_Unionism versus Patriotism--Uncrowned Kings of the Sture Families_
Sten Sture the Elder was chosen regent by the council of state and
elected by the people at the Riksdag of Arboga, in 1471. For more than
half a century following upon the reign of Charles VIII., Sweden was
governed by uncrowned kings, with the intermission of a few years.
These regents had not any republican ideals in mind, nor were they
secretly coveting the crown. Their ambition was simply to uphold
a strong and firm national government by means of which foreign
lordships could be made impossible, the people enjoy their rights and
their liberty, and the government increase in power and authority
at the expense of Church and nobility. The policy laid down by Sten
Sture the Elder, and strictly adhered to by him and his successors,
was of the broadly democratic spirit of Engelbrekt. This policy was
strengthened by the high esteem in which the regents were held. Yet
their position was a very difficult one, for although enjoying the full
confidence of the people, they were regarded with envy and suspicion
by the aristocracy, who never could be persuaded but that these noble
uncrowned rulers were secretly scheming for obtainance of the royal
crown.
Sten Sture had the good fortune to inaugurate his reign with a
glorious victory over King Christian, which put an end to Danish
invasions during a whole generation. Christian arrived at Stockholm
with a fine fleet and a magnificent army, taking his position at
Brunkeberg, close to the north of the capital. Here a long and fierce
battle was fought, October 10, 1471. Sten Sture commanded a large
army of peasants, attacking Christian’s fortified position from the
north, supported by Knut Posse, with burgher troops, from the south.
At the third attack victory was won, Nils Bosson Sture arriving on the
battle scene with an army of Dalecarlians. King Christian was wounded
in the mouth; the famous Danish Oriflamme, Dannebrog, was captured,
being surrounded by five hundred corpses of select Danish knights.
Through the prestige of the great victory at Brunkeberg, Sten Sture
managed to give Sweden ten years of undisturbed peace and comfort.
Encouraged by the victory over the foreign invaders, the city of
Stockholm took the lead in ridding the towns of undue influence, caused
by the supremacy of German commerce. The town laws held a stipulation
that half the number of councillors in each town council should be
Germans. A petition headed by the burghers of Stockholm and circulated
through the towns was acted upon, the council of state abolishing by
law the stipulation in question. Free markets were established in
the commercial centres Kalmar and Sœderkœping, and a new commercial
town was founded on the Gotha River, to be called Gothahamn, although
the name was changed to New Lœdœse. In spite of the supremacy of the
Hanseatic League, commerce was good, the iron mines of Dalecarlia,
Westmanland, Nerike and Eastern Vermland growing in importance, and
silver being produced by various mines in Dalecarlia.
Lord Sten gave careful and loving attention to the needs of the
yeomanry and the common people. He kept an open and watchful eye on
the bailiffs, and carried out the demands of justice with severity.
Many farms, desolate and neglected during the times of war, were
brought under cultivation. Lord Sten made no decision in any matter
of importance without consulting the yeomen and the burghers, as well
as the nobles, at _Riksdagar_, the parliamentary nature of which was
further developed. With a firm hand he held the nobles down to order
and the requirements of a national democratic policy. The powerful
brothers Ivar and Eric Tott especially caused him annoyance, the former
holding the island of Gothland, the latter the duchy of Finland, in
fief. It came to open hostilities with Ivar Tott who, defeated and
deprived of his castles, fled to Denmark, taking revenge by turning the
much contested island over to said power.
Lord Sten was a very pious man, but he held the ecclesiastics under
strict surveillance on account of their unpatriotic tendencies. But he
collaborated with them for the establishment of a state university at
Upsala, in which the archbishop, Jacob Ulfsson, was greatly interested.
Sanctioned by the pope, the university was opened in 1477, with great
ceremonies. One of its earliest professors was Ericus Olai, the author
of the first but rather uncritical work of Swedish history, Chronica
Regni Gothorum, written in awkward mediæval Latin, but in a style
attractive through its vivacity. Latin was chiefly used by the learned
and literary men. The cloisters and the cathedrals had schools where
the young people were trained for the learned professions, chiefly
the Church. For a university education, the institutions of Cologne,
Prague, Leipzig and Bologna, but chiefly Paris, the greatest of them
all, had been sought. The Swedes had three _collegia_ in Paris, and the
Scandinavians held there an honored position as scholars, the Swedes
three times filling the office of rector or president of the Paris
university, the highest dignity of learning in the world. Ingeborg
Tott, the wife of Sten Sture, was a great friend of learning, having
books printed at her expense and collecting a large library in the
convent of Mariefred, founded by Lord Sten.
