JUSTINIAN II. KARAMAN
JUSTIN MARTYR KARAMANIA
JUTE KARAMNASA
JUTERBOG KARA MUSTAFA
JUTES KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH
JUTIGALPA KARA SEA
JUTLAND KARASU-BAZAR
JUTURNA KARATEGHIN
JUVENAL KARAULI
JUVENCUS, GAIUS AQUILINUS KAREN
JUVENILE OFFENDERS KAREN-NI
JUVENTAS KARIKAL
JUXON, WILLIAM KARLI
K KARLOWITZ
K2 KARLSKRONA
KA'BA, KAABA KARLSRUHE
KABARDIA KARLSTAD
KABBA KARLSTADT
KABBABISH KARMA
KABBALAH KARMAN, JOZSEF
KABINDA KARNAK
KABIR KARNAL
KABUL KAROLYI, ALOYS
KABUL RIVER KAROSS
KABYLES KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE
KACH GANDAVA KARRER, FELIX
KACHIN HILLS KARROO
KADUR KARS (province of Russia)
KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT KARS (town of Russia)
KAFFA KARSHI
KAFFIR BREAD KARST
KAFFIRS KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD
KAFFRARIA KARTIKEYA
KAFIRISTAN KARUN
KAGERA KARWAR
KAHLUR KARWI
KAHN, GUSTAVE KARYOGAMY
KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST KASAI
K'AI-FENG FU KASBEK
KAILAS KASHAN
KAIN KASHGAR
KAIRA KASHI
KAIRAWAN KASHMIR
KAISERSLAUTERN KASHMIRI
KAISERSWERTH KASHUBES
KAITHAL KASIMOV
KAKAPO KASSA
KAKAR KASSALA
KALA-AZAR KASSASSIN
KALABAGH KASSITES
KALACH KASTAMUNI
KALAHANDI KASTORIA
KALAHARI DESERT KASUR
KALAMATA KATAGUM
KALAMAZOO KATANGA
KALAPUYA KATER, HENRY
KALAT KATHA
KALAT-I-GHILZAI KATHIAWAR
KALB, JOHANN KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH
KALCKREUTH, FRIEDRICH ADOLF KATMANDU
KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD KATO, TAKA-AKIRA
KALEIDOSCOPE KATRINE, LOCH
KALERGIS, DIMITRI KATSENA
KALEWALA KATSURA, TARO
KALGAN KATTERFELTO, GUSTAVUS
KALGOORLIE KATTOWITZ
KALI KATWA
KALIDASA KATYDID
KALIMPONG KAUFBEUREN
KALINGA KAUFFMANN, [MARIA ANNA] ANGELICA
KALINJAR KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH
KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER KAUKAUNA
KALISCH, ISIDOR KAULBACH, WILHELM VON
KALISCH, MARCUS KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON
KALISPEL KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB
KALISZ (government of Poland) KAURI PINE
KALISZ (town of Poland) KAVA
KALK KAVADH
KALKAS KAVALA
KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH
KALLAY, BENJAMIN VON KAVANAGH, JULIA
KALMAR KAVASS
KALMUCK KAVIRONDO
KALNOKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND KAW
KALOCSA KAWARDHA
KALPI KAY, JOHN
KALUGA (government of Russia) KAY, JOSEPH
KALUGA (town of Russia) KAYAK
KALYAN KAYASTH
KAMA KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM
KAMALA KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL
KAMCHATKA KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS
KAME KAZALA
KAMENETS PODOLSKIY KAZAN (government of Russia)
KAMENZ KAZAN (town of Russia)
KAMES, HENRY HOME KAZERUN
KAMMIN KAZINCZY, FERENCZ
KAMPEN KAZVIN
KAMPTEE KEAN, EDMUND
KAMRUP KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH
KAMYSHIN KEARNEY
KANAKA KEARNY, PHILIP
KANARA KEARNY
KANARESE KEARY, ANNIE
KANARIS, CONSTANTINE KEATE, JOHN
KANAUJ KEATS, JOHN
KANDAHAR KEBLE, JOHN
KANDI KECSKEMET
KANDY KEDDAH
KANE, ELISHA KENT KEDGEREE
KANE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) KEEL
KANGAROO KEELEY, MARY ANNE
KANGAROO-RAT KEELING ISLANDS
KANGAVAR KEEL-MOULDING
KANGRA KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL
KANISHKA KEENE, LAURA
KANKAKEE KEENE (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)
KANKER KEEP, ROBERT PORTER
KANO KEEP
KANSAS KEEWATIN
KANSAS CITY (Kansas, U.S.A.) KEF
KANSAS CITY (Missouri, U.S.A.) KEHL
KANSK KEIGHLEY
KAN-SUH KEI ISLANDS
KANT, IMMANUEL KEIM, KARL THEODOR
KANURI KEITH (old Scottish family)
KAOLIN KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES
KAPUNDA KEITH, GEORGE
KAPURTHALA KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE
KARACHI KEITH (burgh of Scotland)
KARAGEORGE KEJ
KARA-HISSAR KEKULE, FRIEDRICH AUGUST
KARA-HISSAR SHARKI KELLER, ALBERT
KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES KELLER, GOTTFRIED
KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH KELLER, HELEN ADAMS
KARA-KALPAKS KELLERMANN, FRANCOIS CHRISTOPHE DE
KARAKORUM KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK
KARA-KUL KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE
KARA-KUM KELLS
JUSTINIAN II., RHINOTMETUS (669-711), East Roman emperor 685-695 and
704-711, succeeded his father Constantine IV., at the age of sixteen.
His reign was unhappy both at home and abroad. After a successful
invasion he made a truce with the Arabs, which admitted them to the
joint possession of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 12,000
Christian Maronites from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a
command over Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by
conquering all Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the
Bulgarians. Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the
emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the rapacity
with which, through his creatures Stephanus and Theodatus, he extorted
the means of gratifying his sumptuous tastes and his mania for erecting
costly buildings, drove his subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose
under Leontius, and, after cutting off the emperor's nose (whence his
surname), banished him to Cherson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a reign
of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius
Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Justinian meanwhile had escaped
from Cherson and married Theodora, sister of Busirus, khan of the
Khazars. Compelled, however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his
new home, he fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of
15,000 horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople, slew his
rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their partisans, and
once more ascended the throne in 704. His second reign was marked by an
unsuccessful war against Terbelis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by
devastating expeditions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and
Cherson, where he inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected
nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards his
subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus,
assumed the purple, and Justinian, the last of the house of Heraclius,
was assassinated in Asia Minor, December 711.
