One peculiarity of this age is the sudden acquisition of much physical
knowledge. There is scarcely a department of science or art which is
the same, or at all the same, as it was fifty years ago. A new world of
inventions--of railways and of telegraphs--has grown up around us which
we cannot help seeing; a new world of ideas is in the air and affects
us, though we do not see it. A full estimate of these effects would
require a great book, and I am sure I could not write it; but I think I
may usefully, in a few papers, show how, upon one or two great points,
the new ideas are modifying two old sciences--politics and political
economy. Even upon these points my ideas must be incomplete, for the
subject is novel; but, at any rate, I may suggest some conclusions, and
so show what is requisite even if I do not supply it.
If we wanted to describe one of the most marked results, perhaps the
most marked result, of late thought, we should say that by it
everything is made 'an antiquity.' When, in former times; our ancestors
thought of an antiquarian, they described him as occupied with coins,
and medals, and Druids' stones; these were then the characteristic
records of the decipherable past, and it was with these that
decipherers busied themselves. But now there are other relics; indeed,
all matter is become such. Science tries to find in each bit of earth
the record of the causes which made it precisely what it is; those
forces have left their trace, she knows, as much as the tact and hand
of the artist left their mark on a classical gem. It would be tedious
(and it is not in my way) to reckon up the ingenious questionings by
which geology has made part of the earth, at least, tell part of its
tale; and the answers would have been meaningless if physiology and
conchology and a hundred similar sciences had not brought their aid.
Such subsidiary sciences are to the decipherer of the present day what
old languages were to the antiquary of other days; they construe for
him the words which he discovers, they give a richness and a truth-like
complexity to the picture which he paints, even in cases where the
particular detail they tell is not much. But what here concerns me is
that man himself has, to the eye of science, become 'an antiquity.' She
tries to read, is beginning to read, knows she ought to read, in the
frame of each man the result of a whole history of all his life, of
what he is and what makes him so,--of all his fore-fathers, of what
they were and of what made them so. Each nerve has a sort of memory of
its past life, is trained or not trained, dulled or quickened, as the
case may be; each feature is shaped and characterised, or left loose
and meaningless, as may happen; each hand is marked with its trade and
life, subdued to what it works in;--IF WE COULD BUT SEE IT.
It may be answered that in this there is nothing new; that we always
knew how much a man's past modified a man's future; that we all knew
how much, a man is apt to be like his ancestors; that the existence of
national character is the greatest commonplace in the world; that when
a philosopher cannot account for anything in any other manner, he
boldly ascribes it to an occult quality in some race. But what physical
science does is, not to discover the hereditary element, but to render
it distinct,--to give us an accurate conception of what we may expect,
and a good account of the evidence by which we are led to expect it.
Let us see what that science teaches on the subject; and, as far as may
be, I will give it in the words of those who have made it a
professional study, both that I may be more sure to state it rightly
and vividly, and because--as I am about to apply these principles to
subjects which are my own pursuit--I would rather have it quite clear
that I have not made my premises to suit my own conclusions.
1st, then, as respects the individual, we learn as follows: 'Even while
the cerebral hemispheres are entire, and in full possession of their
powers, the brain gives rise to actions which are as completely reflex
as those of the spinal cord.
'When the eyelids wink at a flash of light, or a threatened blow, a
reflex action takes place, in which the afferent nerves are the optic,
the efferent, the facial. When a bad smell causes a grimace, there is a
reflex action through the same motor nerve, while the olfactory nerves
constitute the afferent channels. In these cases, therefore, reflex
action must be effected through the brain, all the nerves involved
being cerebral. 'When the whole body starts at a loud noise, the
afferent auditory nerve gives rise to an impulse which passes to the
medulla oblongata, and thence affects the great majority of the motor
nerves of the body. 'It may be said that these are mere mechanical
actions, and have nothing to do with the acts which we associate with
intelligence. But let us consider what takes place in such an act as
reading aloud. In this case, the whole attention of the mind is, or
ought to be, bent upon the subject-matter of the book; while a
multitude of most delicate muscular actions are going on, of which the
reader is not in the slightest degree aware. Thus the book is held in
the hand, at the right distance from the eyes; the eyes are moved, from
side to side, over the lines, and up and down the pages. Further, the
most delicately adjusted and rapid movements of the muscles of the
lips, tongue, and throat, of laryngeal and respiratory muscles, are
involved in the production of speech. Perhaps the reader is standing up
and accompanying the lecture with appropriate gestures. And yet every
one of these muscular acts may be performed with utter unconsciousness,
on his part, of anything but the sense of the words in the book. In
other words, they are reflex acts.
