EAST AFRICA AFTER THE WAR
Although it may appear somewhat beyond the scope of the foregoing
inquiry, which was mainly conducted before the war occurred to
interrupt it, I consider that it may be of interest to examine the
effect of the great world conflict on the native races, and to assess
the present position with regard to black and white in that region.
The outbreak of war came as an unexpected shock to the natives as a
whole. The up-country tribes had very little conception of the
distinctions between the various white races, and were somewhat puzzled
by the conflict. The coast people, who were in daily touch with Germans
and Austrians, were a little clearer, but, of course, had no conception
of the casus belli, and although they knew that the daily lives of the
two sections were apart, yet they saw them mix at the clubs and never
dreamt that Europeans among themselves ever resorted to arms. The
internment of the enemy subjects in Mombasa was the first material
sign, and it was hailed with acclamation by the Swahilis of Mombasa,
who treasured up resentment at the arrogant behaviour of the Germans
prior to the war. The conflict was therefore a great blow to the
solidarity of the white race, but this effect was not immediately
apparent.
On the whole the tribes behaved in an exemplary manner, but enemy
agents produced some active unrest among a coast tribe which for some
years past had been unfavourably disposed towards Government.
Like most of our countrymen, the natives naturally had no conception of
the magnitude of the struggle or its possible duration. They thought
that it would be over in a few months, and responded with alacrity to
calls for porters, and for recruits for the K.A.R. They also made no
demur to the numerous restrictions which a war imposes on the people
involved.
The war, however, dragged on year after year, the calls for labour
became more and more insistent, the poor carriers suffered hardships
and died in tens of thousands, from the diseases inseparable from a
campaign in an unhealthy tropical region, dysentery and pneumonia being
the two main causes of death.
In a campaign of this character, where troops of mixed races are
employed, the close contact between black and white is an undesirable
and unavoidable feature.
The black troops soon came to realise the physical disabilities of the
Europeans and their vulnerability. They saw Europeans shot down and
even bayoneted by enemy black soldiers, they realised that very few
Europeans were crack shots, they noted the inferior marching capacity
of the white man, his inability to find his way about in the bush
unaccompanied by a native guide, and in some cases they even saw that
the courage of the white was not greater than that of the black. After
all this can it be wondered that the prestige of the white race has
suffered in the war! Is it surprising that the attitude of many of the
blacks to the white man has altered?
The black has always been quick to realise who is in authority and who
is not, and will still accede outward respect to a representative of
the Government, but that is not the test, and the real criterion is his
attitude towards the ordinary farmer or settler; this has been
considerably modified during the war, and it is doubtful if the old
traditional wide respect of white by black can ever be entirely
restored.
The might of the Government has been demonstrated during the war to an
unheard of extent, and to some extent Government has unconsciously
traded on this impression, for it has boldly imposed restrictions on
the black, and a degree of taxation which it would have hesitated to do
before the war.
There are two schools of thought in existence regarding the governance
of the black races in East Africa.
(1) This school claims to be progressive, and favours the abolition of
tribal control by its indigenous constitution; it is opposed to chiefs,
tribal law and customs, and is in favour of direct government by
European magistrates and by police.
(2) The conservative school aims at retaining and strengthening the
internal forces which control a tribe, at the same time promoting an
evolution of the character of that control by inducing the native
leaders to slough the more repugnant customs and beliefs.
The former scheme receives considerable support from the settler
community on the grounds that it will result in the native, conjointly
with themselves, playing a more active part in the development of
Africa. It is also supported to some extent by the missionaries, who
feel that the disintegration of the old order would afford them greater
chances for their propaganda. At the same time the probable effect of
the dissolution of tribal control is rarely realised. The nearest
example of such emancipation can be observed in the larger towns, and
here we have thousands of natives attracted to these places by the
desire to earn money. They have no natural authorities in control, and
although there are, of course, respectable members in these
assemblages, taking it all round they are the biggest collection of
native ruffians in the country, and are saturated with every vice.
Consequently in spite of a concentration of magisterial and police
control far in excess of anything in a native reserve, crime of every
kind is rife, and they have become an increasing menace to the European
residents.
These town colonies of natives, it must be remembered, are products of
our own creation, and do not argue well for native emancipation from
their natural leaders.