The peace of the country was disturbed by a war with Russia. Attacks
on the castle of Viborg had been made shortly after the battle of
Brunkeberg, but warded off by Eric Tott, who in return invaded Russian
territory. After his death the valiant Knut Posse was made commander of
Viborg. The Russians, in 1495, made a violent attack upon the castle,
damaging it considerably. But Posse led the defence with superior
skill, repulsing the enemy with astounding force. This deed has become
famous in popular traditions, both Swedes and Russians crediting Posse
with an alliance of a supernatural order. The regent himself twice
headed expeditions to Finland, forcing a new Russian army to retire
over the frontier. Affairs were going badly on account of unsafety
in Finland, and dearth and intrigues in Sweden. The council of state
accused Lord Sten of not doing all he could for Finland while secretly
fanning the discontent of the commanders, who made personal sacrifices
of time and money by remaining with the army. It came to hot words
between Lord Sten and the commander Svante Sture, the son of Nils
Bosson. He returned home, although Lord Sten told him he was a deserter
in so doing, “fleeing from the banner of state.” Svante Sture, who
with Posse had made a glorious inroad upon Russian territory, now
joined the aristocratic enemies of the regent, calling in King John
(Hans) of Denmark. John succeeded Christian in 1482, and commenced
intriguing for the Swedish crown. The Swedish nobles were anxious to
have this good-natured monarch for ruler. Lord Sten was too sagacious
to openly oppose them, when they, in the so-called _Recess of Kalmar_
of 1483, declared _John_ king of Sweden, the king promising the island
of Gothland to Sweden, and all old privileges to the nobles. By means
of skilful diplomatic operations, Lord Sten delayed matters to such an
extent that it took fourteen years before John II. was king of Sweden
in anything but name. But the time was ripe for Svante Sture’s open
conflict with Lord Sten. The council, the archbishop leading, broke
their faith with the regent, offering King John the crown. He came with
an army to Stockholm, taking his position at Brunkeberg. An army of
Dalecarlians marched upon the capital at the solicitation of Lord Sten,
who awaited them with another army. The operations took an unfavorable
turn on account of misapprehended movements, Lord Sten with difficulty
saving his life. King John understood that a continued struggle would
lead to his ultimate defeat and made peace. Lord Sten retired, but
with the greatest fiefs given to any Swedish man; viz., the whole
of Finland, with large possessions besides. When the king entered
Stockholm, in October, 1497, it was at the arm of Lord Sten, to whom he
said jestingly: “Have you now prepared everything well for me at the
castle, Lord Sten; the table set with meat and ale, so that my guests
may make merry?” Lord Sten answered in the same light spirit, pointing
to the Swedish nobles who had joined the royal retinue: “That these
know best who stand there behind you. They have it all both baked and
brewed.” Later the king remarked: “Lord Sten, it is a bad inheritance
you have bequeathed on me in Sweden; the peasants whom God created
slaves you have made into lords, and those who should have been lords
you try to make slaves.” At his coronation in Upsala, the king bestowed
knighthood upon many Swedish nobles (something that had been beyond
Lord Sten’s authority to do), upon his return to Denmark appointing
Lord Sten to take the reins of government with three state councillors
at his side.
King John’s reign in Sweden was of short duration. He failed to return
the island of Gothland to the Swedish crown and lost his prestige
through an unsuccessful war in Ditmarschen. Svante Sture, who had
not been dealt with according to his expectations, declared war upon
the king and joined Lord Sten, who was in an unenviable position and
glad to shake off the Union with Denmark, which he did, in 1501, when
made regent for the second time. With a peasant army siege was laid
to the castle of Stockholm, held by the energetic Queen Christine,
who capitulated after a heroic struggle. Three days later King John
appeared with an army, but returned, seeing that he came too late.
Lord Sten retained Queen Christine at Vadstena for some time, later
escorting her to the Danish frontier. Upon his return he was taken ill
and died suddenly at Jœnkœping, December 14, 1503. With him the older
or original line of the Sture family became extinct. Lord Sten was the
greatest ruler since Margaret, and his rule, being of a more patriotic
and democratic tendency, was of greater benefit to Sweden than hers.
