pass sentence of detention in a Borstal

institution for a term of not less than one year nor more than three on

those between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one who by reason of

criminal habits or tendencies or association with persons of bad

character require such instruction and discipline as appear most

conducive to their reformation. The power of detention applies also to

reformatory school offences, while such persons as are already

undergoing penal servitude or imprisonment may be transferred to a

Borstal institution if detention would conduce to their advantage. The

establishment of other Borstal institutions is authorized by the act,

while a very useful provision is the power to release on licence if

there is a reasonable probability that the offender will abstain from

crime and lead a useful and industrious life. The licence is issued on

condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of some

society or person willing to take charge of him. Supervision is

introduced after the expiration of the term of sentence, and power is

given to transfer to prison incorrigibles or those exercising a bad

influence on the other inmates of a Borstal institution. The act marks a

noteworthy advance in the endeavour to arrest the growing habit of

crime. (A. G.; T. A. I.)

JUVENTAS (Latin for "youth": later _Juventus_), in Roman mythology, the

tutelar goddess of young men. She was worshipped at Rome from very early

times. In the front court of the temple of Minerva on the Capitol there

was a chapel of Juventas, in which a coin had to be deposited by each

youth on his assumption of the _toga virilis_, and sacrifices were

offered on behalf of the rising manhood of the state. In connexion with

this chapel it is related that, when the temple was in course of

erection, Terminus, the god of boundaries, and Juventas refused to quit

the sites they had already appropriated as sacred to themselves, which

accordingly became part of the new sanctuary. This was interpreted as a

sign of the immovable boundaries and eternal youth of the Roman state.

It should be observed that in the oldest accounts there is no mention of

Juventas, whose name (with that of Mars) was added in support of the

augural prediction. After the Second Punic War Greek elements were

introduced into her cult. In 218 B.C., by order of the Sibylline books,

a _lectisternium_ was prepared for Juventas and a public thanksgiving to

Hercules, an association which shows the influence of the Greek Hebe,

the wife of Heracles. In 207 Marcus Livius Salinator, after the defeat

of Hasdrubal at the battle of Sena, vowed another temple to Juventas in

the Circus Maximus, which was dedicated in 191 by C. (or M.) Licinius

Lucullus; it was destroyed by fire in 16 B.C. and rebuilt by Augustus.

In imperial times, Juventas personified, not the youth of the Roman

state, but of the future emperor.

See Dion. Halic., iii. 69, iv. 15; Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36.

JUXON, WILLIAM (1582-1663), English prelate, was the son of Robert Juxon

and was born probably at Chichester, being educated at Merchant Taylors'

School, London, and at St John's College, Oxford, where he was elected

to a scholarship in 1598. He studied law at Oxford, but afterwards he

took holy orders, and in 1609 became vicar of St Giles, Oxford, a living

which he retained until he became rector of Somerton, Oxfordshire, in

1615. In December 1621 he succeeded his friend, William Laud, as

president of St John's College, and in 1626 and 1627 he was

vice-chancellor of the university. Juxon soon obtained other important

positions, including that of chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles I. In 1627

he was made dean of Worcester and in 1632 he was nominated to the

bishopric of Hereford, an event which led him to resign the presidency

of St John's in January 1633. However, he never took up his episcopal

duties at Hereford, as in October 1633 he was consecrated bishop of

London in succession to Laud. He appears to have been an excellent

bishop, and in March 1636 Charles I. entrusted him with important

secular duties by making him lord high treasurer of England; thus for

the next five years he was dealing with the many financial and other

difficulties which beset the king and his advisers. He resigned the

treasurership in May 1641. During the Civil War the bishop, against whom

no charges were brought in parliament, lived undisturbed at Fulham

Palace, and his advice was often sought by the king, who had a very high

opinion of him, and who at his execution selected him to be with him on

the scaffold and to administer to him the last consolations of religion.

Juxon was deprived of his bishopric in 1649 and retired to Little

Compton in Gloucestershire, where he had bought an estate, and here he

became famous as the owner of a pack of hounds. At the restoration of

Charles II. he became archbishop of Canterbury and in his official

capacity he took part in the coronation of this king, but his health

soon began to fail and he died at Lambeth on the 4th of June 1663. By

his will the archbishop was a benefactor to St John's College, where he

was buried; he also aided the work of restoring St Paul's Cathedral and

rebuilt the great hall at Lambeth Palace.

See W. H. Marah, _Memoirs of Archbishop Juxon and his Times_ (1869);

the best authority for the archbishop's life is the article by W. H.

Hutton in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (1892).