The native system of government is admittedly faulty, not so much in
design as in execution; this is partly due to the fact that the blood
kin of a criminal will go to great lengths to shield him, and partly
because chiefs and elders are often venial or amenable to threats or to
fear of witchcraft.
Native custom has in recent years been purged of many of its repugnant
features, and any that exist will steadily tend to disappear if
intelligently approached by native commissioners who take the trouble
to understand these customs and the motives behind them. Blind action
in these matters is rarely effective.
If the present-day political shibboleth of “self-determination” is to
be encouraged in Africa, the policy of disintegration of all native
authority should be pursued. It is a sure prescription for the birth of
a native party which will speedily demand equal electoral privileges
with the Europeans; it will abolish tribal isolation and inter-tribal
prejudice which has for long years been a safeguard against the
combination of the black millions against the few white intruders from
overseas. It will produce a receptive soil for educated blacks from
other countries to propagate the doctrine of “Africa for the Africans.”
In the event of a struggle, the European, having sole control of
munitions, will not eventually be worsted, but he will not re-establish
domination until much blood, both black and white, has been spilled,
and both sides will emerge from the struggle with bitterness and
distrust. The choice of a policy is therefore a vital matter to all,
and the problem should be dispassionately considered.
After the Armistice large numbers of natives who had served in the
King’s African Rifles were disbanded, and some people maintain that
these men in future may prove a menace owing to their knowledge of arms
and their close acquaintance with European troops in the field. In
Kenya there is, as far as I know, no signs of it, for they have no
arms; they are moreover weary of war, and the majority have gone back
to their reserves to spend their savings or invest them in wives. In
Tanganyika a good many arms were secreted by deserters and picked up
after engagements, and these may be used to some extent in attempts to
settle inter-tribal feuds; there is, however, little fear of the
concentration of any force in opposition to Government. In fact our
rule is so mild compared with the German régime that when the internal
prosperity of that country revives there is no reason to anticipate
anything but peace for a long time to come. When one realises that over
eight thousand official floggings per annum took place in German East
Africa before the war, and in addition many thousands of unofficial
floggings, no record of which was kept, the relief must be apparent to
all. The Germans themselves must have realised that the flogging
propensity had to be checked, for in 1912–1913 no fewer than one
hundred and seven employers were convicted of assaulting their
labourers. Needless to say, under British rule, flogging is only
inflicted for a few extremely serious crimes.
It is, however, fruitless at this stage to dilate upon the differences
between German and British rule; it is far more important to consider
the factors on both sides that count in the present situation and to
outline any obvious future dangers.
The question of religion is intimately connected with behaviour, and an
attempt has been made in this work to show how closely interwoven with
their life are the primitive beliefs of the people. In recent years,
however, a new set of influences have arisen, viz., those of the
Christian churches and also Mohammedanism.
The Christian missions are very varied; there are the Roman Catholic,
and Church of England faiths, Methodists, Seventh Day Adventists, also
a loosely knit group of nonconformist type known as the Inland African
Mission and others.
To obviate undue competition in any particular area, Government has in
Kenya Colony agreed to spheres of influence being arranged between the
various mission groups, and withholds approval of the establishment of
a new mission too near an already established rival. The only argument
in favour of this practice is expediency, for on ethical grounds the
State has no right to decide that the people of any particular area
shall only have ready access to the doctrines of any particular church.
The Roman Catholic missions, as is often the case, have acquired more
land than any other religious body, and there is a marked tendency on
their part to attempt to set up imperia in imperio on their estates on
the plea of internal discipline, thus usurping to some extent the
rights of government. It will be remembered that in the early days in
Uganda this led to armed struggles between Catholics and Protestants:
such, however, are unlikely to recur under modern conditions.
The Catholics have perhaps more than any other mission suffered from
shortness of funds since the expulsion of the religious orders from
France, and up country in Africa they generally endeavour to grow
coffee or some other crop to help to support the mission; such efforts
are praiseworthy and useful in the educational sense. They are a great
contrast, for instance, to the neglected estate of the C.M.S. at
Freretown.
The missionaries, taking it all round, have in spite of unrivalled
facilities contributed but little to our knowledge of the country; but
they have, it is true, recorded the construction of various native
languages. With one notable exception in Uganda, who, in spite of
discouragement from his fellows, persisted in his researches, no
missionary in East Africa has thrown much light on the ethnology of the
natives; it is said that they have been inclined to consider researches
of this nature as somewhat irreligious, but this view has, it is
believed, died away.