_Svante Sture_ succeeded Sten. He was of the younger Sture line, the
son of the noble patriot, Nils Bosson, who in the time of Charles
VIII., as the friend of Engelbrekt and Bishop Thomas, had taken stand
against the archbishop and the nobles, backed by the Dalecarlians,
who adored him. Lord Svante was a very quick-tempered man, which led
him into the conflict with Lord Sten. Unlike the regent and his own
father, he never had experienced what Danish oppression meant, which
accounts for his unwise decision in joining the Unionists. The war with
Denmark lasted eight of his nine years of reign, which proves him an
able soldier and a stanch patriot. His position from the start was less
favorable than that of his predecessor, who could reign in the glory of
his early victory at Brunkeberg.
Lord Svante had in _Doctor Hemming Gad_ a patriotic adviser of rare
attainments and great learning. He had studied in Rostock, was for
twelve years Lord Sten’s representative in Italy, and later bishop of
Linkœping, although never sanctioned and finally placed under ban by
the pope. Hemming Gad was the first democratic agitator of Sweden,
a warm admirer of the Stures, and a good soldier. His statecraft he
had evidently learned in Italy with her traditions of Machiavelli.
His literary style is very characteristic, the language of a learned
ecclesiastic with the oaths of a soldier. Those of his writings which
are still extant prove a great love for the common people, a love which
was returned by them. Having organized the revolt against King John, he
evinced great slyness and presence of mind at the death of Lord Sten.
To preserve its secrecy until Svante was forewarned and in possession
of the castle of Stockholm, he had a man dress in the clothes of the
deceased regent and continue the journey to the capital with Sten’s
retinue.
The Unionist party was as ready as ever to offer the crown to King
John, their representatives agreeing to pay a yearly tribute until
he or his son Christian was chosen king. This agreement was made in
1509, but it called forth a storm of indignation from the patriots and
the people, and was never considered by the government. Lubeck opened
hostilities against Denmark and was joined by Sweden, the Unionists
recommencing deliberations whenever it looked favorable for Danish
interests. Lord Svante made sure of peace and safety for Finland before
taking up the conflict with the Danes. On the eastern shore, Hemming
Gad led the operations against the town and castle of Kalmar, held by
the Danes. The town was soon captured, but the castle not before the
end of 1510. Ake Hansson (Natt och Dag) fought with great valor and
considerable success against the Danes on the western and southern
frontier, until this “Tormentor of Denmark,” as he was surnamed, was
killed in battle in 1510. On the sea the Danes were superior, a fleet
under the command of Otto Rud and Soren Norrby plundering Abo in
Finland. But when Lubeck’s fleet appeared the Danes were forced back.
Peace was made, but soon broken. Lubeck sent a fleet to invade the
coast of the Danish isles; Hemming Gad, with several Swedish ships,
taking part in the expedition. Denmark did her best to crush Swedish
resistance by inducing Russia to break the peace, the emperor to
declare Sweden the arch enemy of the German empire, and the pope to
place her under ban.
More unfortunate to Sweden than these intrigues was the fact that King
John in his son Christian had an able warrior and a great organizer.
Prince Christian put down a revolt in Norway against Danish oppression,
entering West Gothland with a superior army. The Unionists assembled
to force the regent to abdicate, but he firmly refused to do so. A
rebellion seemed imminent, Lord Svante hastening to Westeros to confer
with the people of the mining districts. Shortly after the opening
of the meeting, Lord Svante died quite suddenly, after a stroke of
paralysis, in January, 1512.
The council of state selected Eric Trolle, a learned but unfit man
of the Unionists, to succeed Lord Svante. But the popular opinion
condemned him, and the council was forced to choose Svante’s son as his
successor.
_Sten Sture the Younger_ was barely nineteen years of age at his
father’s death. Knighted when only five, he early distinguished
himself as a warrior, winning fame for his chivalric spirit and
noble character, and, like his illustrious namesakes, his father and
grandfather, becoming the idol of the people. And he deserved their
idolatry. More resembling his grandfather in the sweetness of his
disposition than his sterner predecessors, he was as great a warrior as
his father, to which he joined the sagacity and power of self-control
characteristic of the elder Lord Sten. As a youth, he was made regent
of a country in war, distress and peril. He was called away by death
when only twenty-seven, leaving behind the memory of not one evil deed
to soil the glory of his fair name, although continually placed in
trying and dangerous positions of strife, rivalry, envy and rebellion.