K The eleventh letter in the Phoenician alphabet and in its descendant

Greek, the tenth in Latin owing to the omission of Teth (see I), and

once more the eleventh in the alphabets of Western Europe owing to the

insertion of J. In its long history the shape of K has changed very

little. It is on the inscription of the Moabite Stone (early 9th cent.

B.C.) in the form (written from right to left) of [symbol] and [symbol].

Similar forms are also found in early Aramaic, but another form [symbol]

or [symbol], which is found in the Phoenician of Cyprus in the 9th or

10th century B.C. has had more effect upon the later development of the

Semitic forms. The length of the two back strokes and the manner in

which they join the upright are the only variations in Greek. In various

places the back strokes, treated as an angle <, become more rounded (,

so that the letter appears as K, a form which in Latin probably affected

the development of C (q.v.). In Crete it is elaborated into [symbol] and

[symbol]. In Latin K, which is found in the earliest inscriptions, was

soon replaced by C, and survived only in the abbreviations for

_Kalendae_ and the proper name _Kaeso_. The original name Kaph became in

Greek _Kappa_. The sound of K throughout has been that of the unvoiced

guttural, varying to some extent in its pronunciation according to the

nature of the vowel sound which followed it. In Anglo-Saxon C replaced K

through Latin influence, writing being almost entirely in the hands of

ecclesiastics. As the sound-changes have been discussed under C it is

necessary here only to refer to the palatalization of K followed earlier

by a final _e_ as in _watch_ (Middle English _wacche_, Anglo-Saxon

_waecce_) by the side of _wake_ (M.E. _waken_, A.-S. _wacan_); batch,

bake, &c. Sometimes an older form of the substantive survives, as in the

Elizabethan and Northern _make_ = _mate_ alongside _match_. (P. Gi.)

K2, or MT GODWIN-AUSTEN, the second highest mountain in the world,

ranking after Mt Everest. It is a peak of the Karakoram extension of the

Muztagh range dividing Kashmir from Chinese Turkestan. The height of K2

as at present determined by triangulation is 28,250 ft., but it is

possible that an ultimate revision of the values of refraction at high

altitudes may have the effect of lowering the height of K2, while it

would elevate those of Everest and Kinchinjunga. The latter mountain

would then rank second, and K2 third, in the scale of altitude, Everest

always maintaining its ascendancy. K2 was ascended for the first time by

the duke of the Abruzzi in June 1909, being the highest elevation on the

earth's surface ever reached by man.

KA'BA, KAABA, or KAABEH, the sacred shrine of Mahommedanism, containing

the "black stone," in the middle of the great mosque at Mecca (q.v.).

KABARDIA, a territory of S. Russia, now part of the province of Terek.

It is divided into Great and Little Kabardia by the upper river Terek,

and covers 3780 sq. m. on the northern slopes of the Caucasus range

(from Mount Elbruz to Pasis-mta, or Edena), including the Black

Mountains (Kara-dagh) and the high plains on their northern slope.

Before the Russian conquest it extended as far as the Sea of Azov. Its

population is now about 70,000. One-fourth of the territory is owned by

the aristocracy and the remainder is divided among the _auls_ or

villages. A great portion is under permanent pasture, part under

forests, and some under perpetual snow. Excellent breeds of horses are

reared, and the peasants own many cattle. The land is well cultivated in

the lower parts, the chief crops being millet, maize, wheat and oats.

Bee-keeping is extensively practised, and Kabardian honey is in repute.

Wood-cutting and the manufacture of wooden wares, the making of _burkas_

(felt and fur cloaks), and saddlery are very general. Nalchik is the

chief town.

The Kabardians are a branch of the Adyghe (Circassians). The policy of

Russia was always to be friendly with the Kabardian aristocracy, who

were possessed of feudal rights over the Ossetes, the Ingushes, the

Abkhasians and the mountain Tatars, and had command of the roads leading

into Transcaucasia. Ivan the Terrible took Kabardia under his protection

in the 16th century. Later, Russian influence was counterbalanced by

that of the Crimean khans, but the Kabardian nobles nevertheless

supported Peter the Great during his Caucasian campaign in 1722-23. In

1739 Kabardia was recognized as being under the double protectorate of

Russia and Turkey, but thirty-five years later it was definitively

annexed to Russia, and risings of the population in 1804 and 1822 were

cruelly suppressed. Kabardia is considered as a school of good manners

in Caucasia; the Kabardian dress sets the fashion to all the

mountaineers. Kabardians constitute the best detachment of the personal

Imperial Guards at St Petersburg.