Upon the plea of combating the spread of Mohammedanism, the missions
have, except at the coast, declined to teach the Swahili language,
which is the lingua franca of East Central Africa, and have perpetuated
and are still endeavouring to perpetuate a host of tribal languages,
which, although interesting as linguistic curiosities, prove a barrier
to civilisation and progress. It may be, of course, that English will
on this account come into general use quicker, but that result, if it
comes, will not be due to the missions.
The main qualification for a missionary in Africa appears to be what
they term “earnestness,” but it is to be feared that the possession of
this admirable trait is an inadequate equipment for the task of
regenerating the black. It is to be regretted that there are not a
greater percentage of scholarly men with liberal ideas among their
numbers. It is not to be inferred that such men are absent; it would,
however, be invidious to mention names; there is a leaven of men of
wide vision, and the missionaries as a whole afford examples of purity
of life which cannot fail to have a good moral effect.
This short review of the missionary position may seem beside the point,
but the character of the influences which affect the native are of no
little importance.
The missions all claim to play a great part in the education of the
natives, and the local government has, through paucity of funds, found
it convenient to acquiesce in this claim, and to a great extent leaves
native education to mission effort. The results leave much to be
desired, and naturally the primary mission ideal of education is to
impart to the native a sufficient knowledge of reading and writing to
enable him to read such portion of the scriptures as have been
translated into the vernacular of the tribe.
Very few missionaries understand the philosophy of education; very few
even have much knowledge of educational method. As a brilliant
educationalist has written, “the function of education is to foster
growth”—the aim of the teacher should be “the development of the latent
powers of his pupil, the unfolding of the latent life.”
Are the blacks in Kenya Colony receiving an education of this nature?
The answer is, it is feared, generally in the negative. Now the
character of the education of the black is going to have a profound
effect on his future and also on the relations of black and white. This
is a truism, and as Dudley Kidd has so forcibly put it, “The problem is
the progress of a backward race, and we allow inefficient teachers,
whose only qualification for the difficult work is their own kind
hearts, to form the character of the rising generation and to
complicate our difficulties—has any State the right to allow
unqualified people to intensify national problems in this gratuitous
fashion?”
It is not to be inferred that missionary educational effort is
mischievous. Far from it; but it is narrow in its outlook, it is not
based on any sound foundation, and it does very little to develop
latent powers.
The colonists do not, as a rule, favour literary education, but clamour
mainly for industrial education. There is a germ of truth in this
opinion, but a sense of proportion must be exercised or the industrial
market may be flooded with artisans of mediocre efficiency far in
excess of the demand. The great rôle of the African in the future must
be, as it has been in the past, the cultivation of the soil. Improve
his agricultural methods and teach him to extract more food per acre to
feed the future increase of the native population and still have
something to sell.
Mohammedanism needs a reference, for it is a factor of no mean
importance in Africa. Some students of extreme views picture the growth
of a pan-Islamic spirit which will bind all the blacks against the
Europeans; and missionary publications often refer to this as an
imminent danger possibly with the object of eliciting financial support
for Christian propaganda. The writer has no such fears. Mohammedanism
is spreading to a limited extent in East Africa, but there is little
religious fervour behind it, and it is difficult to see how it can ever
become more than a veneer with the up-country tribes, for it is certain
that they will never learn Arabic in order to be able to enjoy the
Koran.
Among the up-country people who come into intimate contact with
Mohammedan life, such as those who come to coast towns to work, it is
readily embraced, for it becomes the religion of the cooking pot. The
Swahilis and such like are hospitable folk, but may not eat with
unbelievers, and it is therefore very expedient for an up-country
stranger to become nominally a Mohammedan, for he may then dip his
finger in the food bowl with his hosts.
Apart from this, however, there is no doubt that the easy doctrines of
Islam appeal to the African; they are suited to his temperament, and
more important still, Islamism is not looked upon as an alien religion,
for although the Arabs are few, the Swahilis, who form the greater
number of the followers of Islam in the country, are only Africans who
are a little more civilised and better clothed than their cousins from
up-country, while Christianity is always associated with the coming of
the Europeans and with their domination of the country.