He made his will respected by high and low with a temperance in spirit
and methods worthy of the highest admiration and the devoted love of
the people. The young Lord Sten had a tender heart for the lowly and
the suffering, never fearing to wring their rights from the oppressors,
whosoever they were. He took great interest in the pursuits of peace,
during the intervals allowed by his successful exploits in war. In
spite of the plague and other contagious diseases, which, together with
the destruction of war, ravaged the country, he left it in a better
condition than he received it. In many ways more farseeing than his
contemporaries, his name will live on for centuries as one of the most
beloved in Swedish history.
With the younger Lord Sten, other new actors appeared upon the stage
of Scandinavian history. Christian II. succeeded his father upon the
throne of Denmark and Norway. In Sweden, Archbishop Jacob Ulfsson
retired and was succeeded by Gustavus Trolle, a son of Lord Eric. The
new archbishop was of a hateful and jealous disposition. He resolved to
avenge the treatment his father had received at the hands of Lord Sten
and the Swedish people by placing Christian on the throne. The young
regent made no less than four attempts to win over this formidable
enemy, but all in vain. He opened up a court at Stæket, in Upland, more
brilliant than that of Lord Sten, and accepted subsidies from Denmark.
At last, fully aware of the secret deliberations going on, Lord Sten
surrounded Stæket and called a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1517, where it was
resolved that Christian should never become king of Sweden, and that
the siege of Stæket should be continued. Christian sent a little army
to support his ally, but Lord Sten met it at Ladugardsland, outside of
Stockholm, completely routing it. A new Riksdag was called at Stockholm
before which the archbishop appeared upon truce. His language was
haughty and disdainful. He said he was in his full right to support
King Christian’s claims with mitre and sword, the pope sanctioning his
policy; and to the pope alone he was responsible. The indignant Riksdag
resolved that the archbishop should be deprived of his seat, being
guilty of high treason, and that his castle should be burned. The
resolution was written down and signed by all the bishops, none daring
to oppose the yeomanry. Bishop Brask, of Linkœping, managed to conceal
in the wax of his seal a paper with the words: “To this I am forced by
necessity.” The archbishop returned to defend Stæket, but soon had to
flee with his followers. It was only by using all his authority that
Lord Sten could save his enemy’s life from the irate people. Trolle
was forced to resign his seat and was imprisoned in a convent at
Westeros, while his castle was torn down. Lord Sten wanted to appoint a
successor to Trolle, but Bishop Brask objected that the pope might not
consent to his removal. To this Lord Sten uttered the following manly
words, hardly in touch with the policy of Rome: “I think that our most
holy father, the pope, and the canonic law should not tolerate as the
leaders of the Church, and as the precepts or mirrors to the people,
men who are infested by open treason, in particular against their own
country.” The Church tried various means to gain a settled condition of
things. When Sten refused the royal crown from its hand, he was at last
placed under ban.
The hostilities with Denmark recommenced. King Christian appeared with
a fleet and an army, in June, 1518, laying siege to Stockholm. His
attacks were valiantly repulsed, and Christian, fearing to be encircled
by his enemies, marched away in a southeasterly direction, taking a
firm position at Brennkyrka. A Swedish army met him from the south
and gave battle one of the last days of July, 1518. It was a fierce
conflict, ending with a victory for the Swedes. The chief banner was
carried by the squire Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, who five years later was
to become king of Sweden. Christian returned to attack Stockholm, once
more in vain. He was to sail for Denmark, but was kept back by storms,
great suffering being experienced by his men. Christian was forced to
open deliberations, making very high demands. But Lord Sten refused to
hold a meeting, postponing it to the following year. A few days later,
King Christian sent word that he wanted the regent to visit him in his
ship on important affairs. Lord Sten, always good-natured and ready to
accept peace, thought that the king had changed his mind and was ready
to go. But the burgomaster and council of Stockholm prevailed upon him
not to go, sure that it would bring him into the enemy’s hands. Lord
Sten took their advice and arranged for a meeting on land, sending six
Swedish nobles as hostages to the king at his demand. Among these were
Dr. Hemming Gad and Gustavus Ericsson Vasa. For two days Lord Sten
waited in vain for the king to appear. Then he learned, to his dismay
and indignation, that King Christian had sailed to Denmark, taking the
hostages with him as prisoners, October 4, 1518.
Christian collected all his forces and resources to crush Sweden.
The whole of the following year was spent in preparations. Sweden
was placed under ban by the pope, and Christian made himself his
representative, the one who was to fulfil the heavenly punishment. In
January, 1520, a large Danish army invaded Smaland and West Gothland.