A short grammar of the Kabardian language and a Russian-Kabardian

dictionary, by Lopatinsky, were published in _Sbornik Materialov dla

Opisaniya Kavkaza_ (vol. xii., Tiflis, 1891). Fragments of the poem

"Sosyruko," some Persian tales, and the tenets of the Mussulman

religion were printed in Kabardian in 1864, by Kazi Atazhukin and

Shardanov. The common law of the Kabardians has been studied by Maxim

Kovalevsky and Vsevolod Miller.

KABBA, a province of the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria,

situated chiefly on the right bank of the Niger, between 7 deg. 5' and 8

deg. 45' N. and 5 deg. 30' and 7 deg. E. It has an area of 7800 sq. m.

and an estimated population of about 70,000. The province consists of

relatively healthy uplands interspersed with fertile valleys. It formed

part at one time of the Nupe emirate, and under Fula rule the armies of

Bida regularly raided for slaves and laid waste the country. Amongst the

native inhabitants the Igbira are very industrious, and crops of

tobacco, indigo, all the African grains, and a good quantity of cotton

are already grown. The sylvan products are valuable and include palm

oil, kolas, shea and rubber. Lokoja, a town which up to 1902 was the

principal British station in the protectorate, is situated in this

province. The site of Lokoja, with a surrounding tract of country at the

junction of the Benue and the Niger, was ceded to the British government

in 1841 by the _attah_ of Idah, whose dominions at that time extended to

the right bank of the river. The first British settlement was a failure.

In 1854 MacGregor Laird, who had taken an active part in promoting the

exploration of the river, sent thither Dr W. B. Baikie, who was

successful in dealing with the natives and in 1857 became the first

British consul in the interior. The town of Lokoja was founded by him in

1860. In 1868 the consulate was abolished and the settlement was left

wholly to commercial interests. In 1879 Sir George Goldie formed the

Royal Niger Company, which bought out its foreign rivals and acquired a

charter from the British government. In 1886 the company made Lokoja its

military centre, and on the transfer of the company's territories to the

Crown it remained for a time the capital of Northern Nigeria. In 1902

the political capital of the protectorate was shifted to Zungeru in the

province of Zaria, but Lokoja remains the commercial centre. The

distance of Lokoja from the sea at the Niger mouth is about 250 m.

In the absence of any central native authority the province is entirely

dependent for administration upon British initiative. It has been

divided into four administrative divisions. British and native courts of

justice have been established. A British station has been established at

Kabba town, which is an admirable site some 50 m. W. by N. of Lokoja,

about 1300 ft. above the sea, and a good road has been made from Kabba

to Lokoja. Roads have been opened through the province. (See NIGERIA.)

KABBABISH ("goatherds": James Bruce derives the name from _Hebsh_,

sheep), a tribe of African nomads of Semitic origin. It is perhaps the

largest "Arab" tribe in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and its many clans are

scattered over the country extending S.W. from the province of Dongola

to the confines of Darfur. The Kabbabish speak Arabic, but their

pronunciation differs much from that of the true Arabs. The Kabbabish

have a tradition that they came from Tunisia and are of Mogrebin or

western descent; but while the chiefs look like Arabs, the tribesmen

resemble the Beja family. They themselves declare that one of their

clans, Kawahla, is not of Kabbabish blood, but was affiliated to them

long ago. Kawahla is a name of Arab formation, and J. L. Burckhardt

spoke of the clan as a distinct one living about Abu Haraz and on the

Atbara. The Kabbabish probably received Arab rulers, as did the Ababda.

They are chiefly employed in cattle, camel and sheep breeding, and

before the Sudan wars of 1883-99 they had a monopoly of all transport

from the Nile, north of Abu Gussi, to Kordofan. They also cultivate the

lowlands which border the Nile, where they have permanent villages. They

are of fine physique, dark with black wiry hair, carefully arranged in

tightly rolled curls which cling to the head, with regular features and

rather thick aquiline noses. Some of the tribes wear large hats like

those of the Kabyles of Algeria and Tunisia.

See James Bruce, _Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile_ (1790);

A. H. Keane, _Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan_ (1884); _Anglo-Egyptian

Sudan_ (edited by Count Gleichen, 1905).

KABBALAH (late Hebrew _kabbalah_, _qabbalah_), the technical name for

the system of Jewish theosophy which played an important part in the

Christian Church in the middle ages. The term primarily denotes

"reception" and then "doctrines received by tradition." In the older

Jewish literature the name is applied to the whole body of received

religious doctrine with the exception of the Pentateuch, thus including

the Prophets and Hagiographa as well as the oral traditions ultimately

embodied in the Mishnah.[1] It is only since the 11th or 12th century

that Kabbalah has become the exclusive appellation for the renowned

system of theosophy which claims to have been transmitted

uninterruptedly by the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets ever since

the creation of the first man.