Although for many reasons Mohammedanism appears more suited to the
black than Christianity—it is a ceremonial religion and it moreover
countenances polygamy—nevertheless, it is inadvisable that the State
should in any way foster its progress in our African colonies, for it
contains many dangerous elements. The Mohammedanism of East Africa is a
mild variety, but there is much inflammable material lying about in the
Mohammedan world, and it might at any time be blown over to that area.
Mohammedanism, too, has a reactionary influence; it stunts cultural
development and it appears to be insusceptible to internal evolution.
On these grounds it would appear expedient that the bias of the State
should be in favour of the eventual spread of Christianity, for it is a
religion of a higher ethical type. It is the religion of the Western
world, and although its spiritual progress has been hampered by an
extraordinary mass of mediaeval accretions in the shape of dogma,
ritual and such like, there are signs that it is endeavouring to
eliminate non-essentials and adjust itself to the plane of modern
thought. The progress is slow but it has to such a great extent lost
its authority and its influence over the people as a mass, that if it
wishes to survive it must adjust itself to the age it serves and
endeavour to carry mankind a step further in the way of spiritual
evolution. As for faith, faith is common to and alike in all
religions—faith is the vital spark without which no religion can live
or can ever become a vital force—be it a highly developed creed of the
West or a lowly primitive type such as we have been considering. Faith
evades all logic, and even the higher criticism of advanced clerics
leaves it untouched.
During recent years the rapid internal development of East Africa has
produced an acute situation with regard to native labour, and although,
owing to the present economic depression, this is relieved for the
moment, it is bound to recur as trade improves and production
increases. The supply of labour has vastly increased during the last
ten years, but up to the outbreak of war the amount but rarely kept
pace with the demand, and the loss of native life during the German
East campaign was so heavy that if the pre-war demand had been
maintained there would have been a general shortage; a few years of
restricted demand will therefore give a little breathing space, and a
number of youths who were not old enough for military service will
become old enough to go out and seek work.
Among a certain section of people in England whose knowledge of the
colonies is somewhat vague, and whose outlook is tinged with
sentimental philanthropy, the employment of blacks as agricultural
labourers or industrial workers by British colonists is looked upon
with suspicion and as being little removed from slavery. It is
apparently based on the belief that such labour is forcibly seized,
badly treated and paid only a nominal wage. Ill-informed criticism is
generally faulty, and in the present instance it is particularly so.
Twenty years ago the up-country natives were, generally speaking,
reluctant to work for private Europeans or for Government, except
occasionally to carry loads; as settlement, however, proceeded the
demand for farm labour arose, the needs of the native gradually
increased, and a few rupees had annually to be earned to pay the hut
tax; as these stimuli became felt, so native labour gradually became
available. Every year up to the war the supply increased, and more and
more natives became accustomed to the idea of working for wages several
months in the year. Is this desirable, and if so, why? In the old days,
before European occupation of the country, the able-bodied male
population had to be always ready to repel raids or participate in
raids, and in times of peace its main duty was the herding and guarding
of the tribal cattle. The danger of attack ceased with the advent of
settled government, and if the younger men of the tribe do not go out
to work, they spend the bulk of their time loafing from village to
village attending beer feasts and philandering with the young girls;
for tribal custom insists that the bulk of the agricultural work shall
as formerly be done by the woman.
The elders do not approve of the present habits of the youths, but
unfortunately under our rule the bonds of tribal discipline have been
relaxed. If this is fully realised it will readily be seen that the
absence of a considerable portion of these young men for a part of each
year is beneficial to the good order of a native reserve; they are
under discipline when working, they learn something, and come back to
their villages with money which enriches the tribe.
On the majority of plantations and farms the natives are well treated,
and it is the duty of Government to see that they are well housed, well
fed, and that any grievances are speedily redressed; inspectors
periodically visit employees for this purpose. Ill treatment has
occurred from time to time, and isolated cases of brutality on the part
of employers have unfortunately happened and have been punished by the
courts. Such cases should, however, not be allowed to cloud our vision
or distort our sense of proportion any more than the occurrence of a
few cases of cruelty to children in England.
As regards wages, the rates are such that have naturally grown up in
the country with due regard to the cost of food, the usual village diet
of the labourer, and the cost of his simple clothing. It must also be
borne in mind that the output of an African is very minute compared
with a European, and the supervision required is vastly greater.
A recent petition to the home government headed by prelates, labour
representatives, and various well-meaning people took rather an extreme
view, and urged the adoption of a policy entirely native in its
outlook, and one which would result in crushing European endeavour in
this part of Africa.