See E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury,
1896), v. 179-183; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), ii.
320-330, 358-367.
JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian apologists, was
born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc. _Sichem_), now Nablus, in
Palestinian Syria (Samaria). His parents, according to his own account,
were Pagans (_Dial. c. Tryph._ 28). He describes the course of his
religious development in the introduction to the dialogue with the Jew
Trypho, in which he relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger
brought him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of
truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough study
of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans, Stoics and
Platonists, brought home to Justin the conviction that true knowledge
was not to be found in them. On the other hand, he came to look upon the
Old Testament prophets as approved by their antiquity, sanctity, mystery
and prophecies to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us
in another place (_Apol._ ii. 12), must be added the deep impression
produced upon him by the life and death of Christ. His conversion
apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places his
decisive interview with the old man, and there he had those discussions
with Jews and converts to Judaism, the results of which he in later
years set down in his _Dialogue_. After his conversion he retained his
philosopher's cloak (Euseb., _Hist. Eccl._ iv. 11. 8), the distinctive
badge of the wandering professional teacher of philosophy, and went
about from place to place discussing the truths of Christianity in the
hope of bringing educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought,
through philosophy to Christ. In Rome he made a fairly long stay, giving
lectures in a class-room of his own, though not without opposition from
his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents was the Cynic Crescentius
(_Apol._ ii. 13). Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 16. 7-8) concludes
somewhat hastily, from the statement of Justin and his disciple Tatian
(_Orat. ad Graec._ 19), that the accusation of Justin before the
authorities, which led to his death, was due to Crescentius. But we
know, from the undoubtedly genuine _Acta SS Justini et sociorum_, that
Justin suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus between
163 and 167.
To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian, we must turn
to his _Apology_ and to the _Dialogue_ with the Jew Trypho, for the
authenticity of all other extant works attributed to him is disputed
with good reason. The _Apology_--it is more correct to speak of one
_Apology_ than of two, for the second is only a continuation of the
first, and dependent upon it--was written in Rome about 150. In the
first part Justin defends his fellow-believers against the charge of
atheism and hostility to the state. He then draws a positive
demonstration of the truth of his religion from the effects of the new
faith, and especially from the excellence of its moral teaching, and
concludes with a comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which
the latter are set down with naive confidence as the work of demons. As
the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity appears his
detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the old dispensation,
which are older than the Pagan poets and philosophers, have found their
fulfilment in Christianity. A third part shows, from the practices of
their religious worship, that the Christians had in truth dedicated
themselves to God. The whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with
a reference to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians.
In the so-called _Second Apology_, Justin takes occasion from the trial
of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the innocence of the
Christians was proved by the very persecutions.
Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By his
conscious recognition of the Greek philosophy as a preparation for the
truths of the Christian religion, he appears as the first and most
distinguished in the long list of those who have endeavoured to
reconcile Christian with non-Christian culture. Christianity consists
for him in the doctrines, guaranteed by the manifestation of the Logos
in the person of Christ, of God, righteousness and immortality, truths
which have been to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic
religious philosophies. In this process the conviction of the
reconciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the world and
the individual through Christ, fell into the background before the
vindication of supernatural truths intellectually conceived. Thus Justin
may give the impression of having rationalized Christianity, and of not
having given it its full value as a religion of salvation. It must not,
however, be forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of
Christianity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view of
life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not expect an
intimate comprehension of the religious position of Christians. That he
himself had a thorough comprehension of it he showed in the _Dialogue_
with the Jew Trypho. Here, where he had to deal with the Judaism that
believed in a Messiah, he was far better able to do justice to
Christianity as a revelation; and so we find that the arguments of this
work are much more completely in harmony with primitive Christian
theology than those of the _Apology_. He also displays in this work a
considerable knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful
polemical method which was surpassed by none of the later anti-Jewish
writers.
Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian Church
in the middle of the 2nd century. While we have elsewhere no connected
account of this, Justin's _Apology_ contains a few paragraphs (61 seq.),
which give a vivid description of the public worship of the Church and
its method of celebrating the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist).
And from this it is clear that though, as a theologian, Justin wished to
go his own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make his
standpoint that of the Church and its baptismal confession of faith. His
works are also of great value for the history of the New Testament
writings. He knows of no canon of the New Testament, i.e. no fixed and
inclusive collection of the apostolic writings. His sources for the
teachings of Jesus are the "Memoirs of the Apostles," by which are
probably to be understood the Synoptic Gospels (without the Gospel
according to St John), which, according to his account, were read along
with the prophetic writings at the public services. From his writings we
derive the impression of an amiable personality, who is honestly at
pains to arrive at an understanding with his opponents. As a theologian,
he is of wide sympathies; as a writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat
dull. There are not many traces of any particular literary influence of
his writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise us.
The Church as a whole took but little interest in apologetics and
polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive feeling that in these
controversies that which she held holy might easily suffer loss. Thus
Justin's writings were not much read, and at the present time both the
_Apology_ and the _Dialogue_ are preserved in but a single MS. (cod.
Paris, 450, A.D. 1364).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The editions of Robert Etienne (Stephanus) (1551); H.