Doctrine of the Sephiroth.

The cardinal doctrines of the Kabbalah embrace the nature of the Deity,

the Divine emanations or _Sephiroth_, the cosmogony, the creation of

angels and man, their destiny, and the import of the revealed law.

According to this esoteric doctrine, God, who is boundless, and above

everything, even above being and thinking, is called _En Soph_ ([Greek:

apeiros]); He is the space of the universe containing [Greek: to pan],

but the universe is not his space. In this boundlessness He could not be

comprehended by the intellect or described in words, and as such the En

Soph was in a certain sense _Ayin_, non-existent (_Zohar_, iii. 283).[2]

To make his existence known and comprehensible, the En Soph had to

become active and creative. As creation involves intention, desire,

thought and work, and as these are properties which imply limit and

belong to a finite being, and moreover as the imperfect and

circumscribed nature of this creation precludes the idea of its being

the direct work of the infinite and perfect, the En Soph had to become

creative, through the medium of ten Sephiroth or intelligences, which

emanated from him like rays proceeding from a luminary.

Now the wish to become manifest and known, and hence the idea of

creation, is co-eternal with the inscrutable Deity, and the first

manifestation of this primordial will is called the first _Sephirah_ or

emanation. This first Sephirah, this spiritual substance which existed

in the En Soph from all eternity, contained nine other intelligences or

_Sephiroth_. These again emanated one from the other, the second from

the first, the third from the second, and so on up to ten.

The ten Sephiroth, which form among themselves and with the En Soph a

strict unity, and which simply represent different aspects of one and

the same being, are respectively denominated (1) the Crown, (2)

Wisdom, (3) Intelligence, (4) Love, (5) Justice, (6) Beauty, (7)

Firmness, (8) Splendour, (9) Foundation, and (10) Kingdom. Their

evolution was as follows: "When the Holy Aged, the concealed of all

concealed, assumed a form, he produced everything in the form of male

and female, as things could not continue in any other form. Hence

Wisdom, the second Sephirah, and the beginning of development, when it

proceeded from the Holy Aged (another name of the first Sephirah)

emanated in male and female, for Wisdom expanded, and Intelligence,

the third Sephirah, proceeded from it, and thus were obtained male and

female, viz. Wisdom the father and Intelligence the mother, from whose

union the other pairs of Sephiroth successively emanated" (_Zohar_,

iii. 290). These two opposite potencies, viz. the masculine Wisdom or

Sephirah No. 2 and the feminine Intelligence or Sephirah No. 3 are

joined together by the first potency, the Crown or Sephirah No. 1;

they yield the first triad of the Sephiric decade, and constitute the

divine head of the archetypal man.

From the junction of Sephiroth Nos. 2 and 3 emanated the masculine

potency Love or Mercy (4) and the feminine potency Justice (5), and

from the junction of the latter two emanated again the uniting potency

Beauty (6). Beauty, the sixth Sephirah, constitutes the chest in the

archetypal man, and unites Love (4) and Justice (5), which constitute

the divine arms, thus yielding the second triad of the Sephiric

decade. From this second conjunction emanated again the masculine

potency Firmness (7) and the feminine potency Splendour (8), which

constitute the divine legs of the archetypal man; and these sent forth

Foundation (9), which is the genital organ and medium of union between

them, thus yielding the third triad in the Sephiric decade. Kingdom

(10), which emanated from the ninth Sephirah, encircles all the other

nine, inasmuch as it is the Shechinah, the divine halo, which

encompasses the whole by its all-glorious presence.

In their totality and unity the ten Sephiroth are not only denominated

the World of Sephiroth, or the World of Emanations, but, owing to the

above representation, are called the primordial or archetypal man (=

[Greek: protogonos]) and the heavenly man. It is this form which, as we

are assured, the prophet Ezekiel saw in the mysterious chariot (Ezek. i.

1-28), and of which the earthly man is a faint copy.