One important plank in the policy was the foundation of native
industries in the reserves, and so forth. Every well-wisher of the
native wishes to see progress in the reserves, but intimate knowledge
of the cultural plane of the aboriginal population causes one to
realise clearly how easy it is to formulate dicta in London, and how
difficult it is to carry them out in Africa.
The individual planting of agricultural products in reserves by the
medium of the African hoe, and the labour of the African woman, is an
uneconomical form of production, and once the food supply of the tribe
is assured, the surplus enriches the Indian middle man more than the
native. Long established custom rules that the agricultural work in a
tribe shall be carried out by the women, and no ordinance will force
the young men to relieve the women of this duty if they do not desire
to do so.
Native progress proceeds slowly, and the stimulus for acceleration must
come from within if it is to be permanent.
Then again with regard to native industries—conditions of life can be
gradually improved, and the people can be taught to build better
houses, and to use furniture. The majority, however, cannot afford such
luxuries, and are contented with their own mode of life; their idea of
saving money being to provide the means to buy live stock, the
possession of which is essential for wife purchase.
The renaissance again must come from within. It will come gradually,
but not nearly so soon as our benevolent friends hope and desire.
To sum up this brief survey of a complex question, it is desired to
impress upon all that the future of the African native and the nature
of his relations with the white race will not be decided by the
academic recommendations of any body in England. The utmost that
philanthropically minded opinion can demand is a high ethical standard
in native administration, and the safeguarding by government of native
land rights. Further, the well-meaning people at home must trust their
own people in Africa, trust to the growth of a tolerant and humane
local view of the relationship of black and white. There is no reason
to believe that this spirit will not reach as high a level in East
Africa as it has done in other parts of our Empire.
Further, as Lord Buxton recently remarked in an address on native
problems, and referring to the government of the Union of South Africa
and Rhodesia: “Especially do they resent criticism when those who
criticise put on a self-righteous air and assume that they and their
associates alone have the welfare of the native at heart, and imply
that those who differ are actuated by obstinate or unworthy motives.”
The main points in native policy which long experience of Africa
suggest may be stated as follows:
(1) The old tribal discipline and organisation is in danger of
dissolution; it rarely rested on very firm foundations, for the
authorities were weak; it should receive most careful review by
experienced men of knowledge and sympathy, tribe by tribe. The
situation is at present drifting, and neither black nor white can see
whither.
There is one thing, however, which is obvious, and that is that the new
generation of native leaders should be educated by Government to fit
them for their duties. Such a step would be widely appreciated and
might do a great deal to avert future danger. Their education should,
above all, concern itself with the formation of character and the
development of responsibility; education seems to so rarely provide the
African with these essentials, in fact their vital importance seems to
be often overlooked.
(2) The taxation collected from natives by the State for general
purposes should be low, and any addition to the standard tax which may
be collectable as the wealth of the natives increases should be devoted
to specific objects, such as native education, the development of the
reserves and such like. The natives should clearly understand this, and
it would do a great deal to improve the relations of the Government
with the native, for there is at present a well-founded belief in the
native mind that they are periodically called upon to pay more and at
the same time get but little return for their money; confidence in
Government has perceptibly lessened in the last few years.
(3) The excessive infantile mortality in native reserves should receive
specific attention, and also the checking of disease generally. On
economic grounds alone, epidemics among the native population are far
more important than those among cattle; it is feared, however, that up
to now they have not received as much attention, and the reason is not
far to seek.
Effective measures will entail the training of a considerable staff of
native subordinate medical staff who should be distributed throughout
the reserves, each group being under a European medical officer.
(4) As has been previously stated, the more dangerous elements of the
native population are in the towns; for it is there that the
restraining influence of the chiefs and elders is absent, it is there
that crime is more prevalent, it is there that undesirable political
movements are bred and where more educated material can be found; a
fertile soil for the seditious seed of the Asiatic agitation. Common
sense therefore suggests that special efforts be made to reach these
mixed assemblages of native life by the provision of suitable
educational facilities and by the provision of healthy amusement and
entertainment, by evening lectures in subjects both interesting and
instructive, by an amusing and healthy native press.
Needless to say, better housing in town locations is an important
matter if these people are to be taught to live decent, respectable
lives; baths and places for washing clothes are also essential for
health and well-being.