'The reflex actions proper to the spinal cord itself are NATURAL, and
are involved in the structure of the cord and the properties of its
constituents. By the help of the brain we may acquire an affinity of
ARTIFICIAL reflex actions. That is to say, an action may require all
our attention and all our volition for its first, or second, or third
performance, but by frequent repetition it becomes, in a manner, part
our organisation, and is performed without volition, or even
consciousness.
'As everyone knows, it takes a soldier a very long time to learn his
drill--to put himself, for instance, into the attitude of 'attention'
at the instant the word of command is heard. But, after a time, the
sound of the word gives rise to the act, whether the soldier be
thinking of it or not. There is a story, which is credible enough,
though it may not be true, of a practical joker, who, seeing a
discharged veteran carrying home his dinner, suddenly called out
'Attention!' whereupon the man instantly brought his hands down, and
lost his mutton and potatoes in the gutter. The drill had been gone
through, and its effects had become embodied in the man's nervous
structure.
'The possibility of all education (of which military drill is only one
particular form) is based upon, the existence of this power which the
nervous system possesses, of organising conscious actions into more or
less unconscious, or reflex, operations. It may be laid down as a rule,
that if any two mental states be called up together, or in succession,
with due frequency and vividness, the subsequent production of the one
of them will suffice to call up the other, and that whether we desire
it or not.'[1]
[1] Huxley's Elementary Physiology, pp. 284-286.
The body of the accomplished man has thus become by training different
from what it once was, and different from that of the rude man; it is
charged with stored virtue and acquired faculty which come away from it
unconsciously.
Again, as to race, another authority teaches:--'Man's life truly
represents a progressive development of the nervous system, none the
less so because it takes place out of the womb instead of in it. The
regular transmutation of motions which are at first voluntary into
secondary automatic motions, as Hartley calls them, is due to a
gradually effected organisation; and we may rest assured of this, that
co-ordinate activity always testifies to stored-up power, either innate
or acquired.
'The way in which an acquired faculty of the parent animal is sometimes
distinctly transmitted to the progeny as a heritage, instinct, or
innate endowment, furnishes a striking confirmation of the foregoing
observations. Power that has been laboriously acquired and stored up as
statical in one generation manifestly in such case becomes the inborn
faculty of the next; and the development takes place in accordance with
that law of increasing speciality and complexity of adaptation to
external nature which is traceable through the animal kingdom; or, in
other words, that law, of progress from the general to the special in
development which the appearance of nerve force amongst natural forces
and the complexity of the nervous system of man both illustrate. As the
vital force gathers up, as it were, into itself inferior forces, and
might be said to be a development of them, or, as in the appearance of
nerve force, simpler and more general forces are gathered up and
concentrated in a more special and complex mode of energy; so again a
further specialisation takes place in the development of the nervous
system, whether watched through generations or through individual life.
It is not by limiting our observations to the life of the individual,
however, who is but a link in the chain of organic beings connecting
the past with the future, that we shall come at the full truth; the
present individual is the inevitable consequence of his antecedents in
the past, and in the examination of these alone do we arrive at the
adequate explanation of him. It behoves us, then, having found any
faculty to be innate, not to rest content there, but steadily to follow
backwards the line of causation, and thus to display, if possible, its
manner of origin. This is the more necessary with the lower animals,
where so much is innate.'[2]
[2] Maudsley on the Physiology and Pathology of the Mind, p. 73.