Sylburg (1593); F. Morel (1615); Prudentius Maranuis (1742) are
superseded by J. C. T. Otto, _Justini philosophi et martyris opera
quae feruntur omnia_ (3rd ed. 5 vols., Jena, 1876-1881). This edition
contains besides the _Apologies_ (vol. i.) and the _Dialogue_ (vol.
ii.) the following writings: _Speech to the Greeks_ (_Oratio_);
_Address to the Greeks_ (_Cohortatio_): _On the Monarchy of God_;
_Epistle to Diognetus_; _Fragments on the Resurrection and other
Fragments_; _Exposition of the True Faith_; _Epistle to Zenas and
Serenus_; _Refutation of certain Doctrines of Aristotle_; _Questions
and Answers to the Orthodox_; _Questions of Christians to Pagans_;
_Questions of Pagans to Christians_. None of these writings, not even
the _Cohortatio_, which former critics ascribed to Justin, can be
attributed to him. The authenticity of the _Dialogue_ has occasionally
been disputed, but without reason. For a handy edition of the
_Apology_ see G. Kruger, _Die Apologien Justins des Martyrers_ (3rd
ed. Tubingen, 1904). There is a good German translation with a
comprehensive commentary by H. Veil (1894). For English translations
consult the "Oxford Library of the Fathers" and the "Ante-Nicene
Library." Full information about Justin's history and views may be had
from the following monographs: C. Semisch, _Justin der Martyrer_ (2
vols., 1840-1842); J. Donaldson, _A Critical History of Christian
Literature and Doctrine_, vol. 2 (1866); C. E. Freppel, _St Justin_
(3rd ed., 1886); Moritz von Engelhardt, _Das Christentum Justins des
Martyrers_ (1878); T. M. Wehofer, _Die Apologie Justins des
Philosophen und Martyrers in litterarhistorischer Beziehung zum ersten
Male untersucht_ (1897); Alfred Leonhard Feder, _Justins des Martyrers
Lehre von Jesus Christus_ (1906). On the critical questions raised by
the spurious writings consult W. Gaul, _Die Abfassungsverhaltnisse der
pseudo-justinischen Cohortatio ad Graecos_ (1902); Adolf Harnack,
_Diodor von Tarsus. Vier pseudo-justinische Schriften als Eigentum
Diodors nachgewiesen_ (1901). (G. K.)
JUTE, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manufacturing
scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute appears to have
been first used in 1746, when the captain of the "Wake" noted in his log
that he had sent on shore "60 bales of gunney with all the jute rope"
(_New Eng. Dict. s.v._). In 1795 W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of
the East India Company a bale of the fibre which he described as "the
jute of the natives." Importations of the substance had been made at
earlier times under the name of _pat_, an East Indian native term by
which the fibre continued to be spoken of in England till the early
years of the 19th century, when it was supplanted by the name it now
bears. This modern name appears to be derived from _jhot_ or _jhout_
(Sansk. _jhat_), the vernacular name by which the substance is known in
the Cuttack district, where the East India Company had extensive
roperies when Roxburgh first used the term.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Capsules of Jute Plants. a, _Corchorus
capsularis_; b, C. _olitorius_.]
The fibre is obtained from two species of _Corchorus_ (nat. ord.
_Tiliaceae_), _C. capsularis_ and _C. olitorius_, the products of both
being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agriculture is
any distinction made between them. These and various other species of
_Corchorus_ are natives of Bengal, where they have been cultivated from
very remote times for economic purposes, although there is reason to
believe that the cultivation did not originate in the northern parts of
India. The two species cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects
very similar to each other, except in their fructification and the
relatively greater size attained by _C. capsularis_. They are annual
plants from 5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a
man's finger, and hardly branching except near the top. The light-green
leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by 1(1/2) in. broad above the base, and
taper upward into a fine point; the edges are serrated; the two lower
teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The small whitish-yellow
flowers are produced in clusters of two or three opposite the leaves.
The capsules or seed-pods in the case of _C. capsularis_ are globular,
rough and wrinkled, while in _C. olitorius_ they are slender, quill-like
cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked distinction, as may be noted
from fig. 1, in which a and b show the capsules of _C. capsularis_ and
_C. olitorius_ respectively. Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of _C.
olitorius_.
Both species are cultivated in India, not only on account of their
fibre, but also for the sake of their leaves, which are there
extensively used as a pot-herb. The use of _C. olitorius_ for the latter
purpose dates from very ancient times, if it may be identified, as some
suppose, with the mallows ([Hebrew: maluah]) mentioned in Job xxx. 4;
hence the name Jew's mallow. It is certain that the Greeks used this
plant as a pot-herb; and by many other nations around the shores of the
Mediterranean this use of it was, and is still, common. Throughout
Bengal the name by which the plants when used as edible vegetables are
recognized is _nalita_; when on the other hand they are spoken of as
fibre-producers it is generally under the name _pat_. The cultivation of
_C. capsularis_ is most prevalent in central and eastern Bengal, while
in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where, however, the area under
cultivation is limited, _C. olitorius_ is principally grown. The fibre
known as China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the product of another plant,
_Abutilon Avicennae_, a member of the Mallow family.
_Cultivation and Cropping._--Attempts have been made to grow the jute
plant in America, Egypt, Africa and other places, but up to the present
the fibre has proved much inferior to that obtained from plants grown in
India. Here the cultivation of the plant extends from the Hugli through
eastern and northern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant
demands a hot, moist climate, with a fair amount of rain. Too much rain
at the beginning of the season is detrimental to the growth, while a
very dry season is disastrous. The climate of eastern and northern
Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth of the plant.
The quality of the fibre and the produce per acre depend in a measure on
the preparation of the soil. The ground should be ploughed about four
times and all weeds removed. The seed is then sown broadcast as in the
case of flax. It is only within quite recent years that any attention
has been paid to the selection of the seed. The following extract from
_Capital_ (Jan. 17, 1907) indicates the new interest taken in it.
"Jute seed experiments are being continued and the report for 1906 has
been issued. The object of these experiments is, of course, to obtain
a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially for no other
purpose than to obtain their seed. The agricultural department has
about 300 maunds (25,000 lb.) of selected seed for distribution this
year. The selling price is to be _Rs._ 10 per maund. The agricultural
department of the government of Bengal are now fully alive to the
importance of fostering the jute industry by showing conclusively that
attention to scientific agriculture will make two maunds of jute grow
where only one maund grew before. Let them go on (as they will) till
all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated into the new system."
The time of sowing extends from the middle of March to the middle of
June, while the reaping, which depends upon the time of sowing and upon
the weather, is performed from the end of June to the middle of October.
The crop is said to be ready for gathering when the flowers appear; if
gathered before, the fibre is weak, while if left until the seed is
ripe, the fibre is stronger, but is coarser and lacks the characteristic
lustre.