As the three triads respectively represent intellectual, moral and

physical qualities, the first is called the Intellectual, the second the

Moral or Sensuous, and the third the Material World. According to this

theory of the archetypal man the three Sephiroth on the right-hand side

are masculine and represent the principle of rigour, the three on the

left are feminine and represent the principle of mercy, and the four

central or uniting Sephiroth represent the principle of mildness. Hence

the right is called "the Pillar of Judgment," the left "the Pillar of

Mercy," and the centre "the Middle Pillar." The middle Sephiroth are

synecdochically used to represent the worlds or triads of which they are

the uniting potencies. Hence the Crown, the first Sephirah, which unites

Wisdom and Intelligence to constitute the first triad, is by itself

denominated the Intellectual World. So Beauty is by itself described as

the Sensuous World, and in this capacity is called the Sacred King or

simply the King, whilst Kingdom, the tenth Sephirah, which unites all

the nine Sephiroth, is used to denote the Material World, and as such is

denominated the Queen or the Matron. Thus a trinity of units, viz. the

Crown, Beauty and Kingdom, is obtained within the trinity of triads. But

further, each Sephirah is as it were a trinity in itself. It (1) has its

own absolute character, (2) receives from above, and (3) communicates to

what is below. "Just as the Sacred Aged is represented by the number

three, so are all the other lights (Sephiroth) of a threefold nature"

(_Zohar_, iii. 288). In this all-important doctrine of the Sephiroth,

the Kabbalah insists upon the fact that these potencies are not

creations of the En Soph, which would be a diminution of strength; that

they form among themselves and with the En Soph a strict unity, and

simply represent different aspects of the same being, just as the

different rays which proceed from the light, and which appear different

things to the eye, are only different manifestations of one and the same

light; that for this reason they all alike partake of the perfections of

the En Soph; and that as emanations from the Infinite, the Sephiroth are

infinite and perfect like the En Soph, and yet constitute the first

finite things. They are infinite and perfect when the En Soph imparts

his fullness to them, and finite and imperfect when that fullness is

withdrawn from them.

The Universe.

The conjunction of the Sephiroth, or, according to the language of the

Kabbalah, the union of the crowned King and Queen, produced the universe

in their own image. Worlds came into existence before the En Soph

manifested himself in the human form of emanations, but they could not

continue, and necessarily perished because the conditions of development

which obtained with the sexual opposites of the Sephiroth did not exist.

These worlds which perished are compared to sparks which fly out from a

red-hot iron beaten by a hammer, and which are extinguished according to

the distance they are removed from the burning mass. Creation is not

_ex nihilo_; it is simply a further expansion or evolution of the

Sephiroth.[3] The world reveals and makes visible the Boundless and the

concealed of the concealed. And, though it exhibits the Deity in less

splendour than its Sephiric parents exhibit the En Soph, because it is

farther removed from the primordial source of light than the Sephiroth,

still, as it is God manifested, all the multifarious forms in the world

point out the unity which they represent. Hence nothing in the whole

universe can be annihilated. Everything, spirit as well as body, must

return to the source whence it emanated (_Zohar_, ii. 218). The universe

consists of four different worlds, each of which forms a separate

Sephiric system of a decade of emanations.

They were evolved in the following order. (1) The World Of Emanations,

also called the Image and the Heavenly or Archetypal Man, is, as we

have seen, a direct emanation from the En Soph. Hence it is most

intimately allied to the Deity, and is perfect and immutable. From the

conjunction of the King and Queen (i.e. these ten Sephiroth) is

produced (2) the World of Creation, or the Briatic world, also called

"the Throne." Its ten Sephiroth, being farther removed from the En

Soph, are of a more limited and circumscribed potency, though the

substances they comprise are of the purest nature and without any

admixture of matter. The angel Metatron inhabits this world. He alone

constitutes the world of pure spirit, and is the garment of Shaddai,

i.e. the visible manifestation of the Deity. His name is numerically

equivalent to that of the Lord (_Zohar_, iii. 231). He governs the

visible world, preserves the harmony and guides the revolutions of all

the spheres, and is the captain of all the myriads of angelic beings.

This Briatic world again gave rise to (3) the World of Formation, or

Yetziratic World. Its ten Sephiroth, being still farther removed from

the Primordial Source, are of a less refined substance. Still they are

yet without matter. It is the abode of the angels, who are wrapped in

luminous garments, and who assume a sensuous form when they appear to

men. The myriads of the angelic hosts who people this world are

divided into ten ranks, answering to the ten Sephiroth, and each one

of these numerous angels is set over a different part of the universe,

and derives his name from the heavenly body or element which he guards

(_Zohar_, i. 42). From this world finally emanated (4) the World of

Action, also called the World of Matter. Its ten Sephiroth are made up

of the grosser elements of the former three worlds; they consist of

material substance limited by space and perceptible to the senses in a

multiplicity of forms. This world is subject to constant changes and

corruption, and is the dwelling of the evil spirits. These, the

grossest and most deficient of all forms, are also divided into ten

degrees, each lower than the other. The first two are nothing more

than the absence of all visible form and organization; the third

degree is the abode of darkness; whilst the remaining seven are "the

seven infernal halls," occupied by the demons, who are the incarnation

of all human vices. These seven hells are subdivided into innumerable

compartments corresponding to every species of sin, where the demons

torture the poor deluded human beings who have suffered themselves to

be led astray whilst on earth. The prince of this region of darkness

is Samael, the evil spirit, the serpent who seduced Eve. His wife is

the Harlot or the Woman of Whoredom. The two are treated as one

person, and are called "the Beast" (_Zohar_, ii. 255-259, with i. 35).