The special laws of inheritance are indeed as yet unknown. All which is
clear, and all which is to my purpose is, that there is a tendency, a
probability, greater or less according to circumstances, but always
considerable, that the descendants of cultivated parents will have, by
born nervous organisation, a greater aptitude for cultivation than the
descendants of such as are not cultivated; and that this tendency
augments, in some enhanced ratio, for many generations.
I do not think any who do not acquire--and it takes a hard effort to
acquire--this notion of a transmitted nerve element will ever
understand 'the connective tissue' of civilisation. We have here the
continuous force which binds age to age, which enables each to begin
with some improvement on the last, if the last did itself improve;
which makes each civilisation not a set of detached dots, but a line of
colour, surely enhancing shade by shade. There is, by this doctrine, a
physical cause of improvement from generation to generation: and no
imagination which has apprehended it can forget it; but unless you
appreciate that cause in its subtle materialism, unless you see it, as
it were, playing upon the nerves of men, and, age after age, making
nicer music from finer chords, you cannot comprehend the principle of
inheritance either in its mystery or its power.
These principles are quite independent of any theory as to the nature
of matter, or the nature of mind. They are as true upon the theory that
mind acts on matter--though separate and altogether different from
it--as upon the theory of Bishop Berkeley that there is no matter, but
only mind; or upon the contrary theory--that there is no mind, but only
matter; or upon the yet subtler theory now often held--that both mind
and matter are different modifications of some one tertium quid, some
hidden thing or force. All these theories admit--indeed they are but
various theories to account for--the fact that what we call matter has
consequences in what we call mind, and that what we call mind produces
results in what we call matter; and the doctrines I quote assume only
that. Our mind in some strange way acts on our nerves, and our nerves
in some equally strange way store up the consequences, and somehow the
result, as a rule and commonly enough, goes down to our descendants;
these primitive facts all theories admit, and all of them labour to
explain.
Nor have these plain principles any relation to the old difficulties of
necessity and freewill. Every Freewillist holds that the special force
of free volition is applied to the pre-existing forces of our corporeal
structure; he does not consider it as an agency acting in vacuo, but as
an agency acting upon other agencies. Every Freewillist holds that,
upon the whole, if you strengthen the motive in a given direction,
mankind tend more to act in that direction. Better motives--better
impulses, rather--come from a good body: worse motives or worse
impulses come from a bad body. A Freewillist may admit as much as a
Necessarian that such improved conditions tend to improve human action,
and that deteriorated conditions tend to deprave human action. No
Freewillist ever expects as much from St. Giles's as he expects from
Belgravia: he admits an hereditary nervous system as a datum for the
will, though he holds the will to be an extraordinary incoming
'something.' No doubt the modern doctrine of the 'Conservation of
Force,' if applied to decision, is inconsistent with free will; if you
hold that force 'is never lost or gained,' you cannot hold that there
is a real gain--a sort of new creation of it in free volition. But I
have nothing to do here with the universal 'Conservation of Force.' The
conception of the nervous organs as stores of will-made power does not
raise or need so vast a discussion.
Still less are these principles to be confounded with Mr. Buckle's idea
that material forces have been the main-springs of progress, and moral
causes secondary, and, in comparison, not to be thought of. On the
contrary, moral causes are the first here. It is the action of the will
that causes the unconscious habit; it is the continual effort of the
beginning that creates the hoarded energy of the end; it is the silent
toil of the first generation that becomes the transmitted aptitude of
the next. Here physical causes do not create the moral, but moral
create the physical; here the beginning is by the higher energy, the
conservation and propagation only by the lower. But we thus perceive
how a science of history is possible, as Mr. Buckle said,--a science to
teach the laws of tendencies--created by the mind, and transmitted by
the body--which act upon and incline the will of man from age to age.