The fibre is separated from the stalks by a process of retting similar
to that for flax and hemp. In certain districts of Bengal it is the
practice to stack the crop for a few days previous to retting in order
to allow the leaves to dry and to drop off the stalks. It is stated that
the colour of the fibre is darkened if the leaves are allowed to remain
on during the process of retting. It is also thought that the drying of
the plants before retting facilitates the separation of the fibre. Any
simple operation which improves the colour of the fibre or shortens the
operation of retting is worthy of consideration. The benefits to be
derived from the above process, however, cannot be great, for the
bundles are usually taken direct to the pools and streams. The period
necessary for the completion of the retting process varies according to
the temperature and to the properties of the water, and may occupy from
two days to a month. After the first few days of immersion the stalks
are examined daily to test the progress of the retting. When the fibres
are easily separated from the stalk, the operation is complete and the
bundles should be withdrawn. The following description of the retting of
jute is taken from Royle's _Fibrous Plants of India_:--
"The proper point being attained, the native operator, standing up to
his middle in water, takes as many of the sticks in his hands as he
can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the ends next
the roots, and grasping them together, he strips off the whole with a
little management from end to end, without breaking either stem or
fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this half state, he
next proceeds to wash off: this is done by taking a large handful;
swinging it round his head he dashes it repeatedly against the surface
of the water, drawing it through towards him, so as to wash off the
impurities; then, with a dexterous throw he fans it out on the surface
of the water and carefully picks off all remaining black spots. It is
now wrung out so as to remove as much water as possible, and then hung
up on lines prepared on the spot, to dry in the sun."
The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for sending to
one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted into different
qualities, and then each lot is subjected to an enormous hydraulic
pressure from which it emerges in the shape of the well-known bales,
each weighing 400 lb.
The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil, and upon the
attention which the fibre has received in its various stages; the yield
per acre varies in different districts. Three bales per acre, or 1200
lb. is termed a 100% crop, but the usual quantity obtained is about 2.6
bales per acre. Sometimes the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales
each. The crop in 1906 reached nearly 9,000,000 bales, and in 1907
nearly 10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued on
the 19th of September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Souter & Co., Dundee:--
+---------+-----------+---------------+-------------+----------------------+---------------------+--------------+-----------+
| | |Estimated yield| Estimated | Shipment to Europe. | Shipment to America.| Supplies to | Out-turn |
| Year. | Actual | (100% | total +-----------+----------+---------+-----------+ Indian mills |total crop.|
| | acreage. | equal 3 bales | crop. | Jute. | Cuttings.| Jute. | Cuttings. | and local | Bales. |
| | | per acre). | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | consumption. | |
+---------+-----------+---------------+-------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
|1901--1st| 2,216,500 | 94% = | 6,250,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,249,000 | 96% = | 6,500,000 | 3,528,691 | 54,427 | 295,921 | 426,331 | 3,100,000 = | 7,405,370 |
|1902--1st| 2,200,000 | 80% = | 5,280.000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,200,000 | 80% = | 5,280,000 | 2,773,621 | 39,019 | 230,415 | 207,999 | 2,600,000 = | 5,851,054 |
|1903--1st| 2,100,000 | 85% = | 5,400,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,250,000 | 93(3/4)% = | 6,500,000 | 3,161,791 | 59,562 | 329,048 | 236,959 | 3,650,000 = | 7,437,360 |
|1904--1st| 2,700,000 | 87(1/2)% = | 7,100,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,850,000 | 85% = | 7,400,000 | 2,939,940 | 44,002 | 253,882 | 290,854 | 3,475,782 = | 7,004,460 |
|1905--1st| 3,163,500 | 87% = | 8,250,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 3,145,000 | 87% = | 8,200,000 \| | | | | \ | |
| | | Outlying | 200,000 /| 3,483,315 | 63,118 | 347,974 | 245,044 | 4,018,523 / =| 8,233,358 |
| | | | Madras | 75,384 | | | | | |
|1906--1st| 3,271,400\| 87% = | 8,713,000 | | | | | | |
|Outlying | 67,000/| Madras | 100,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 3,336,400 | | 8,736,220 | | | | | | |
| (Outlying Districts and Madras, say 250,000 | | | | | | |
| bales additional) | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
Estimated consumption of jute 1906-1907.
In Europe Bales per annum.
Scotland 1,250,000
England 20,000
Ireland 25,000
France 475,000
Belgium 120,000
Germany 750,000
Austria and Bohemia 262,000
Norway and Sweden 62,500
Russia 180,000
Holland 25,000
Spain 90,000
Italy 160,000
------- 3,419,500 bales
In America 600,000
------- 600,000 "
In India--
Mills 3,900,000
Local 500,000
--------- 4,400,000 "
---------------
8,419,500 bales
Statistics of consumption of jute, rejections and cuttings.
+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Consumption. | 1894. | 1904. | 1906. |
| | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. |
+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| United Kingdom | 1,200,000 | 1,200,000 | 1,295,000 |
| Continent | 1,100,000 | 1,800,000 | 2,124,500 |
| America | 500,000 | 500,000 | 600,000 |
| Indian mills | 1,500,000 | 2,900,000 | 3,900,000 |
| Local Indian consumption | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total jute crop consumption| 4,800,000 | 6,900,000 | 8,419,500 |
+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made during 1906, and
the report showed that very encouraging results were obtained from land
manured with cow-dung. If more scientific attention be given to the
cultivation it is quite possible that what is now considered as 100%
yield may be exceeded.
_Characteristics._--The characters by which qualities of jute are judged
are colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness, uniformity and
absence of roots. The best qualities are of a clear whitish-yellow
colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and smooth to the touch, and
fine, long and uniform in fibre. When the fibre is intended for goods in
the natural colour it is essential that it should be of a light shade
and uniform, but if intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark
shade, the colour is not so important. The cultivated plant yields a
fibre with a length of from 6 to 10 ft., but in exceptional cases it has
been known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in length. The fibre is decidedly
inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing to a
peculiarity in its microscopic structure, by which the walls of the
separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness at different
points, the single strands of fibre are of unequal strength. Recently
prepared fibre is always stronger, more lustrous, softer and whiter than
such as has been stored for some time--age and exposure rendering it
brown in colour and harsh and brittle in quality. Jute, indeed, is much
more woody in texture than either flax or hemp, a circumstance which may
be easily demonstrated by its behaviour under appropriate reagents; and
to that fact is due the change in colour and character it undergoes on
exposure to the air. The fibre bleaches with facility, up to a certain
point, sufficient to enable it to take brilliant and delicate shades of
dye colour, but it is with great difficulty brought to a pure white by
bleaching. A very striking and remarkable fact, which has much practical
interest, is its highly hygroscopic nature. While in a dry position and
atmosphere it may not possess more than 6% of moisture, under damp
conditions it will absorb as much as 23%.