Doctrine of Man.

The whole universe, however, was incomplete, and did not receive its

finishing stroke till man was formed, who is the acme of the creation

and the microcosm. "The heavenly Adam (i.e. the ten Sephiroth) who

emanated from the highest primordial obscurity (i.e. the En Soph)

created the earthly Adam" (_Zohar_, ii. 70). "Man is both the import and

the highest degree of creation, for which reason he was formed on the

sixth day. As soon as man was created everything was complete, including

the upper and nether worlds, for everything is comprised in man. He

unites in himself all forms" (_Zohar_, iii. 48). Each member of his body

corresponds to a part of the visible universe. "Just as we see in the

firmament above, covering all things, different signs which are formed

of the stars and the planets, and which contain secret things and

profound mysteries studied by those who are wise and expert in these

things; so there are in the skin, which is the cover of the body of the

son of man, and which is like the sky that covers all things above,

signs and features which are the stars and planets of the skin,

indicating secret things and profound mysteries whereby the wise are

attracted who understand the reading of the mysteries in the human

face" (_Zohar_, ii. 76). The human form is shaped after the four letters

which constitute the Jewish Tetragrammaton (q.v.; see also JEHOVAH). The

head is in the shape of [Hebrew: iod], the arms and the shoulders are

like [Hebrew: hei], the breast like [Hebrew: vav], and the two legs with

the back again resemble [Hebrew: hei] (_Zohar_, ii. 72). The souls of

the whole human race pre-exist in the World of Emanations, and are all

destined to inhabit human bodies. Like the Sephiroth from which it

emanates, every soul has ten potencies, consisting of a trinity of

triads. (1) The Spirit (_neshamah_), which is the highest degree of

being, corresponds to and is operated upon by the Crown, which is the

highest triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Intellectual World;

(2) the Soul (_ruah_), which is the seat of the moral qualities,

corresponds to and is operated upon by Beauty, which is the second triad

in the Sephiroth, and is called the Moral World; and (3) the Cruder Soul

(_nephesh_), which is immediately connected with the body, and is the

cause of its lower instincts and the animal life, corresponds to and is

operated upon by Foundation, the third triad in the Sephiroth, called

the Material World. Each soul prior to its entering into this world

consists of male and female united into one being. When it descends on

this earth the two parts are separated and animate two different bodies.

"At the time of marriage the Holy One, blessed be he, who knows all

souls and spirits, unites them again as they were before; and they again

constitute one body and one soul, forming as it were the right and the

left of the individual.... This union, however, is influenced by the

deeds of the man and by the ways in which he walks. If the man is pure

and his conduct is pleasing in the sight of God, he is united with that

female part of the soul which was his component part prior to his birth"

(_Zohar_, i. 91). The soul's destiny upon earth is to develop those

perfections the germs of which are eternally implanted in it, and it

ultimately must return to the infinite source from which it emanated.

Hence, if, after assuming a body and sojourning upon earth, it becomes

polluted by sin and fails to acquire the experience for which it

descends from heaven, it must three times reinhabit a body, till it is

able to ascend in a purified state through repeated trials. If, after

its third residence in a human body, it is still too weak to withstand

the contamination of sin, it is united with another soul, in order that

by their combined efforts it may resist the pollution which by itself it

was unable to conquer. When the whole pleroma of pre-existent souls in

the world of the Sephiroth shall have descended and occupied human

bodies and have passed their period of probation and have returned

purified to the bosom of the infinite Source, then the soul of Messiah

will descend from the region of souls; then the great Jubilee will

commence. There shall be no more sin, no more temptation, no more

suffering. Universal restoration will take place. Satan himself, "the

venomous Beast," will be restored to his angelic nature. Life will be an

everlasting feast, a Sabbath without end. All souls will be united with

the Highest Soul, and will supplement each other in the Holy of Holies

of the Seven Halls (_Zohar_, i. 45, 168; ii. 97).

Antiquity and Influence of Kabbalah.

According to the Kabbalah all these esoteric doctrines are contained in

the Hebrew Scriptures. The uninitiated cannot perceive them; but they

are plainly revealed to the spiritually minded, who discern the profound

import of this theosophy beneath the surface of the letters and words of

Holy Writ. "If the law simply consists of ordinary expressions and

narratives, such as the words of Esau, Hagar, Laban, the ass of Balaam

or Balaam himself, why should it be called the law of truth, the perfect

law, the true witness of God? Each word contains a sublime source, each

narrative points not only to the single instance in question, but also

to generals" (_Zohar_, iii. 149, cf. 152).