(5) Abrupt interference with native customs and tribal laws is to be
deprecated; much of the old codes is good, and undesirable features
can, with the consent of the people, gradually be eliminated, if the
guiding hand applies his reforming touch with judgment; and this brings
us to the necessity for the careful selection of administrative
officers and the importance of these being trained in ethnological
method, for no man can reform and develop a system of which he is not
qualified to judge.
Greater knowledge of native psychology will help to maintain the
paternal relations which should exist between the natives of a district
and their commissioner, and to which the most successful native
administrators in the past owe their success.
(6) Education. This is essential, but, as has been explained, matters
are not satisfactory at present, nor will they improve much until
Government takes it over into its own hands, and it should begin by the
formation of a well-equipped normal school wherein a large staff of
native teachers should be trained by a picked European staff.
A boarding school should also be founded in each province where an
effective industrial training can be given to a number of picked
youths, and in conjunction with a sound rudimentary education.
The African is a receptive person, but has little persistence, and is
apt to become weary before he is efficient. There are altogether too
many young men about with a mere smattering of education which is
nothing more than a surface veneer, and is often used as an excuse for
escaping manual labour; this spirit needs to be vigorously combated.
Very few natives leave the mission schools with anything more than this
surface veneer of education, the outward sign of which is a passion for
khaki coats, boots, collars and ties, and in this way they ape the
European. This may appear ridiculous at present, but there is one thing
certain and that is that a renaissance has now begun, and we must in
the future be prepared for curious manifestations of the aspiration for
self-realisation on the part of the African. The true art of
government, therefore, will be to utilise with wisdom any real signs of
their desire to rise to a higher cultural and social plane. The way
will not be easy, but much can be attained by wide sympathy and by
knowledge of the psychology of the subject.
It must never be forgotten that in a colony of the East African type
the European colonist and the native are interdependent. Due
consideration and justice for the backward partner must be the keynote
of the native policy, for a contented, friendly black population will
connote a healthy and prosperous white community.
L’ENVOI
The student of anthropology is urged to be precise and accurate in his
record of facts, and the haunting fear of giving rein to the
imaginative side, especially when dealing with beliefs which have
almost ceased to evoke response from Western races, often tends to make
one’s narrative seem dull and lifeless.
The poet is bound by no such paltry conventions, but it is rare to find
one who strikes the true note—intimate knowledge coupled with acute
insight.
The late Captain Cullen Gouldsbury of Rhodesian repute possessed this
rare gift, and the writer takes the liberty of reproducing the
following poem as a remarkable and unique attempt to express the native
point of view:
THE POINT OF VIEW
From Songs out of Exile by Cullen Gouldsbury
(Fisher Unwin, 1912)
White man, cease from your tales—your God may be good for you,
But think you that aught avails to fashion our creed anew?
We, who are born and bred in the fear of ’Mlimo’s wrath,
Heirs to eternal dread shall we cast our Witchmen forth
To take as a load instead the creed of ye from the North?
Lo! we are born in the fear of wild and unspeakable things;
Born in the Bush land here, where the souls of the dead have wings.
Hovering high in the air where the shades of even fall,
Shrinking in dim despair at the gate of each lonely kraal—
Scoff not, white man! beware, when the ghosts of the dead men call.
There are Spirits that walk by night with their heads behind their backs—
There are Spirits that fade from sight in the gloom of the forest tracks;
There are ghosts of the babes that died in the kraal long moons ago,
Ghosts of cripples that glide with shambling pace and slow,
Ghosts of the new-made bride and of many a girl we know.
Yestereen, when the sun sank low in the western sky,
And silently, one by one, the hovering bats flew by,
Ziwa, pride of my heart, my youngest and best-loved wife,
Drew me a pace apart, saying: “Husband, ’tis done with life,
Nay friend, shrink not, nor start! lend me your hunting knife!”
Ay! and she lies there dead—and the youths and maidens mourn,
They bury her, so one said, in the cool of to-morrow’s dawn—
For the evil moor-hens keep a watch on this kraal, I know,
And perch when the world’s asleep, on the hut-tops then below.
See! I will kill a sheep to ward off a further blow!
White man, laugh if you will! such tales are for babes, you say?
Have you no God of Ill? Do you not cringe and pray?
Offering sacrifice in a temple built of stone?
Do you not seek advice from a priest man of your own?