Sir G. Watt, in his _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_,
mentions the following eleven varieties of jute fibre: Serajganji,
Narainganji, Desi, Deora, Uttariya, Deswal, Bakrabadi, Bhatial,
Karimginji, Mirganji and Jungipuri. There are several other varieties
of minor importance. The first four form the four classes into which
the commercial fibre is divided, and they are commonly known as
Serajgunge, Naraingunge, Daisee and Dowrah. Serajgunge is a soft
fibre, but it is superior in colour, which ranges from white to grey.
Naraingunge is a strong fibre, possesses good spinning qualities, and
is very suitable for good warp yarns. Its colour, which is not so high
as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and approaches red at the
roots. All the better class yarns are spun from these two kinds.
Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness, is of good quality and of
great length; its drawback is the low colour, and hence it is not so
suitable for using in natural colour. It is, however, a valuable fibre
for carpet yarns, especially for dark yarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh
and low quality fibre, and is used principally for heavy wefts. Each
class is subdivided according to the quality and colour of the
material, and each class receives a distinctive mark called a baler's
mark. Thus, the finest fibres may be divided as follows:--
Superfine first marks.
Extra fine first marks 1st, 2nd and 3rd numbers.
Superior first marks " " "
Standard " " " " "
Good " " " " "
Ordinary " " " " "
Good second " " " "
Ordinary " " " " "
The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Corchorus olitorius_.]
Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed equal
in equality to some standard mark. It would be impossible to give a
list of the different marks, for there are hundreds, and new marks are
constantly being added. A list of all the principal marks is issued in
book form by the Calcutta Jute Baler's association.
The relative prices of the different classes depend upon the crop,
upon the demand and upon the quality of the fibre; in 1905 the prices
of Daisee jute and First Marks were practically the same, although the
former is always considered inferior to the latter. It does not follow
that a large crop of jute will result in low prices, for the year
1906-1907 was not only a record one for crops, but also for prices. R.
F. C. grade has been as high as L40 per ton, while its lowest recorded
price is L12. Similarly the price for First Marks reached L29, 15s. in
1906 as compared with L9, 5s. per ton in 1897. The following table
shows a few well-known grades with the average prices during December
for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906.
+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Class. |Dec. 1903.|Dec. 1904.|Dec. 1905.|Dec. 1906.|
+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | L s. d. | L s. d. | L s. d. | L s. d. |
| First marks | 12 15 0 | 16 0 0 | 19 15 0 | 27 15 0 |
| Blacks S C C | 11 2 6 | 14 5 0 | 17 15 0 | 20 15 0 |
| Red S C C | 12 0 0 | 14 17 6 | 18 15 0 | 23 15 0 |
| Native rejections | 8 2 6 | -- | 14 10 0 | 15 17 6 |
| S 4 group | -- | -- | 25 10 0 | 38 0 0 |
| R F block D group | -- | -- | -- | 36 0 0 |
| R F circle D group| 14 10 0 | 16 15 0 | 21 10 0 | -- |
| R F D group | 11 15 0 | 14 2 6 | 17 12 6 | 22 0 0 |
| N B green D | 14 5 0 | -- | 21 0 0 | 32 0 0 |
| Heart T 4 | 14 12 6 | 17 10 0 | 22 10 0 | 34 0 0 |
| Heart T 5 | 14 12 6 | 17 10 0 | 21 0 0 | 31 0 0 |
| Daisee 2 | 12 17 6 | -- | 18 15 0 | 25 10 0 |
| Daisee assortment | 12 10 0 | 14 17 6 | 18 5 0 | -- |
| Mixed cuttings | 4 5 0 | -- | 10 0 0 | 10 0 0 |
+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
_Jute Manufacture._--Long before jute came to occupy a prominent place
amongst the textile fibres of Europe, it formed the raw material of a
large and important industry throughout the regions of Eastern Bengal.
The Hindu population made the material up into cordage, paper and cloth,
the chief use of the latter being in the manufacture of gunny bags.
Indeed, up to 1830-1840 there was little or no competition with hand
labour for this class of material. The process of weaving gunnies for
bags and other coarse articles by these hand-loom weavers has been
described as follows:--
"Seven sticks or chattee weaving-posts, called _tana para_ or warp,
are fixed upon the ground, occupying the length equal to the measure
of the piece to be woven, and a sufficient number of twine or thread
is wound on them as warp called _tana_. The warp is taken up and
removed to the weaving machine. Two pieces of wood are placed at two
ends, which are tied to the _ohari_ and _okher_ or roller; they are
made fast to the _khoti_. The _belut_ or treadle is put into the warp;
next to that is the _sarsul_; a thin piece of wood is laid upon the
warp, called _chupari_ or regulator. There is no sley used in this,
nor is a shuttle necessary; in the room of the latter a stick covered
with thread called _singa_ is thrown into the warp as woof, which is
beaten in by a piece of plank called _beyno_, and as the cloth is
woven it is wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood
called _khetone_, which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof;
a stick is fastened to the warp to keep the woof straight."
Gunny cloth is woven of numerous qualities, according to the purpose to
which it is devoted. Some kinds are made close and dense in texture, for
carrying such seed as poppy or rape and sugar; others less close are
used for rice, pulses, and seeds of like size, and coarser and opener
kinds again are woven for the outer cover of packages and for the sails
of country boats. There is a thin close-woven cloth made and used as
garments among the females of the aboriginal tribes near the foot of the
Himalayas, and in various localities a cloth of pure jute or of jute
mixed with cotton is used as a sheet to sleep on, as well as for wearing
purposes. To indicate the variety of uses to which jute is applied, the
following quotation may be cited from the official report of Hem Chunder
Kerr as applying to Midnapur.