To obtain these heavenly mysteries, which alone make the Torah

superior to profane codes, definite hermeneutical rules are employed,

of which the following are the most important. (1) The words of

several verses in the Hebrew Scriptures which are regarded as

containing a recondite sense are placed over each other, and the

letters are formed into new words by reading them vertically. (2) The

words of the text are ranged in squares in such a manner as to be read

either vertically or boustrophedon. (3) The words are joined together

and redivided. (4) The initials and final letters of several words are

formed into separate words. (5) Every letter of a word is reduced to

its numerical value, and the word is explained by another of the same

quantity. (6) Every letter of a word is taken to be the initial or

abbreviation of a word. (7) The twenty-two letters of the alphabet are

divided into two halves; one half is placed above the other; and the

two letters which thus become associated are interchanged. By this

permutation, _Aleph_, the first letter of the alphabet, becomes

_Lamed_, the twelfth letter; _Beth_ becomes _Mem_, and so on. This

cipher alphabet is called _Albam_, from the first interchangeable

pairs. (8) The commutation of the twenty-two letters is effected by

the last letter of the alphabet taking the place of the first, the

last but one the place of the second, and so forth. This cipher is

called _Atbash_. These hermeneutical canons are much older than the

Kabbalah. They obtained in the synagogue from time immemorial, and

were used by the Christian fathers in the interpretation of

Scripture.[4] Thus Canon V., according to which a word is reduced to

its numerical value and interpreted by another word of the same value,

is recognized in the New Testament (cf. Rev. xiii. 18). Canon VI. is

adopted by Irenaeus, who tells us that, according to the learned among

the Hebrews, the name Jesus contains two letters and a half, and

signifies that Lord who contains heaven and earth [[Hebrew: ieshu] =

[Hebrew: ieova shamaim vaaretz]] (_Against Heresies_, ii. xxiv., i.

205, ed. Clark). The cipher _Atbash_ (Canon VIII.) is used in Jeremiah

xxv. 26, li. 41, where Sheshach is written for Babel. In Jer. li. 1,

[Hebrew: lev kamai], _Leb-Kamai_ ("the heart of them that rise up

against me"), is written for [Hebrew: kasdim], _Chaldea_, by the same

rule.

Exegesis of this sort is not the characteristic of any single circle,

people or century; unscientific methods of biblical interpretation have

prevailed from Philo's treatment of the Pentateuch to modern apologetic

interpretations of Genesis, ch. i.[5] The Kabbalah itself is but an

extreme and remarkable development of certain forms of thought which had

never been absent from Judaism; it is bound up with earlier tendencies

to mysticism, with man's inherent striving to enter into communion with

the Deity. To seek its sources would be futile. The Pythagorean theory

of numbers, Neoplatonic ideas of emanation, the Logos, the personified

Wisdom, Gnosticism--these and many other features combine to show the

antiquity of tendencies which, clad in other shapes, are already found

in the old pre-Christian Oriental religions.[6] In its more mature form

the Kabbalah belongs to the period when medieval Christian mysticism was

beginning to manifest itself (viz. in Eckhart, towards end of 13th

century); it is an age which also produced the rationalism of Maimonides

(q.v.). Although some of its foremost exponents were famous Talmudists,

it was a protest against excessive intellectualism and Aristotelian

scholasticism. It laid stress, not on external authority, as did the

Jewish law, but on individual experience and inward meditation. "The

mystics accorded the first place to prayer, which was considered as a

mystical progress towards God, demanding a state of ecstasy."[7] As a

result, some of the finest specimens of Jewish devotional literature and

some of the best types of Jewish individual character have been

Kabbalist.[8] On the other hand, the Kabbalah has been condemned, and

nowhere more strongly than among the Jews themselves. Jewish orthodoxy

found itself attacked by the more revolutionary aspects of mysticism and

its tendencies to alter established customs. While the medieval

scholasticism denied the possibility of knowing anything unattainable by

reason, the spirit of the Kabbalah held that the Deity could be

realized, and it sought to bridge the gulf. Thus it encouraged an

unrestrained emotionalism, rank superstition, an unhealthy asceticism,

and the employment of artificial means to induce the ecstatic state.