Lord Sten made an appeal to the people and gathered a peasant army,
with which he met the superior force of the enemy at Bogesund, in
West Gothland. The Swedish forces were arranged in line on the frozen
surface of Lake Asund. Lord Sten rode in front of the line, encouraging
his men, but was seriously wounded during the very first engagement
and carried from the field. After two vain attempts, the Danes were
victorious in overthrowing the Swedes. These gathered in the wooded
hills of Tiveden for a last heroic resistance, which was broken; the
Danes taking possession of the provinces to the north. Lord Sten,
mortally wounded, died on the ice of Lake Mælar during his journey
to Stockholm. Christian continued his march on Stockholm, the castle
of which was heroically defended by Lord Sten’s consort, Christine
Gyllenstierna, who also tried by support and exhortations to encourage
other strongholds not yet surrendered to resist the Danes. The castle
of Kalmar was defended by another heroic woman, Anna Bielke. But
Christian won, through persuasions and deliberations, what he could
not take by violence. His operations were carried on by Dr. Hemming
Gad, who, for reasons unknown to history, had changed his old patriotic
views and become a friend of Christian. In September, 1520, Christian
won Stockholm by peaceful agreement. The 4th of November he was crowned
by Trolle, the reinstalled archbishop. At this occasion it caused
considerable surprise that only Danes and Germans were knighted, the
herald proclaiming that the country was won by sword, for which reason
no Swede could be thus honored. This was in striking contrast to
Christian’s proclamation of having ascended the throne by right of his
descent from St. Eric. Worse things were to follow.
The 7th of November a great number of Swedish nobles were called to
the castle of Stockholm, where they were brought before a tribunal,
the king presiding. The archbishop asked for remuneration for the
sufferings caused him during Lord Sten’s reign. A jury of bishops and
nobles convened. Christine Gyllenstierna was the first to answer to the
accusations, holding forth that the Riksdag of Arboga was responsible
for the action taken against Trolle and bringing the signed document
in evidence. The king answered by announcing that all who signed were
under the ban of the pope; Bishop Brask was the only one acquitted,
producing his written slip of reservation from under his seal, besides
Bishop Otto of Westerns, who supported Trolle in his claims. In the
evening all the accused were imprisoned and judgment passed on them the
following morning.
In the morning of November 8th, a solemn procession of convicts
started from the castle to the grand square, hedged in by soldiers
and executioners. The bishops Mattias of Strengnæs and Vincentius of
Skara, in their ecclesiastical robes, came first, followed by thirteen
noblemen and thirty-one town councillors and burghers of Stockholm.
In the square, a Danish councillor of state from the porch of the
court-house asked the masses not to be frightened. The archbishop,
he said, had three times on his knees implored the king that justice
should be done. Bishop Vincentius replied with great courage that the
king had committed treason against the Swedes and called down divine
punishment on him for such deeds. Two of the Swedish nobles followed
the bishop with short addresses, admonishing the people not to believe
in false letters and promises and to put down such tyranny as soon
as within their power. King Christian, who from a window of a house
facing the square looked down on the spectacle, now gave a sign for the
executions to commence. First the bishops, then the state councillors,
nobles and burghers were beheaded, among whom were two brothers of
Christine Gyllenstierna and the father and brother-in-law of Gustavus
Ericsson Vasa. Many burghers were captured in the street, or in their
homes, and brought in to be executed, others being killed on the spot.
Not less than eighty-two persons were that day executed, the number
being increased during the following days by people killed in various
ways. Olaus Petri, the reformer, who was an eyewitness, in his history
gives a graphic description of the terrible scenes. He adds: “Yes, this
was a horrible and cruel murder, such as no other prince who carried
a Christian name ever committed before.” The corpses were burned, the
remains of Lord Sten and one of his sons being taken from their graves
and thrown into the flames. Christine Gyllenstierna, and the mother
and sister of Gustavus Vasa, were with several other ladies carried
to Copenhagen and thrown into a miserable dungeon. The mass murder
has been called the Carnage of Stockholm, but it was extended also to
Finland--where Dr. Hemming Gad was executed at Raseborg--and to the
provinces. Christian marked his return through the Swedish mainland to
Copenhagen by executions and mass murder everywhere; six hundred are
estimated to have been killed through his order during his short stay
in Sweden.
Archbishop Trolle had taken a terrible revenge, and Christian thought
he had crushed forever the stubborn Swedish resistance. But through
this excess of cruelty the Union became insupportable, and the Swedish
people resolved to throw off forever the connection with any foreign
ruler. In the woods of Dalecarlia a man was hiding who soon was to step
forward to lead the work of liberation and independence.