"The articles manufactured from jute are principally (1) gunny bags;
(2) string, rope and cord; (3) _kampa_, a net-like bag for carrying
wood or hay on bullocks; (4) _chat_, a strip of stuff for tying bales
of cotton or cloth; (5) _dola_, a swing on which infants are rocked to
sleep; (6) _shika_, a kind of hanging shelf for little earthen pots,
&c.; (7) _dulina_, a floor-cloth; (8) _beera_, a small circular stand
for wooden plates used particularly in _poojahs_; (9) painter's brush
and brush for white-washing; (10) _ghunsi_, a waist-band worn next to
the skin; (11) _gochh-dari_, a hair-band worn by women; (12) _mukbar_,
a net bag used as muzzle for cattle; (13) _parchula_, false hair worn
by players; (14) _rakhi-bandhan_, a slender arm-band worn at the
Rakhi-poornima festival; and (15) _dhup_, small incense sticks burned
at _poojahs_."
The fibre began to receive attention in Great Britain towards the close
of the 18th century, and early in the 19th century it was spun into yarn
and woven into cloth in the town of Abingdon. It is claimed that this
was the first British town to manufacture the material. For years small
quantities of jute were imported into Great Britain and other European
countries and into America, but it was not until the year 1832 that the
fibre may be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain.
The first really practical experiments with the fibre were made in this
year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experiments proved to be
the foundation of an enormous industry. It is interesting to note that
the site of Chapelshade Works was in 1907 cleared for the erection of a
large new technical college.
In common with practically all new industries progress was slow for a
time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth produced from it had
become known the development was more rapid. The pioneers of the work
were confronted with many difficulties; most people condemned the fibre
and the cloth, many warps were discarded as unfit for weaving, and any
attempt to mix the fibre with flax, tow or hemp was considered a form of
deception. The real cause of most of these objections was the fact that
suitable machinery and methods of treatment had not been developed for
preparing yarns from this useful fibre. Warden in his _Linen Trade_
says:--
"For years after its introduction the principal spinners refused to
have anything to do with jute, and cloth made of it long retained a
tainted reputation. Indeed, it was not until Mr. Rowan got the Dutch
government, about 1838, to substitute jute yarns for those made from
flax in the manufacture of the coffee bagging for their East Indian
possessions, that the jute trade in Dundee got a proper start. That
fortunate circumstance gave an impulse to the spinning of the fibre
which it never lost, and since that period its progress has been truly
astonishing."
The demand for this class of bagging, which is made from fine hessian
yarns, is still great. These fine Rio hessian yarns form an important
branch of the Dundee trade, and in some weeks during 1906 as many as
1000 bales were despatched to Brazil, besides numerous quantities to
other parts of the world.
For many years Great Britain was the only European country engaged in
the manufacture of jute, the great seat being Dundee. Gradually,
however, the trade began to extend, and now almost every European
country is partly engaged in the trade.
The success of the mechanical method of spinning and weaving of jute in
Dundee and district led to the introduction of textile machinery into
and around Calcutta. The first mill to be run there by power was started
in 1854, while by 1872 three others had been established. In the next
ten years no fewer than sixteen new mills were erected and equipped with
modern machinery from Great Britain, while in 1907 there were
thirty-nine mills engaged in the industry. The expansion of the Indian
power trade may be gathered from the following particulars of the number
of looms and spindles from 1892 to 1906. In one or two cases the number
of spindles is obtained approximately by reckoning twenty spindles per
loom, which is about the average for the Indian mills.
+-------------+------------+--------------+
| Year. | Looms. | Spindles. |
+-------------+------------+--------------+
| 1892-3 | 8,479 | 177,732 |
| 1893-4 | 9,082 | 189,144 |
| 1894-5 | 9,504 | 197,673 |
| 1895-6 | 10,071 | 212,595 |
| 1896-7 | 12,276 | 254,610 |
| 1897-8 | 12,737 | 271,363 |
| 1898-9 | 13,323 | 277,398 |
| 1899-1900 | 14,021 | 293,218 |
| 1900-01 | 15,242 | 315,264 |
| 1901-02 | 16,059 | 329,300 |
| 1902-03 | 17,091 | 350,120 |
| 1904* | 19,901 | 398,020** |
| 1905* | 21,318 | 426,360** |
| 1906* | 26,799 | 520,980** |
+-------------+------------+--------------+
* End of calendar year, the remainder being taken to the 31st of
March, the end of financial year.
** Approximate number of spindles.
The Calcutta looms are engaged for the most part with a few varieties of
the commoner classes of jute fabrics, but the success in this direction
has been really remarkable. Dundee, on the other hand, turns out not
only the commoner classes of fabrics, but a very large variety of other
fabrics. Amongst these may be mentioned the following: Hessian, bagging,
tarpaulin, sacking, scrims, Brussels carpets, Wilton carpets, imitation
Brussels, and several other types of carpets, rugs and matting, in
addition to a large variety of fabrics of which jute forms a part.
Calcutta has certainly taken a large part of the trade which Dundee held
in its former days, but the continually increasing demands for jute
fabrics for new purposes have enabled Dundee to enter new markets and so
to take part in the prosperity of the trade.
The development of the trade with countries outside India from 1828 to
1906 may be seen by the following figures of exports:--
Average per year from 1828 to 1832-33 11,800 cwt.
" " " 1833-34 " 1837-38 67,483 "
" " " 1838-39 " 1842-43 117,047 "
" " " 1843-44 " 1847-48 234,055 "
" " " 1848-49 " 1852-53 439,850 "
" " " 1853-54 " 1857-58 710,826 "
" " " 1858-59 " 1862-63 969,724 "
" " " 1863-64 " 1867-68 2,628,110 "
" " " 1868-69 " 1872-73 4,858,162 "
" " " 1873-74 " 1877-78 5,362,267 "
" " " 1878-79 " 1882-83 7,274,000 "
" " " 1883-84 " 1887-88 8,223,859 "
" " " 1888-89 " 1892-93 10,372,991 "
" " " 1893-94 " 1897-98 12,084,292 "
" " " 1898-99 " 1902-03 11,959,189 "
" " " 1903-04 " 1905-06 13,693,090 "
The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from an agricultural,
as well as from a manufacturing, point of view. The difference between
the production and the exports represents the native consumption, for
very little jute is sent overland. The figures are taken to the 31st of
March, the end of the Indian financial year.