That this brought moral laxity was a stronger reason for condemning the

Kabbalah, and the evil effects of nervous degeneration find a more

recent illustration in the mysticism of the Chasidim (_Hasidim_,

"saints"), a Jewish sect in eastern Europe which started from a movement

in the 18th century against the exaggerated casuistry of contemporary

rabbis, and combined much that was spiritual and beautiful with extreme

emotionalism and degradation.[9] The appearance of the Kabbalah and of

other forms of mysticism in Judaism may seem contrary to ordinary and

narrow conceptions of orthodox Jewish legalism. Its interest lies, not

in its doctrines, which have often been absurdly over-estimated

(particularly among Christians), but in its contribution to the study of

human thought. It supplied a want which has always been felt by certain

types, and it became a movement which had mischievous effects upon

ill-balanced minds. As usual, the excessive self-introspection was not

checked by a rational criticism; the individual was guided by his own

reason, the limitations of which he did not realize; and in becoming a

law unto himself he ignored the accumulated experiences of civilized

humanity.[10]

A feature of greater interest is the extraordinary part which this

theosophy played in the Christian Church, especially at the time of the

Renaissance. We have already seen that the Sephiric decade or the

archetypal man, like Christ, is considered to be of a double nature,

both infinite and finite, perfect and imperfect. More distinct, however,

is the doctrine of the Trinity. In Deut. vi. 43, where Yahweh occurs

first, then Elohenu, and then again Yahweh, we are told "The voice

though one, consists of three elements, fire (i.e. warmth), air (i.e.

breath), and water (i.e. humidity), yet all three are one in the mystery

of the voice and can only be one. Thus also Yahweh, Elohenu, Yahweh,

constitute one--three forms which are one" (_Zohar_, ii. 43; compare

iii. 65). Discussing the thrice holy in Isaiah vi. 3, one codex of the

_Zohar_ had the following remark: "The first holy denotes the Holy

Father, the second the Holy Son, and the third the Holy Ghost" (cf.

Galatinus, _De arcanis cathol._ lib. ii. c. 3, p. 31; Wolf, _Bibliotheca

hebraica_, i. 1136). Still more distinct is the doctrine of the

atonement. "The Messiah invokes all the sufferings, pain, and

afflictions of Israel to come upon Him. Now if He did not remove them

thus and take them upon Himself, no man could endure the sufferings of

Israel, due as their punishment for transgressing the law; as it is

written (Isa. liii. 4), Surely He hath borne our griefs and carried our

sorrows" (_Zohar_, ii. 12). These and similar statements favouring the

doctrines of the New Testament made many Kabbalists of the highest

position in the synagogue embrace the Christian faith and write

elaborate books to win their Jewish brethren over to Christ. As early as

1450 a company of Jewish converts in Spain, at the head of which were

Paul de Heredia, Vidal de Saragossa de Aragon, and Davila, published

compilations of Kabbalistic treatises to prove from them the doctrines

of Christianity. They were followed by Paul Rici, professor at Pavia,

and physician to the emperor Maximilian I. Among the best-known

non-Jewish exponents of the Kabbalah were the Italian count Pico di

Mirandola (1463-1494), the renowned Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522),

Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa of Nettesheim (1487-1535), Theophrastus

Paracelsus (1493-1541), and, later, the Englishman Robert Fludd

(1574-1637). Prominent among the "nine hundred theses" which Mirandola

had placarded in Rome, and which he undertook to defend in the presence

of all European scholars, whom he invited to the Eternal City, promising

to defray their travelling expenses, was the following: "No science

yields greater proof of the divinity of Christ than magic and the

Kabbalah." Mirandola so convinced Pope Sixtus of the paramount

importance of the Kabbalah as an auxiliary to Christianity that his

holiness exerted himself to have Kabbalistic writings translated into

Latin for the use of divinity students. With equal zeal did Reuchlin act

as the apostle of the Kabbalah. His treatises exercised an almost magic

influence upon the greatest thinkers of the time. Pope Leo X. and the

early Reformers were alike captivated by the charms of the Kabbalah as

propounded by Reuchlin, and not only divines, but statesmen and

warriors, began to study the Oriental languages in order to be able to

fathom the mysteries of Jewish theosophy. The _Zohar_, that farrago of

absurdity and spiritual devotion, was the weapon with which these

Christians defended Jewish literature against hostile ecclesiastic

bodies (Abrahams, _Jew. Lit._ p. 106). Thus the Kabbalah linked the old

scholasticism with the new and independent inquiries in learning and

philosophy after the Renaissance, and although it had evolved a

remarkably bizarre conception of the universe, it partly anticipated, in

its own way, the scientific study of natural philosophy.[11] Jewish

theosophy, then, with its good and evil tendencies, and with its varied

results, may thus claim to have played no unimportant part in the

history of European scholarship and thought.