Do you not pay a price? Are we the heathen alone?
GLOSSARY
This includes the native names most used in the text.
Dorobo: Masai word (spelt Torobo by Hollis) often corrupted by
travellers to Wandorobo or Andorobo. Dorobo in Masai means tsetse fly.
The name for an aboriginal race of hunters who inhabit the great
forests of the highlands in East Africa. They call themselves Asi and
the Kikuyu call them Adzi. The name of the Athi River is believed to be
a corruption of Adzi.
Engai (Kikuyu): The deity.
Eithaga: The name of a Kikuyu clan, members of which are said to
possess magical powers; sometimes spelt Aithaga. A member of this clan
is called a Mweithaga.
Gethaka (Kikuyu): The portion of a ridge in Kikuyu owned by a
particular family, the title to possession of this being obtained from
the Dorobo, the original occupants of the forest. Some regard it as a
freehold right, others maintain that the Kikuyu only acquired the right
to cut the forest in order to make shambas, or gardens. The gethaka
rights are, however, very real possessions in the eyes of the Kikuyu.
Huku (Kikuyu): A mole-like rodent—Tachyorctes sp.
Ichua (Kikuyu): A sacrificial fire.
Imu, singular; aiimu, plural (Kamba): Ancestral spirits.
Ithembo, singular; mathembo, plural (Kamba): Sacred place where
sacrifices are carried out.
Ira (Kikuyu): White diatomaceous earth which is also used in ceremonial
as a purifying agent.
Itwika (Kikuyu): A periodic ceremony which marks the termination of a
generation or age in the tribe—it corresponds in some ways to the Masai
Eunoto ceremony.
Kikuyu: The missionaries now often spell it Gikuyu. A member of the
Kikuyu tribe is called Mu-Kikuyu—plural, A-Kikuyu. In common parlance,
however, if one drops the prefixes and refers to a man of this tribe as
a Kikuyu (native)—the latter word being widely understood, it is
simpler than attaching the appropriate prefix. An upland tribe in Kenya
Colony extending from near Nairobi to Mount Kenya.
Kamba: Mu-Kamba is the singular; A-Kamba is plural and collective. In
the same way as above, it has become more usual to simply refer to them
as Kamba (native). Their country is termed Ukamba, and their language
Ki-Kamba. A tribe in Kenya Colony, east of Nairobi. There are detached
portions of the tribe near Mombasa, near Taveta, and in Tanganyika
territory.
Kithangaona (Kikuyu): Sacred place.
Ku-roga (Kikuyu) verb: To place upon or to bewitch.
Kihe (Kikuyu): An uncircumcised boy.
Kamwana (Kamba): An uncircumcised boy.
Kingnoli (Kamba): Collective killing or execution by the people of a
person convicted of certain serious offences.
Kafara (Swahili): A charm placed at cross-roads to avert misfortune. If
anyone carries it away it is believed that the misfortune or disease
will be carried with it.
Kirume (Kikuyu): The dying curse which can be suspended over his
descendants by a dying man.
Kiume (Kamba): The dying curse which can be suspended over his
descendants by a dying man.
Konono (Masai): A clan of serfs believed to be of alien race who live
among the Masai and who are the smiths to the tribe. They correspond to
the Tumal of the Somalis.
Kita (Kikuyu): The power of the evil eye.
Kiama (Kikuyu): Council of elders.
Mwanake, singular; anake, plural (Kikuyu): Warrior class.
Mutumia, singular; atumia, plural (Kamba): Tribal elders.
Muthuri, singular; athuri, plural (Kikuyu): Athuri ya Ukuru—the senior
elders.
Mumo (Kamba): Sacred fig tree.
Mugumu (Kikuyu): Sacred fig tree, often called muti wa Engai.
Makwa (Kamba): Afflicted by a curse. See thabu.
Mwati, singular; miati, plural (Kikuyu): A young ewe which has not
borne a lamb.
Miatini (Kamba): The fruit of Kigelia musa or Kigelia pinnata—used for
fermenting beer.
Mulungu (Kamba): The deity.
Mathamaki, singular; azamaki or athamaki, plural (Kikuyu): An elder of
council; his official title, not his grade rank.
Muturi, singular; aturi, plural (Kikuyu): A smith.
Mundu Mugo (Kikuyu): Medicine man.
Murogi (Kikuyu): Medicine man who deals in black magic.