+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
| Year. | Acres under | Production | Exports by |
| | cultivation.| in cwt. | sea in cwt. |
+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
| 1893 | 2,181,334 | 20,419,000 | 10,537,512 |
| 1894 | 2,230,570 | 17,863,000 | 8,690,133 |
| 1895 | 2,275,335 | 21,944,400 | 12,976,791 |
| 1896 | 2,248,593 | 19,825,000 | 12,266,781 |
| 1897 | 2,215,105 | 20,418,000 | 11,464,356 |
| 1898 | 2,159,908 | 24,425,000 | 15,023,325 |
| 1899 | 1,690,739 | 19,050,000 | 9,864,545 |
| 1900 | 2,070,668 | 19,329,000 | 9,725,245 |
| 1901 | 2,102,236 | 23,307,000 | 12,414,552 |
| 1902 | 2,278,205 | 26,564,000 | 14,755,115 |
| 1903 | 2,142,700 | 23,489,000 | 13,036,486 |
| 1904 | 2,275,050 | 25,861,000 | 13,721,447 |
| 1905 | 2,899,700 | 26,429,000 | 12,875,312 |
| 1906 | 3,181,600 | 29,945,000 | 14,581,307 |
+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
_Manufacture._--In their general features the spinning and weaving of
jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery and processes
from those employed in the manufacture of hemp and heavy flax goods.
Owing, however, to the woody and brittle nature of the fibre, it has to
undergo a preliminary treatment peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the
jute industry, who did not understand this necessity, or rather who did
not know how the woody and brittle character of the fibre could be
remedied, were greatly perplexed by the difficulties they had to
encounter, the fibre spinning badly into a hard, rough and hairy yarn
owing to the splitting and breaking of the fibre. This peculiarity of
jute, coupled also with the fact that the machinery on which it was
first spun, although quite suitable for the stronger and more elastic
fibres for which it was designed, required certain modifications to suit
it to the weaker jute, was the cause of many annoyances and failures in
the early days of the trade.
The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching. Batch
setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of selecting
the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind of
yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom exceeds twelve, indeed it
is generally about six, and of these there may be three, four or even
more varieties or marks. The "streaks"[1] or "heads" of jute as they
come from the bale are in a hard condition in consequence of having
been subjected to a high hydraulic pressure during baling; it is
therefore necessary to soften them before any further process is
entered. The streaks are sometimes partly softened or crushed by means
of a steam hammer during the process of opening the bale, then taken
to the "strikers-up" where the different varieties are selected and
hung on pins, and then taken to the jute softening machine. The more
general practice, however, is to employ what is termed a "bale
opener," or "jute crusher." The essential parts of one type of bale
opener are three specially shaped rollers, the peripheries of which
contain a number of small knobs. Two of these rollers are supported in
the same horizontal plane of the framework, while the third or top
roller is kept in close contact by means of weights and springs acting
on each end of the arbor. Another type of machine termed the three
pair roller jute opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the
different bales are laid upon the feed cloth which carries them up to
the rollers, between which the layers are crushed and partly
separated. The proximity of the weighted roller or rollers to the
fixed ones depends upon the thickness of material passing through the
machine. The fibre is delivered by what is called the delivery cloth,
and the batcher usually selects small streaks of about 1(1/2) lb. to 2
lb. weight each and passes them on to the attendant or feeder of the
softening machine. These small streaks are now laid as regularly as
possible upon the feed-cloth of the softening machine, a general view
of which is shown in fig. 4. The fibre passes between a series of
fluted rollers, each pair of which is kept in contact by spiral
springs as shown in the figure. The standard number of pairs is
sixty-three, but different lengths obtain. There is also a difference
in the structure of the flutes, some being straight, and others
spiral, and each pair may or may not contain the same number of
flutes. The springs allow the top rollers of each pair to rise as the
material passes through the machine. Advantage is taken of this slight
upward and downward movement of the top rollers to automatically
regulate the flow of water and oil upon the material. The apparatus
for this function is placed immediately over the 11th and 12th rollers
of the softening machine and an idea of its construction may be
gathered from fig. 5. In many cases the water and oil are applied by
less automatic, but equally effective, means. The main object is to
see that the liquids are distributed evenly while the fibre is passing
through, and to stop the supply when the machine stops or when no
fibre is passing. The uniform moistening of the fibre in this machine
facilitates the subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this
preliminary process (originally by hand) constituted the first
important step in the practical solution of the difficulties of jute
spinning. The relative quantities of oil and water depend upon the
quality of the batch. Sometimes both whale and mineral oils are used,
but in most cases the whale oil is omitted. About 1 to 1(1/4) gallons
of oil is the usual amount given per bale of 400 lb. of jute, while
the quantity of water per bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The
delivery attendants remove the streaks, give them a twist to
facilitate future handling, and place them on what are termed jute
barrows. The streaks are now handed over to the cutters who cut off
the roots, and finally the material is allowed to remain for twelve to
twenty-four hours to allow the mixture of oil and water to thoroughly
spread over the fibre.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Jute Opener. (The three machines shown in this
article are made by Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Jute Softening Machine.]
When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken to
the "breaker card," the first machine in the preparing department. A
certain weight of jute, termed a "dollop," is laid upon the feed cloth
for each revolution of the latter. The fibre, which should be arranged
on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the feed cloth
and passes between the feed roller and the shell on to the large
cylinder. This cylinder, which has a high surface speed, carries part
of the fibre towards the workers and strippers; the surface speed of
the workers being much slower than that of the cylinder. The pins in
the two rollers oppose each other, those of the workers being
"back-set," and this arrangement, combined with the relative angle of
the pins, and the difference in the surface speeds of the two rollers,
results in part of the fibre being broken and carried round by the
worker towards the stripper. This, as its name implies, strips the
fibre off the worker, and carries it round to the cylinder. The pins
of the stripper and cylinder point in the same direction, but since
the surface speed of the cylinder is much greater than the surface
speed of the stripper, it follows that the fibre is combed between the
two, and that part is carried forward by the cylinder to be reworked.
The strippers and workers are in pairs, of which there may be two or
more. After passing the last pair of workers and strippers the fibre
is carried forward towards the doffing roller, the pins of which are
back-set, and the fibre is removed from the cylinder by the doffer,
from which it passes between the drawing and pressing rollers into the
conductor, and finally between the delivery and pressing rollers into
the sliver can. It may be mentioned that more or less breaking takes
place between each pair of rollers, the pins of which are opposed, and
that combing and drawing out obtains between those rollers with pins
pointing in the same direction. The ratio of the surface speeds of the
drawing roller and the feed roller is termed the draft:--
surface speed of drawing roller
------------------------------- = draft.
surface speed of feed roller
In this machine the draft is usually about thirteen.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Improved Batching Gear.]
The sliver from the can of the breaker card may be wound into balls,
or it may be taken direct to the finisher card. In the latter method
from eight to fifteen cans are placed behind the feed rollers, and all
the slivers from these cans are united before they emerge from the
machine. The main difference between a breaker card and a finisher
card is that the latter is fitted with finer pins, that it contains
two doffing rollers, and that it usually possesses a greater number of
pairs of workers and strippers--a full circular finisher card having
four sets.
After the fibre has been thoroughly carded by the above machines, the
cans containing the sliver from the finisher card are taken to the
first drawing frame. A very common method is to let four slivers run
into one sliver at the first drawing, then two slivers from the first
drawing are run into one sliver at the second drawing frame. There are
several types of drawing frames, e.g. push-bar or slide, rotary,
spiral, ring, open-link or chain, the spiral being generally used for
the second drawing. All, however, perform the same function, viz.,
combing out the fibres and thus laying them parallel, and in addition
drawing out the sliver. The designation of the machine indicates the
particular method in which the gill pins are moved. These pins are
much finer than those of the breaker and finisher cards, consequently
the fibres are more thoroughly separated. The draft in the first
drawing varies from three to five, while that in the second drawing is
usually five to seven. It is easy to see that a certain amount of
draft, or drawing out of the sliver, is necessary, otherwise the
various doublings would cause the sliver to emerge thicker and thicker
from each machine. The doublings play a very important part in the
appearance of the ultimate rove and yarn, for the chief reason for
doubling threads or slivers is to minimize irregularities of thickness
and of colour in the material. In an ordinary case, the total
doublings in jute from the breaker card to the end of the second
drawing is ninety-six: 12 X 4 X 2 = 96; and if the slivers were made
thinner and more of them used the ultimate result would naturally be
improved.
The final preparing process is that of roving. In this operation there
is no doubling of the slivers, but each sliver passes separately
through the machine, from the can to the spindle, is drawn out to
about eight times its length, and receives a small amount of twist to
strengthen it, in order that it may be successfully wound upon the
roving bobbin by the flyer. The chief piece of mechanism in the roving
frame is the gearing known as the "differential motion." It works in
conjunction with the disk and scroll, the cones, or the expanding
pulley, to impart an intermittingly variable speed to the bobbin (each
layer of the bobbin has its own particular speed which is constant for
the full traverse, but each change of direction of the builder is
accompanied by a quick change of speed to the bobbin). It is essential
that the bobbin should have such a motion, because the delivery of the
sliver and the speed of the flyer are constant for a given size of
rove, whereas the layers of rove on the bobbin increase in length as
the bobbin fills. In the jute roving frame the bobbin is termed the
"follower," because its revolutions per minute are fewer than those of
the flyer. Each layer of rove increases the diameter of the material
on the bobbin shank; hence, at the beginning of each layer, the speed
of the bobbin must be increased, and kept at this increased speed for
the whole traverse from top to bottom or vice versa.
Let R = the revolutions per second of the flyer;
r = the revolutions per second of the bobbin;
d = the diameter of bobbin shaft plus the material;
L = the length of sliver delivered per second;
then (R - r) d.[pi] = L.
In the above expression R, [pi] and L are constant, therefore as d
increases the term (R - r) must decrease; this can happen only when r
is increased, that is, when the bobbin revolves quicker. It is easy to
see from the above expression that if the bobbin were the "leader" its
speed would have to decrease as it filled.
The builder, which receives its motion from the disk and scroll, from
the cones, or from the expanding pulley, has also an intermittingly
variable speed. It begins at a maximum speed when the bobbin is empty,
is constant for each layer, but decreases as the bobbin fills.
The rove yarn is now ready for the spinning frame, where a further
draft of about eight is given. The principles of jute spinning are
similar to those of dry spinning for flax. For very heavy jute yarns
the spinning frame is not used--the desired amount of twist being
given at the roving frame.
The count of jute yarn is based upon the weight in pounds of 14,400
yds., such length receiving the name of "spyndle." The finest yarns
weigh 2(3/4) lb. to 3 lb. per spyndle, but the commonest kinds are 7
lb., 8 lb., 9 lb. and 10 lb. per spyndle. The sizes rise in pounds up
to about 20 lb., then by 2 lb. up to about 50 lb. per spyndle, with
much larger jumps above this weight. It is not uncommon to find 200
lb. to 300 lb. rove yarn, while the weight occasionally reaches 450
lb. per spyndle. The different sizes of yarn are extensively used in a
large variety of fabrics, sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunction
with other fibres, e.g. with worsted in the various kinds of carpets,
with cotton in tapestries and household cloths, with line and tow
yarns for the same fabrics and for paddings, &c., and with wool for
horse clothing. The yarns are capable of being dyed brilliant colours,
but, unfortunately, the colours are not very fast to light. The fibre
can also be prepared to imitate human hair with remarkable closeness,
and advantage of this is largely taken in making stage wigs.
For detailed information regarding jute, the cloths made from it and
the machinery used, see the following works: Watts's _Dictionary of
the Economic Products of India_; Royle's _Fibrous Plants of India_;
Sharp's _Flax, Tow and Jute Spinning_; Leggatt's _Jute Spinning_;
Woodhouse and Milne's _Jute and Linen Weaving_; and Woodhouse and
Milne's _Textile Design: Pure and Applied_. (T. Wo.)