Muburi (Kikuyu): Goat.
Ngoma (Kikuyu): Ancestral spirit.
Ngoma (Swahili): A dance. This word is also widely used by up-country
natives.
Njele (Swahili): A half gourd used as a domestic utensil for drinking
water, gruel or milk.
Nzeli or nzele (Kamba): A half gourd used as a domestic utensil for
drinking water, gruel or milk.
Nthele, singular; anthele, plural (Kamba): Young married man.
Ndorume (Kikuyu): A ram, a favourite form of sacrifice.
Ngnondu (Kikuyu): A ewe, which is also used as a sacrifice on certain
occasions.
Ngunga (Kikuyu): Caterpillars.
Njohi (Kikuyu): Native beer, usually made from sugar cane.
Nzama (Kamba): Council of elders.
Njama (Kikuyu): A consultation by the elders; the proceedings are
generally secret.
Rika (Kikuyu): Generation—age grade.
Rathi (Swahili): Happiness, blessing—generally used of a formal
blessing. Kuwarathi—to be satisfied or content with.
Rukwaru (Kikuyu): A strip of goat skin bound on the waist of a person
to signify that he has duly performed a certain ceremony.
Ruenji (Kikuyu): A razor.
Ruoro (Kikuyu): Knife used for branding cattle.
Shamba, singular; ma-shamba, plural (Swahili): Cultivated field or
garden, widely used by up-country Africans.
Ku-tahikia (Kikuyu), verb: To purify. Ku is the infinitive prefix
common to all verbs.
Thabu (Kamba): A curse or afflicted by a curse—a condition which is the
result of certain acts, analogous to some forms of tabu.
Thahu (Kikuyu): A curse or afflicted by a curse—a condition which is
the result of certain acts, analogous to some forms of tabu.
Thengira (Kikuyu): Literally the goat hut. It is synonymous with the
hut in which the unmarried men sleep.
Thomi (Kamba): Open meeting place outside every village.
Tatha (Kikuyu): The semi-digested vegetable matter which forms the
contents of a sheep or goat. When an animal is sacrificed this is used
as a purifying agent to remove evil. In Kamba language called muyo.
Uji (Swahili): Gruel—also widely used by East Africa Bantu tribes. Uji
is usually made of maize or millet meal.
Uki (Kamba): Beer, especially mead, made from honey, but the word is
used for all beer.
NOTES
[1] Vol. II. pp. 4 et seq.
[2] Apollodorus, The Library, II. 2, 2, with my notes.
[3] Members of the Kikuyu tribe from birth to old age pass through
various grades of initiation, but the ceremonial observed is of two
classes, one of which is referred to by the natives as the Kikuyu
system, and the other the Masai system. The Kikuyu system is probably
the older, whilst the so-called Masai system is probably contact
metamorphism due to the proximity of the Masai and the partial
intermingling which has occurred from time to time. Curiously enough,
the Masai system bears very little resemblance to the Masai customs of
the present day, so presumably it has been modified to fit in with the
psychology of the Kikuyu who adopted it.
[4] Ol-divai is the Masai word for the wild Sanseviera.
[5] Vide article on Masai and their traditions, by A. C. Hollis—London
Quarterly Review, July, 1907, p. 104—“Now the Masai themselves say they
learnt this peculiar ceremony (viz.: their method of circumcision) from
the Kikuyu.”
[6] Mr Routledge mentions a later one which took place near Karuri’s
about 1904, but according to the S. Kikuyu natives it was only a local
ceremony.
[7] Of course the analogy is not complete, for it does not apply to one
who accidentally becomes the victim of certain circumstances.
[8] The act of stepping over a corpse is probably considered a serious
insult to the ngoma.
[9] The frequent occurrence of sexual rites may appear repugnant to
Europeans, but students of the ancient world will readily admit that
there is an intimate connection between these rites and the religious
beliefs of people in a certain stage of culture. Many examples could be
quoted.
[10] “Religion of Semites,” p. 264.
[11] A Syrian superstition quoted in “Religion of the Semites,” p. 443,
deals with a ceremony to rid gardens of caterpillars, and in that, one
of the insects is bewailed and buried and the caterpillars then
disappear.
[12] These are probably ancient carnelian beads; they are occasionally
found among the divination apparatus of medicine men; they almost
certainly were derived from Egypt or the Nile valley.